Social Stratification, Social Mobility, Social Class, socialization and personality development etc

 A. Social Stratification

1) Introduction of the Concept

Social stratification is the division of large numbers of people into layers according to their
relative power, property, and prestige. It applies to both nations and to people within a nation,
society, or other group. Although they may differ as to which system of social stratification they
employ, all societies stratify their members. In addition, gender is a basis for stratifying people in
every society of the world. The four major systems of social stratification are slavery, caste, estate, and
class.

Slavery is defined as a form of social stratification in which some people own other people. It has
been common in world history with references to slavery being made in the Old Testament, and
Roman and Greek history. Slavery was usually based on debt, as a punishment for a crime, or a matter
of war. Racism was not associated with slavery until southern plantation owners developed a new
ideology to justify their enslavement of Africans in the seventeenth century.

Today, slavery is known to be practiced in the Sudan, Mauritania, Niger and the Ivory Coast.
The enslavement of children for work in sex is a problem in Africa, Asia, and South America. The
caste system is a form of social stratification based on ascribed status that follows an individual
throughout his or her life. India provides the best example of a caste system.

Based on religion, India’s caste system has existed for almost three thousand years. Although the
Indian government formally abolished the caste system in 1949, it still remains a respected aspect
of Indian tradition and is strictly followed by a significant portion of the population.

In the class system, social stratification is based on the possession of money or material
possessions. A major characteristic of the class system is that it allows social mobility, or
movement up and down the class ladder. Another method by which all societies stratify their
members is by gender. Cutting across all systems of stratification, these gender divisions universally
favor males over females.

Karl Marx and Max Weber disagreed on the meaning of social class in industrialized societies.
According to Marx, people’s relationship to the means of production is the sole factor in
determining their social class. They either belong to the bourgeoisie (those who owned the means of
production) or the proletariat (those who work for the owners).
According to Weber, Marx’s typology is too limiting because social class, as well as people’s
social class standing, consists of three interrelated components: property, prestige, and power.
Although all sociologists agree that social stratification is universal, they disagree as to why it is
universal.

The functionalist view of social stratification, developed by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore,
concludes that stratification is inevitable because society must make certain that its positions are
filled; ensure that the most qualified people fill the most important positions; and finally, to motivate
the most qualified individuals to fill the most important positions, society must offer them the greatest
reward to fill the most important positions.
Melvin Tumin identified three problems with the functionalist view:
 First, how does one determine which positions are more important than others?
 Second, to what degree are societies really meritocracies (promoting people on the basis of
their achievements)?
 Third, if social stratification is so functional, why is it dysfunctional for so many?

Conflict theorists contend that conflict, not function, is the basis of social stratification. Italian
sociologist Gaetano Mosca argued that in every society groups compete for power. The groups
that gain power use that power to manipulate, control, and exploit the groups “beneath them.”
Members of the ruling elite in every society develop ideologies that justify their society’s social
stratification system. By dominating their society’s major social institutions and, thereby, controlling
information and ideas, members of the ruling elite are able to socialize other group members into
accepting their “proper places” in the social order.

Social stratification is one of the outcomes of the continuous occurring of social processes. Every
society is segmented in to different hierarchies. In virtually all societies, some people are regarded
as more important than others (more worthy of respect than others), either within the society as a
whole or in a certain situations.

Social stratification is the segmentation of society into different hierarchical arrangement or strata. It
refers tothe differences and inequalities in the socioeconomic life of people in a given society. It
represents the ranking of individuals or social positions and statuses in the social structure. The term
is borrowed from geology where it is used to explain the hierarchical arrangement of rocks and
mineral in the earth’s surface.
Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. Social
stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers
based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power.

However, sociologists recognize that social stratification is a society-wide system that makes
inequalities apparent. While there are always inequalities between individuals, sociologists are
interested in larger social patterns. Stratification is not about individual inequalities, but about
systematic inequalities based on group membership, classes, and the like. No individual, rich or poor,
can be blamed for social inequalities. The structure of society affects a person’s social standing.
Although individuals may support or fight inequalities, social stratification is created and supported by
society as a whole.
To conclude Social differentiation is a universal characteristic because the division of some
functions is necessary in a society. Some of these are biological but most of these are socially
fixed. in every society, individuals are different in terms of profession, material possession,
honor, prestige, authority, beliefs and other characteristics. This difference of individuals provides
a mechanism of dividing into different classes which is called stratification. According to sociologists,
this study is very important because it seriously affects the institutional relations and social interaction.
Stratification is the product of social inequality and is a relatively permanent position of the society, is
transmitted from one race to another, limits the chances of progress. Its ways are different in different
societies and are changeable with social changes and sometimes this stratification becomes a cause of
revolution.

1) Importance of Studying Social Stratification

The study of social stratification is particularly important for sociologists. Some of the reasons
for this may include (Giddens, 1995):

 Analysis of understanding type of people: To investigate the class membership of

individuals in society with the aim of understanding the type of life people live. That is,
knowing what type of life individuals in a given social group or stratum live is very important
for sociological analysis

 To explore the bases for the assignment of individuals into various hierarchies of the social
structure. What are the bases for stratifying individuals into a specific stratum?

 Opportunities and treatment

 Understanding system, religion and practices etc

 To understand the relationship between individuals assigned into different hierarchies.

What kind of interaction and relationship exist between individuals located into different
strata?

 To investigate the relationship between individuals or groups belonging to the same

hierarchy. What kinds of relationship exist between people in the same stratum?
  To understand what type of social system gives arise to what or which types of hierarchies.
That is, the type of social stratification varies across cultures, times and types of social
systems.

2) Definitions of social stratification

 Ogburn and Nimkoff: ‘The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in more or
less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification”

 Lundberg: “A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among people that
are evaluated by them as being “lower” and “higher”.

 CH. Persell :“Social stratification is the fairly permanent making of position in a society in
terms of unequal power, prestige or privileges. “He further says that "The unequal
opportunities or rewards are for people in different social positions."

 RT. Schaefer :Stratification, a structure ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuate
unequal economic rewards and powers in a society.

 Ian Robertson: Social stratification is the structured inequality of entire categories of people,
who have different access to social rewards as a result of their status in social hierarchy."

 Gilbert: Social stratification is group division of a society and there is difference of

superiority or inferiority among the individual."

 Williams: Social Stratification refers to “The ranking of individuals on a scale of superiority-

inferiority-equality, according to some commonly accepted basis of valuation.

 Raymond W. Murray: Social stratification is horizontal division of society into “higher” and
“lower” social units.”

 Melvin M Tumin: “Social stratification refers to “arrangement of any social group or society
into hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, social evaluation
and psychic gratification”.

 According to Davis, social stratification has come into being due to the functional necessity of
the social system.

 Professor Sorokin attributed social stratification mainly to inherited difference in

environmental conditions.

 According to Karl Mrax, social factors are responsible for the emergence of different social
strata, i.e. social stratification.
  Gumplowioz and other contended that the origin of social stratification is to be found in the
conquest of one group by another.

 According to Spengler, social stratification is founded upon scarcity which is created

whenever society differentiates positive in terms of functions and powers.
 According to Daherndorf: Stratification is always a rank order in terms of prestige and not
esteem which can be thought of independently of their individual incumbents.
 Melvin defines that social stratification refers to arrangements of any social group or society
into hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, social evaluation
and psychic gratification.
 Hogan says that stratification is relatively permanent ranking of statues and roles in a social
system (ranging from small group to a society) in terms of differential privileges, prestige,
influence and power is called social stratification.

3) Origin of Stratification
The people in different societies have different ranks and high and low. The distribution of people of a
society in groups on the basis of their status is called social stratification. This distribution may be on
the basis of occupation, caste, education, source of income, prestige and political power. Social
stratification differs from society to society. It is classification of people within a society.

Theoretical perspective Major Assumptions

 Functionalis  Stratification is necessary to induce people with
m: special intelligence, knowledge, and skills to enter
the most important occupations. For this reason,
stratification is necessary and inevitable.
 Conflict:  Stratification results from lack of opportunity and
from discrimination and prejudice against the poor,
women, and people of color. It is neither necessary
nor inevitable.
 Symbolic  Stratification affects people’s beliefs, lifestyles,
interactionism: daily interaction, and conceptions of themselves.
 Evolutionar  Ever changing mode
y
Sociologists recognize that social stratification is a society-wide system that makes inequalities
apparent. While there are always inequalities between individuals, sociologists are interested in larger
social patterns. Stratification is not about individual inequalities, but about systematic inequalities
based on group membership, classes, and the like. No individual, rich or poor, can be blamed for
social inequalities. A person’s social standing is affected by the structure of society.
 Racial differences accompanied by dissimilarity also lead to stratification.
 Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. Social
stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic
tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power.
 Social stratification is a system in which groups of people are divided into layers according to
their relative property, power, and prestige. It is important to emphasize that social
 stratification does not refer to individuals. It is a way of ranking large groups of people into a
hierarchy according to their relative privilege

4) Determinants of Social Stratification

According to Max Weber
1. Economic resources: The size of landholdings in rural areas belongs to upper classes. While
the tenants, blacksmiths, cobblers, barbers belong to the lower class.

2. Occupation: Landowners, industrialists, businessmen, high government officials, corporate

officials belong to the upper class. Servicemen, small businessmen, whose income equals to
their expenditures, are the middle class. Manual workers, carpenters, blacksmiths, washer men
all constitute the lower class.

3. Prestige: Respect of an individual in society is related to the level of prestige that s/he enjoys.
Prestige includes nobility, harmlessness, participating in social welfare projects, helping the
needy etc.

4. Power: Power gains one respect. In Pakistan, following characteristics could be important:
Outspoken in public, educated, well off in financial resources, interest in solving people’s
problems, active, religious oriented etc.

5. Cast:  Caste system in Pakistan is an important element in social stratification. Some castes are
considered high, some are low.

6. Education:  Education like all other societies in the world, defines social status in Pakistan
too. Educated people are better rated and respected socially owing to their occupations,
professions and status while illiterate people always belong to lower class.

5) Characteristics of Social Stratification

On the basis of the analysis of the different definitions given by eminent scholars, social stratification
may have the following characteristics.
 Social stratification is universal: There is no society on this world which is free from
stratification. Modern stratification differs from stratification of primitive societies. It is a
worldwide phenomenon. According to Sorokin “all permanently organized groups are
stratified.”

 Stratification is social: It is true that biological qualities do not determine one’s superiority
and inferiority. Factors like age, sex, intelligence as well as strength often contribute as the
basis on which statues are distinguished. But one’s education, property, power, experience,
character, personality etc. are found to be more important than biological qualities. Hence,
stratification is social by nature.
  It is ancient: Stratification system is very old. It was present even in the small wondering
bonds. In almost all the ancient civilizations, the differences between the rich and poor, humble
and powerful existed.

 It is in diverse forms: The forms of stratification are not uniform in all the societies. In the
modern world class, caste and estate are the general forms of stratification.

 Social stratification is Consequential: Social stratification has two important consequences

one is “life chances” and the other one is “life style”. A class system not only affects the “life-
chances” of the individuals but also their “life style”.

 It is a characteristic of society and not a matter of individual differences; in other words,

we need to use the sociological imagination to understand social stratification and see it as
a social issue and not just an individual problem;

 It persists across generations, although it often allows for some degree of social mobility;

 Stratification continues because of beliefs and attitudes about social stratification.

6) Functions of Social Stratification

 Division of work
 Sense of cooperation and competition
 Diversity and Modernization
 Socio cultural changes
 Encourages hard work
 Ensures circulations of elites / wealth or resources
 Serves as an economic function (ensure rational use of available talent
 Prevents waste of resources
 Stabilizes and reinforces the attitude and skills
 Helps to pursue different professions and jobs
 Social control
 Up gradation
 Social mobility
 promote efficiency
 to play a bridge role
7) Global stratification: compares the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries
across the world, and also highlights worldwide patterns of social inequality within nations.

In the early years of civilization, hunter-gatherer and agrarian societies lived off the earth and rarely
interacted with other societies (except during times of war). 

As civilizations began to grow and emerging cities developed political and economic systems, trade
increased, as did military conquest.

Explorers went out in search of new land and resources as well as to trade goods, ideas, and
customs. They eventually took land, people, and resources from all over the world, building empires
and establishing networks of colonies with imperialist policies, foundational religious ideologies, and
incredible economic and military power.

global inequality is concentrating resources in certain nations and is significantly affecting the
opportunities of individuals in poorer and less powerful countries.

In fact, a recent Oxfam report that suggested the richest eighty-five people in the world are worth
more than the poorest 3.5 billion combined.

Global stratification perspective

The functionalist perspective is a macroanalytical view that focuses on the way that all aspects of
society are integral to the continued health and viability of the whole. A functionalist might focus
on why we have global inequality and what social purposes it serves. This view might assert, for
example, that we have global inequality because some nations are better than others at adapting to
new technologies and profiting from a globalized economy, and that when core nation companies
locate in peripheral nations, they expand the local economy and benefit the workers.

Conflict theory focuses on the creation and reproduction of inequality. A conflict theorist would
likely address the systematic inequality created when core nations exploit the resources of
peripheral nations. For example, how many U.S. companies take advantage of overseas workers
who lack the constitutional protection and guaranteed minimum wages that exist in the United
States? Doing so allows them to maximize profits, but at what cost?

The symbolic interaction perspective studies the day-to-day impact of global inequality, the
meanings individuals attach to global stratification, and the subjective nature of poverty. Someone
applying this view to global inequality would probably focus on understanding the difference
between what someone living in a core nation defines as poverty (relative poverty, defined as
being unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in your country) and what someone living
in a peripheral nation defines as poverty (absolute poverty, defined as being barely able, or unable,
to afford basic necessities, such as food).

Life
Country Infant Mortality Rate
Expectancy

Norway 2.48 deaths per 1000 live births 81 years

The United
6.17 deaths per 1000 live births 79 years
States

North Korea 24.50 deaths per 1000 live births 70 years

50 years
Afghanistan 117.3 deaths per 1000 live births

Theory Major assumptions

According to modernization theory, rich nations became rich because their

Modernization peoples possessed certain values, beliefs, and practices conducive to the
theory acquisition of wealth. Poor nations remained poor because their peoples did not
possess these values, beliefs, and practices and never developed them.

Dependency According to dependency theory, poor nations have remained poor because they
theory have been exploited by rich nations and by multinational corporations.

 In the global hierarchy, industrializing countries are at the middle of the global economic
order as measured by indicators such as income per capita, basic infrastructure, literacy
rates, or HDI.
 HDI is the measure of development that is used by the United Nations. HDI considers a
country’s per capita gross domestic product (GDP), per capita income, rate of literacy, life
expectancy, basic infrastructure, and other factors to determine how developed a country is.

 Because so-called “industrializing countries” do not always have economic growth, some
scholars prefer the descriptive term “less- developed country ” to describe nations with
smaller economies than developed countries.
 Social Class

1) Introduction

 P. Gisbert: A social class is a category or group of persons having a definite status in a

society which permanently determines their relation to other groups.

 Ogburn and Nimkof: A social class is the aggregate of persons having essentially the same
social status in a given society.
A social class large numbers of people who have similar amounts of income and education and who
work at jobs that are roughly comparable in prestige.
A social class is a large group of people who occupy a similar position in an economic system. There
are several different dimensions of social class, including income, wealth, power, occupation,
education, race, and ethnicity. While defining social classes in the U.S. is difficult, most sociologists
recognize four main categories: upper class, middle class, working class, and the lower class.
A social class is a group of people of similar status, commonly sharing comparable levels of power
and wealth. In sociology, social classes describe one form of social stratification. When a society is
organized by social classes, as opposed to by castes, it is theoretically possible for people to attain a
higher status than the status with which they started. This movement is possible because social classes
are not based on birth but on factors such as education and professional success. For example,
someone born into a low-income family can achieve a higher status through education, talent, and
work, or perhaps through social connections. A society organized according to social classes, then,
allows for some social mobility.
 A statushierarchy in which individuals and groups are classified on the basis of esteem and
prestige acquired mainly through economic success and accumulation of wealth. Social class
may also refer to any particular level in such a hierarchy.
 Four common social classes informally recognized in many societies are: Upper class, (2)
Middle class, (3) Working class, and the (4) Lower class.
Sociologists have given three-fold classification of classes which consists of - upper class, middle
class and lower class.
 Sorokin has spoken of three major types of class stratification -they are economic, political
and occupational classes.
 Lloyd Warner shows how class distinctions contribute to social stability.
 Veblen analyzed the consumption pattern of the rich class by the concept of conspicuous
consumption.
 Warner has classified classes into six types- upper-upper class, upper-middle class, upper-
lower class, lower-upper class, the lower middle class and lower class.
Social class is conceptualized in various ways as a function of the theoretical or political orientation of
the writer; much like “personality” is defined differently by psychologists who hold different
theoretical perspectives. How many social classes are there in our society? Disagreement within the
field on both the number and the composition are of these classes.
a) Upper Class – Elite

Represent institutional leadership, heads of multinational corporations, foundations, universities,

Capitalist elite – owners of lands, stocks and bonds and other assets – wealth derived from what they
own Forbes magazine publishes a list of the 400 wealthiest families in America. In 1997, net worth
had to be at least $475 million. Bill Gates, in that year, had net worth pf 39.8 billion. Of all the wealth
represented on the Forbes list, more than half is inherited. Newly acquired wealth, nouveau riche, have
vast amounts of money but not often accepted into “old money” circles.

a) Upper Middle Class

Represent scientific and technical knowledge – engineers, accountants, lawyers, architects, university
faculty, managers and directors of public and private organizations. Have both high incomes and high
social prestige, Well-educated. Difficult to define a “middle class” (i.e. upper middle, middle middle
and lower middle) probably the largest class group in the United States – because being middle class is
more than just income, about lifestyles and resources, etc.

b)  Lower Middle Class

 Clerical-administrative
 Provide support for professionals
 Engage in data collection., record-keeping
 Paralegals.\, bank tellers, sales
 Blue-collar workers in skilled trades
c)  Working Class
 Craft workers
 Laborers in factories
 Restaurant workers
 Nursing home staff
 Repair shops, garages
 Delivery services
d) Poor
 Working poor – work full-time at wages below poverty line
 Social services
 Underclass
8) Nature &Characteristics of Social Class
 Class a status group
 Social class is achieved status not ascribed status
 The class system is a universal
 Mode of feeling (inferiority and equality feeling in class system)
 Element of prestige (due to knowledge, evaluation, purity of race and descent, religion, wealth,
heroism, bravery etc.)
 Element of stability: (relatively a stable group)
 Mode of living
  Social Class an open group (vertical or horizontal mobility)
 Social class an economic group
 Classification of Social Classes: (upper, middle and lower etc)
 Class consciousness (the sentiment that characterizes the relations of men towards the
members of their own and other classes)

D. Caste

Cast is a complex phenomenon which is difficult to define writers and thinkers are not unanimous in
their opinion regarding caste. However, caste has been defined as under:
 Sir Herbert Risely: Caste is a “collection of families, bearing a common name, claiming a
common descent, from a mythical ancestor, human and divine, professing to follow the same
hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a
single homogeneous community.”

 MacIver and Page: “When status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot
without any hope of changing it, then the class takes the extreme form of caste.”

 C.H. Cooley: “When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste.”

 A. W. Green: “Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility up and down the status
ladder, at least ideally may not occur”.

 Ketkar: “A caste is a group having two characteristics; (i) membership is confined to those
who are born of members and includes all persons so born, (ii) the members are forbidden by
an inexorable social law to marry outside the group.”
• Main differences between class and caste systems

Cast Class
 Particular  Universal
 Ascribed status (by birth)  Achieved status
 Closed system  Open system
 Divine origin (religious oriented or  Secular (nothing to do with tradition or
traditional) religion)
 Purity and impurity (untouchable in  Feeling of disparity
Hindus)
 Regulation of relations  Limits relations
 Greater social distance  Less social distance
 Conservative  Progressive
 Endogamy group  Exogamy
 Complexity (a number of castes are in  Simplicity
Pakistan)
 Caste consciousness (more dangerous)  Class consciousness (less dangerous)

What is difference between social stratification and social inequality ?

Difference between social stratification and social inequality can be exhibited as under:
  E. Social Mobility

Every society has social mobility, but the rate of social mobility is different in all the societies
depending upon their cultural conditions. Social mobility refers to the movement within the social
structure, from one social position to another. It means a change in social status. All societies provide
some opportunity for social mobility. But the societies differ from each other to extent in which
individuals can move from one class or status level to another.

It is said that the greater the amount of social mobility, the more open the class structure. The concept
of social mobility has fundamental importance in ascertaining the relative “openness” of a social
structure. The nature, forms, direction and magnitude of social mobility depends on the nature and
types of social stratification. Sociologists study social mobility in order to find out the relative
‘openness’ of a social structure.

Any group that improves its standard will also improve its social status. But the rate of social mobility
is not uniform in all the countries. It differs from society to society from time to time. In India the rate
of mobility is naturally low because of agriculture being the predominant occupation and the
continuity of caste system as compared to the other countries of the world.
1) Definition
 According to Fairchild " social mobility is a movement from one condition to another"

 Stephensen says that "social mobility is moving of an individual or group of people from one
status to another"

 Horton and Hunt " social mobility may be defined as the act of moving from one social class to
another"
From the above definitions, social mobility can be defined:
 is a movement of an individual or group of people from one condition to another
 is adoption of change which may be social progress or
 is rejection of previous social conditions and adjusting into the new changes of life

9) Types of Social Mobility

a) Territorial Mobility
Change in residence from one place to another place is called territorial mobility
b) Vertical Mobility
 Upward Mobility:Upward mobility refers to, when an individual improve their social status
and class and work their way from the bottom to the top of social ladder. Upward mobility is
not only confined to economic prosperity, other factors are involved too in upward mobility
 such as, education, occupation, skills and matrimonial confederation. Stephen king belonged to
a humble background, he work as a janitor before his publication work. He changed his social
class and status and moved upward from the bottom of social class ladder. There are many who
worked their way up from bottom such as Jenifer Lopez, Michael Jordon and Oprah Winfrey.

 Downward Mobility: Some people in the society move at the bottom of social class ladder.
When the financial condition, health or business of individual deteriorates they may move from
top to bottom on social class ladder. There can be a lot more reasons for moving downward
from top on social hierarchy. One may experience downward mobility because of loss in
business, or quitting education or job, or may be because of breakup or divorce.
e) Intergenerational Mobility
An individual who belong to upper class his parents may be middle class and his grandparents may be
lower-class. The difference between the social classes of generation and generational change in social
status and class is known as intergeneration mobility.
f) Intra generational Mobility
The difference between the social classes of same generation members is known as intra generational
mobility. An individual belonging to upper class does not mean that, his siblings belong to same class
or possess same social status.
g) Horizontal Mobility
When there is a change in the status of residence of a person but without any significant change is
called horizontal Mobility

10) Causes of Social Mobility

 Dissatisfaction from previous condition
 Adoption of new conditions
 Industrial and technological conditions
 Education
 Urbanization
 Modernization
 Ease in means of communication and transportation etc
 Adventure
 Marriage and divorce
 Political factors
 Economic factors
 Natural disasters, Pandemic
 Religious obligations
 Customary social Rituals
 Recreation
 Personal preferences
 Brain drain
 Status or Power
 War, crime, revolution and upheavals
 New discoveries and explorations
 research and development quest
 Occupational obligations such as transfer/ postings
 Property and wealth issues
 Health care
 F. Socialization

1) Understanding Socialization
Culture and Socialization; formal and non-formal socialization, transmission of culture, cultural
relativism. Sub-cultures.

 Young and Mack: the process of introducing the individual into social word is called
socialization. In common sense, socialization is a lifelong training for the adjustment of one’s
life in society. The process of socialization is process of learning norms, roles, techniques and
other social patterns.

 Peter says that socialization is process of transmission of culture, the process whereby man
learns the rules and practices of social groups

 Horton and Hunt said that socialization is the process whereby one internalizes the norms of
groups among whom one lives so that a unique “self” emerges.

a) Factors in Development of Personality

 Biological inheritance: The nature-nurture debate

 Physical environment: The climate & geographic conditions
 Culture: Components of culture
 Group experience: Birds of a feather flock together
 Unique experience: Siblings have different personalities
 Religion, politics: values, beliefs, philosophy, learning of knowledge and skills
 Society: society in ourselves

h) Types of Socialization
 Primary socialization
 Anticipatory socialization
 Developmental socialization
 Re-socialization

i) Source and Agencies of Socialization

 The family,
 Neighbors,
 Religion,
 Economics,
  Politics,
 Education,
 Peers or age mates,
 Social institutions,
 Literature and mass media of communication,
 The community,
 Folkways,
 Mores,
 Customs,
 Clubs,
 Associations,
 Networks,
 Job environment,
 Reconciliation and rehabilitation centers

j) Function of Socialization

 Man from biological being to social being

 Development of the personality
 Helps to become disciplined
 Helps to enact different roles
 Provides knowledge and skills
 Helps to develop right aspirations of life
 Contributes to the stability of social order
 Helps to reduce social distance
 Provides scope for bright future
 Helps the transformation of culture
 Meaningful interaction with others
 Bearing hardships and trials of life
 Sense of belongingness
 It ensure social mobility
 Welfare of community and society
 Socio cultural adjustment
 Survival and continuity of society
 Conflict and competition
11) Formal and Non-Formal Socialization
Formal socialization is learning skills, values, and norms with planned and organized experiences such
as in school. Informal socialization is learning without an institution or formal procedure.
 Formal education – Organized, guided by a formal curriculum, leads to a formally recognized
credential such as a high school completion diploma or a degree, and is often guided and
recognized by government at some level. Teachers are usually trained as professionals in some
way.

 Non-formal learning – Organized (even if it is only loosely organized), may or may not be
guided by a formal curriculum. This type of education may be led by a qualified teacher or by a
leader with more experience. Though it doesn’t result in a formal degree or diploma, non-
formal education is highly enriching and builds an individual’s skills and capacities.
Continuing education courses are an example for adults. Girl guides and boy scouts are an
example for children. It is often considered more engaging, as the learner’s interest is a driving
force behind their participation.

 Informal learning – No formal curriculum and no credits earned. The teacher is simply
someone with more experience such as a parent, grandparent or a friend. A father teaching his
child to play catch or a babysitter teaching a child their ABC’s is an example of informal
education.
These may be overly simplified explanations. There are times when the lines between each type of
learning get blurred, as well. It isn’t always as cut and dries as it seems, but these definitions give you
a general idea of each type of learning.

12) Stages of Socialization

 Oral Stage
 Anal Stage
 Genital (Oedipal) Stage
 Latency Stage
 Adolescence Stage.
Erikson (1950) believes that personality continues to be molded throughout the entire lifespan from
birth to death. This period has been divided into eight stages by him. Each stage has its characteristic
features marked and affected by emotional crisis, particular culture of the person and his interaction
with the society of which he is a part.
a) Oral Stage
 This stage expands from zero to one-and-a-half years.
 During this period mouth is the sensitive zone of the body and the main source of joy and
pleasure for the child.
 How the infant is being cared for by the mother makes the infant trust or mistrusts the world
(represented by mother) around him.
 If his wants are frequently satisfied, he develops trust and believes that the world will take care
of him.
 In case of frequent dissatisfaction, mistrust develops leading the infant to believe that the
people around him cannot be believed, relied on, and that he is going to lose most of what he
wants.
 After the first six months (sucking period), the remaining one year (biting period) is fairly
difficult for the child and mother because of eruption of teeth and weaning.
 If properly handled, infant’s trust gets reinforced and he develops an in-built and lifelong
spring of optimism and hope.
Broken Family: Persons, who had an unpleasant (abandoned, unloved and uncared) babyhood, are
likely to find parenthood as burdensome and may express dependent, helpless, abusive behavior, and
angry outbursts i.e., oral character. To such people, caseworker is like parents, who helps the client to
verbalize his anger and distrust and later provides emotional support and protective services.

k) Anal Stage
 Towards the end of biting period of oral stage, the child is able to walk, talk, and eat on his
own.
 He can retain or release something that he has.
 This is true of bowel and bladder function also.
 He can either retain or release his bowel and bladder contents. Now, the child no more depends
upon the mouth zone for pleasure.
 He now derives pleasure from bowel and bladder (anal zone) functioning, which entails
anxiety because of toilet training by parents.
 Child is taught where to pass urine and where to go for defecation etc. In this training of
bladder and bowel control, child may develop autonomy, or shame and doubt.
 The task of anal is to develop autonomy. If the parents are supportive without being
overprotective and if the child is allowed to function with some independence, he gains some
confidence in his autonomy probably by the age of three and prefers love over hate,
cooperation over willfulness, and self-expression over suppression.
 Autonomy, thus, overbalances shame and doubt and leads to development of confidence that
he can control his functions, and also, to some extent, the people around him.
  Contrary to this, the child may feel angry, foolish and ashamed if parents criticize his faces and
over-control his bowel and bladder functioning during the training for toilet.
 By accepting the client as he is, the caseworker can reduce his feeling of self-hatred and
perfectionism.
 Over-demanding adults or those who express temper tantrums when asked to assume
responsibility may need to be helped to control their impulsive acts.
 They should be rewarded when they exhibit controls, and one should reinforce their autonomy
and independence when exercised.
 Autonomy and independence are totally different from impulsive acts as these involve
rationality and not emotionality.

l) Genital (Oedipal) Stage

 The task for this period is to develop and strengthen initiative, failing which the child develops
a strong feeling of guilt.
 This period extends from 3rd to 6th years of life, i.e., pre-school period. He is now capable of
initiating activity, both intellectual as well as motor on his own.
 How far this initiative is reinforced depends upon how much physical freedom is given to the
child and how far his curiosity is satisfied.
 If he is led to feel bad about his behavior or his interests, he may grow with a sense of guilt
about his self-initiated activities.
 Erikson (1950) opines that the child takes first initiative at home when he/she expresses
passionate interest in his/her parent of opposite sex.
 The parents ultimately disappoint him/her. They should try to help the child to identify with the
same sex parent, e.g., the girl should be encouraged to identify with mother and the son
with the father.
 In addition to this initiative, the child also attempts to wrest a place for self in the race of
siblings for parent’s affection.
 He sees the difference between what he wants and what he is asked to do. This culminates into
a clear-cut division between the child’s set of expanded desires and the parental set of
restrictions. He gradually “turns these values (restrictions, i.e., don’ts) into self-punishment”.
 Slowly and gradually, he extracts more initiative from the conflict and grows happily if his
initiative gets proper and adequate reinforcement.
 The caseworker encourages the clients burdened with guilt feelings to take initiative in family
as well as in other situations, and works with his social environment to strengthen his capacity
to take initiative.

m) Latency Stage
 This stage covers the period from 6 to 11 years, i.e., school age.
 The child can reason out rationally and can use the tools that adults use.
 The sexual interests and curiosity (common in genital period) get suppressed till puberty.
  If encouraged and given opportunity, he gains confidence in his ability to perform and use
adult materials.
 This leads to feeling of industry in him.
 When unable to use adult materials, he develops inferiority feelings. Such children may
develop problems with peers.
 They need to be encouraged to interact with classmates and be less dependent upon others. If
the child has mastered the task of genital period (initiative in place of guilt) he will be able to
master the tasks of latency (industry in place of inferiority) also provided he is encouraged to
undertake and helped to execute the responsibilities entrusted to him.

n) Adolescence Stage

 This period, regarded as a period of turmoil, usually starts at 12-13 years and can extend up to
18-19 years.
 The adolescents, during this transitional process from childhood to maturity, behave something
like an adult and sometimes like a child.
 Parents too show their ambivalence to accept them in their new role of an adult in-the-making.
 This stage exhibits all the psycho-social characteristics of earlier period and only towards the
end, all these get resolved into a new set of role (identity) for the adolescent.
 In order to develop a personal identity, he becomes fan of some hero, starts following certain
ideologies, and tries his luck with opposite sex.
 In decision and confusion are not uncommon in this stage.
 Identification with a wrong person shall create problems for him.
 The task of this age is to develop identity, i.e., values, strengths, skills, various roles,
limitations, etc., failing which his identity gets diffused and he fails to know how to behave in
different situations.
 He needs to be helped to deal with the physiological, emotional pressures along-with pressures
from parents, peers, etc. Group work is more helpful with problem-adolescents.
 When showing confusion about their role, they can be helped to emulate the group leader or
identify with group worker.
 Parents can handle adolescents properly if educated adequately about the needs and problems
of this age.
 Similarly, tasks for young adulthood, adulthood and old age are intimacy vs. isolation,
generatively vs. stagnation, and ego-integrity vs. despair.
 These psycho-analytical concepts are helpful in understanding behavior of the individuals.
Apart from these, there are some other tasks described by some other scholars for each stage
which according to them are to be achieved for a normal human development.

Stage Age Erogenous zone Consequences of psychologic fixation

Range
Oral Birth–1 Mouth Orally aggressive: chewing gum and the
year ends of pencils, etc.
 Orally passive: smoking, eating, kissing,
Oral stage fixation might result in a
passive, gullible,
immature, manipulative personality.
Anal 1–3 Bowel and bladder  Anal retentive: Obsessively organized,
years elimination or excessively neat
Anal expulsive: reckless, careless,
defiant, disorganized, 
Phallic 3–6 Genitalia Oedipus complex (in boys and girls);
years according to Sigmund Freud.
Electra complex (in girls); according
to Carl Jung. Promiscuity and low self-
esteem in both sexes.
Latency 6– Dormant sexual Immaturity and an inability to form
puberty feelings fulfilling non-sexual relationships as an
adult if fixation occurs in this stage.
Genital Puberty Sexual interests Frigidity, impotence, sexual perversion,
–death mature great difficulty in forming a healthy
sexual relationship with another person

To conclude:

Socialization is an interactive communication process that involves both individual development and
personal influences, namely the personal reception and interpretation of all social messages, but also
the dynamics and content of social influences.

Thus, socialization is a complex process that is based on the theory of social learning, learning which
is a fundamental mechanism of assimilation of social experience.

Although retaining a certain autonomy, man and society form an indissoluble unity, and society is
generated by the relationship between its members.

The socialization term is expressed in the literature by social learning, culture, etc.

All these terms have the meaning of a process through which the little child is humanized by acquiring
human behaviors.
In order for the socialization process to prove its efficiency, it must develop the individual's ability to
self-educate, to manage himself to discern between good and evil, to know how to choose between the
moral attitudes that are assessed by society negatively and those which allow for adequate social
cohabitation.

13) Theories of Socialization

a) The Looking-Glass Self

In 1902, Charles Horton Cooley created the concept of the looking-glass self, which explored how
identity is formed. The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept created by Charles Horton
Cooley in 1902. It states that a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the
perceptions of others. The term refers to people shaping their identity based on the perception of
others, which leads the people to reinforce other people's perspectives on themselves. People shape
themselves based on what other people perceive and confirm other people's opinion of themselves.
The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept, created by C H Cooley in 1902. A person's
self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others about him/her. A
social self of this sort might be called the reflected or looking-glass self. C.H. Cooley has summed it
up in his statement: "I am not what I think I am and I am not what you think I am; I am what I think
that you think I am. There are three main components of the looking-glass self:
 First, we imagine how we must appear to others.
 Second, we imagine the judgment of that appearance.
 Finally, we develop our self through the judgments of others.
The self builds only with the help of others. If others start treating a pretty girl as unattractive she will
never feel beautiful. We discover our self through the reactions of others is called “looking-glass self”.
In the looking-glass self a person views himself or herself through others' perceptions in society and in
turn gains identity. Identity, or self, is the result of the concept in which we learn to see ourselves as
others do (Yeung& Martin 2003). The looking-glass self begins at an early age and continues
throughout a person’s life.
In hypothesizing the framework for the looking glass self, Cooley said, "the mind is mental" because
"the human mind is social." In other words, the mind's mental ability is a direct result of human social
interaction. Beginning as children, humans begin to define themselves within the context of their
socializations. The child learns that the symbol of his/her crying will elicit a response from his/her
parents, not only when they are in need of necessities, such as food, but also as a symbol to receive
their attention. George Herbert Mead described the self as "taking the role of the other," the premise
for which the self is actualized. Through interaction with others, we begin to develop an identity about
who we are, as well as empathy for others.
14) Sigmund Freud Theory of Personality Development
He is considered to be the founder of the psychodynamic approach to psychology which looks closely
at the unconscious drives that motivate people to act in certain ways.
 Known as the father of psychology and the creator of psychotherapy
 Studied his parent’s dreams very closely
 He realized that our actions are result of hidden or unconscious desires
 The unconscious is a repository of our memories (fear and hope etc)

Freud’s Model of Personality

Basic drives and influence of society
Basic Human Needs Society in Action

The three parts of personality- operating within human mind

Ego
(the Control Centre)
A person’s conscious efforts to
balance innate pleasure-seeking
drives with the demands of society.

Id Superego
the instinctive and (the Police Force)
unsocialized desires. the operation of
It’s selfish & culture & society
antisocial within the individual

Id: Pleasure principle (Unconscious)

Ego: Reality principle (Sub Conscious)`
Super Ego: Morality principle (Conscious)

a) Key Points of Theory

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the result of the
interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego.
This "structural theory" of personality places great importance on how conflicts among the parts of the
mind shape behavior and personality. These conflicts are mostly unconscious.
According to Freud, personality develops during childhood and is critically shaped through a series of
five psychosexual stages, which he called his psychosexual theory of development.
During each stage, a child is presented with a conflict between biological drives and social
expectations; successful navigation of these internal conflicts will lead to mastery of each
developmental stage, and ultimately to a fully mature personality.
Freud's ideas have since been met with criticism, in part because of his singular focus on sexuality as
the main driver of human personality development.
• THE Id ( I want to do it right now)
The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of basic
physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). For
example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most likely take the ice cream for
itself. It doesn't know, or care, that it is rude to take something belonging to someone else; it would
care only that you wanted the ice cream. In other words, Id is
 The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
 This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious
 According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy (libido)
 The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all
desires, wants, and needs
 If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state of anxiety or tension
 However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or even possible
• THE EGO ( may be we can compromise)
In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic part of our
personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It's what
Freud considered to be the "self," and its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the
practical context of reality. So, if you walked past the stranger with ice cream one more time, your ego
would mediate the conflict between your id ("I want that ice cream right now") and superego ("It's
wrong to take someone else's ice cream") and decide to go buy your own ice cream. While this may
mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate your id, your ego decides to make that
sacrifice as part of the compromise– satisfying your desire for ice cream while also avoiding an
unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of shame. The ego is,
 The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality.
 According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be
expressed in a manner acceptable by the society
  The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind
 The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in
realistic and socially appropriate ways
 The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or
abandon impulses
• THE SUPEREGO (it is not right to do that)
The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what many people call their
"conscience" or their "moral compass." It develops as a child learns what their culture considers right
and wrong. If your superego walked past the same stranger, it would not take their ice cream because
it would know that that would be rude. However, if both your id and your superego were involved,
and your id was strong enough to override your superego's concern, you would still take the ice cream,
but afterward you would most likely feel guilt and shame over your actions. The super ego,
 The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and
ideals that we acquire from both parents and society
 The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.
 According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.
 There are two parts of the superego:
 The ego ideal: includes the rules and standards for good behaviors.
The conscious: includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society.
Culture controls human drives through superego- Freud called it “Repression”. The competing
demands of self and society are resolved through compromise- Freud called it “sublimation” which
transforms selfish drives into socially accepted activities.

Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict and that adult personality and
behavior are rooted in the results of these internal struggles throughout childhood. He believed that a
person who has a strong ego has a healthy personality and that imbalances in this system can lead to
neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and depression) and unhealthy behaviors.

• Critical Analysis
We appreciate Freud’s idea that early childhood experiences have lasting impact on our personalities,
and that we internalize social norms, but Most of the critics of Freud’s era refused to accept sex as
basic human need.
Recently, Freud’s theory is criticized as male centered thereby devaluing women.
Also Freud made biology a center point of his theory ignoring social, cultural and other individual
aspects.

Example: A man intends to drive a car at 400 speeds (Id), suddenly he believes that driving car at 400 speeds may kill him
or others (super ego) and decides to run the car at 120 speeds (ego)

Example 2: MCQs in Sociology (Fill all the questions without thinking, why to fill all because few of them may be wrong
therefore, it is necessary to fill only those which are correct and well known to me.
 F. Personality Development

1) Conceptualizing Personality Development

The word personality refers to the overall outcome of what a man is. Personality development
means developing a personality cult so as to create a strong positive impression about yourself. Or
Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes that
makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by the ongoing interaction
of temperament,character, and environment. Personality constitutes of various elements like
intelligence, physique, temperament, patience etc. All these elements lead to a good personality. In the
field of management personality plays a key role in career building and success. The personality
development has become a vital constituent of a successful person. People undergo personality
development programs in order to improve their personal skills and thereby enhancing their
personality. Personality is somewhere eternal and it is mainly dependent on the atmosphere in which a
human being grows up.
• Key elements of personality are:
 Behavior: A stereotyped response to an internal or external stimulus.
 Character: An individual's set of emotional, cognitive, and behavioral patterns learned and
accumulated over time.
 Cognition: The act or process of knowing or perceiving.
 Cognitive: The ability to think, learn, and memorize.
 Gene: A building block of inheritance, which contains the instructions for the production of a
particular protein, and is made up of a molecular sequence found on a section of DNA.
 Identity: The condition of being the same with, or possessing, a character that is well
described, asserted, or defined.
 Maturity: A state of full development or completed growth.
 Socialization: The process by which new members of a social group are integrated in the
group.
 Temperament: A person's natural disposition or inborn combination of mental and emotional
traits.
The degree of a person’s success is directly dependent on the kind of personality he has. There are
various key factors of a good personality and to enhance those characteristics of a human being is
actually called PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT. The basic characteristics of an ultimate
personality are:
 Appearance.
 Intelligence.
 Smartness.
 Trustworthy, High integrity and Responsibility.
 Knowledge, in depth.
 Management
 Effective Communication & Efficiency.
  Economic independence.
 Morality / Character.
 Being beneficial / advantageous
Similarly there are various negative factors which affect one’s personality. The strongest aspects to spoil
one’s personality are:
 Unhygienic.
 Hurting attitude.
 Useless approach.
 Non-beneficial communication.
 Untrustworthy, Irresponsible, Lack of integrity.
 Below average performance.
 Powerless egoism.
 Financial indiscipline.
 Mismanagements.
 Uncontrolled burst of negative emotions
  Moreover personality development has some basic roles like :
 It helps in building strong personal and team relationships.
 It dictates the success rate of one’s career
 It helps to trace out the flaws and to improve the personal and technical skills.
 It helps in maintaining the patience level even in adverse conditions.
 It enhances smartness, intelligence and grasps level of a person.
 There are some basic tips to brush up personality which are summarized below:
 Set an aim in life: If you sit in the boat of life without knowing your destination you
will become the slave of circumstances and other people. Your progress or
development will totally depend on your luck. To change this scenario you need to set
an aim for your life. It is true that a person has several aims in life but to decide the
chief aim is essential to make good progress. When you have an aim it is like a
destination -- you can chart your route, plan your action and formulate strategies to
reach there quickly.
 Power of knowledge: Knowledge is power. Nobody is impressed with a person who
doesn't even know what is happening in the world. He is considered a fool whom no
wise man or woman would like to befriend or follow. Therefore, it is necessary to
enrich your general knowledge, and you should be the master of the field in which you
are working. To update your general knowledge: a) read newspaper) watch informative
programs on TV) read good and popular books) interact with intelligent persons.
 Look confident: A look of confidence on your face impresses everybody. If you walk
with feeling of failure and frustration on your face people will simply avoid you. Even
if you are facing difficulties and worries in your life, you must know how to think and
look positive. Shake hands with others firmly. While shaking hands or talking make eye
contact with others and don't forget to wear a smile!
 Speak in style: Most of the successful persons maintain a unique style in speaking.
They speak clearly and forcefully. Be careful that you have a good command on the
language you speak. Don't make grammatical mistakes else you may become a
laughing stock. If necessary take training from a good teacher. Give extra care to your
pronunciation. Speaking power is an essential trait of any good personality.
  Dress smartly: A smartly dressed person is admired everywhere. By observing
successful people in any field, you will come to the conclusion that most of the
successful persons in almost every field have a keen taste for good dresses. Good
dresses also prove a stimulus for the wearer. He/she feels more confident and relaxed.
 A healthy body: It is an old saying that “A sound body has a sound mind”. A body
burdened with disease may get pity of others but it is very difficult for that person to
maintain an attractive personality. A healthy and smart look is absolutely essential to
attract others. And if you work on it you can easily attain it. Take exercise regularly,
play games or go for a morning walk whatever suits your body and psychology. Eat a
balanced diet.
 Good habits: A man is generally a creature of his habits. Cleanliness, punctuality,
completing your work on time, fulfilling your promises, having sincerity and dedication
to work, listening to other people with empathy, keeping yourself away from smoking
and drinking are the habits which add sparkle and dynamism to your personality. They
endear you to people.
 Moreover there are some pre requisites for having a desire to enhance personality such as:
 Discipline
 Growth/improvement/Solving oriented Positive thinking.
 Helping tendency.
 Zeal to grow.
 Sincerity, integrity and gratitude.
 Concentration and devotion.
 Awareness and Alertness.
 Sociability.
 Will-Power.
 Not hurting attitude
 Interest in clean and neat appearance.
 Command over language
 Responsible output.
 Accountable actions.
 Utilizing Time Preciously.
Lack of lies, laziness, jealousy, exploitation, action and words differing, selfishness at other’s cost,
arguments outside competition, revenge, lust, hurting egoism, ignorance etc.
• Ten useful ways to win people
 The only way to get the best of an argument is to avoid it.
 Show respect for the other person's opinions. Never say, "You're wrong."
 If you are wrong, admit it quickly and emphatically.
 Begin in a friendly way.
 Get the other person saying "yes, yes" immediately.
 Let the other person do a great deal of the talking.
 Let the other person feel that the idea is his or hers.
 Try honestly to see things from the other person's point of view.
 Be sympathetic with the other person's ideas and desires.
 Appeal to the nobler motives.
 •   Conclusion
The above discussed techniques are the key ingredients to enhance one’s personality. Apart from them
there are the basic requirements like honesty, loyality, dedication and patience which a person should
possess in order to influence people around him. It is said data “A leader is one who knows the way,
goes the way and shows the way”. To lead a band of people one should possess a pleasing personality
and provide reason to his followers to follow him. Personality is not always eternal. It is one’s efforts
and dedication which leads him to have a great personality and make other’s say "That person is going
with a personality”. So let me conclude with Bruce Lee’s saying
" Always be yourself, express yourself, have faith in yourself, do not go out and look for a
successful personality and duplicate it”