Disinfection

Introduction

What is Disinfection?

Disinfection is the process of selectively destroying or inactivating pathogenic organisms

in water. Disinfection is different from sterilization, which is the complete destruction
of all organisms found in water and which is usually expensive and unnecessary.
Disinfection is a required part of the water treatment process while sterilization is not.

The primary goal of water treatment is to ensure that the water is safe to drink and does
not contain any disease-causing microorganisms. The best way to ensure pathogen-free
drinking water is to make sure that the pathogens never enter the water in the first
place. However, this may be a difficult matter in a surface water supply which is fed by a
large watershed. Most treatments plants choose to remove or kill pathogens in water
rather than to ensure that the entire watershed is free of pathogens.

Before water treatment became common, waterborne diseases could spread quickly
through a population, killing or harming hundreds of people. George Warren
Fuller (1868–1934) was a sanitary engineer who was also trained in bacteriology and
chemistry. His career extended from 1890 to 1934 and he was responsible for important
innovations in water and wastewater treatment. He designed and built the first modern
water filtration plant, and he designed and built the first chlorination system that
disinfected a U.S. drinking water supply. In 1908, Jersey City, New Jersey was the first city
in the United States to begin routine disinfection of community drinking water. Over the
next decade, thousands of cities and towns across the United States followed suit in
routinely disinfecting their drinking water, contributing to a dramatic decrease in disease
across the country (Fig 1).
The table below shows some common, water-transmitted diseases as well as the
organisms (pathogens) which cause each disease.

Pathogen Disease Caused

Bacteria:
Anthrax anthrax
Escherichia coli E. coli infection
Myobacterium tuberculosis
tuberculosis
Salmonella salmonellosis,
paratyphoid
Vibrio cholerae cholera
Viruses:
Hepatitis Virus Hepatitis A
Polio Virus polio
Parasites:
Cryptosporidium cryptosporidiosis
Giardia lamblia giardiasis

Pathogens can be removed from water through physical or chemical processes. You may
remember that some previously discussed treatment processes, notably sedimentation
and filtration, can remove a large percentage of bacteria and other microorganisms from
the water by physical means. Storage can also kill a portion of the disease-causing
bacteria in water.

The goal of disinfection is to remove or inactivate all disease-causing organisms in water.

However, testing for each type of pathogen individually would be costly and inefficient.
Instead, operators focus on three indicators of pathogen removal efficiency. The first two
have been discussed in previous lessons - Giardia and viruses. The third test, total
coliform, is the most frequently used indicator of disinfection efficiency.

Coliform bacteria are often found in the guts of warm-blooded animals such as humans,
but can also be found in plants, soil, water, or air. It is relatively simple to test for the
number of coliform bacteria found in water, and their presence indicates that other
pathogenic bacteria are also likely to be present. If disinfection removes all of the
coliforms from the water, then the operator can safely assume that the other disease-
causing microorganisms have also been removed.

You will remember that the standards for the removal of Giardia and viruses are 99.9%
and 99.99%, respectively. After disinfection, standards for total coliform require that
water should have 0 coliforms per hundred millimeters of water sampled. If less than 40
samples of water are tested per month, then no more than one sample can test positive
for coliform bacteria. If forty or more samples are taken more month, then no more than
5% of the samples can be positive.
Chlorination

Purpose

Chlorination is the application of chlorine to water to accomplish some definite purpose.

In this lesson, we will be concerned with the application of chlorine for the purpose of
disinfection, but you should be aware that chlorination can also be used for taste and
odor control, iron and manganese removal, and to remove some gases such as ammonia
and hydrogen sulfide.

Chlorination is currently the most frequently used form of disinfection in the water
treatment field. However, other disinfection processes have been developed. These
alternatives will be discussed at the end of this lesson.

Prechlorination and Postchlorination

Like several other water treatment processes, chlorination can be used as a pretreatment
process (prechlorination) or as part of the primary treatment of water
(postchlorination). Treatment usually involves either postchlorination only or a
combination of prechlorination and postchlorination.

Prechlorination is the act of adding chlorine to the raw water. The residual chlorine is
useful in several stages of the treatment process - aiding in coagulation, controlling algae
problems in basins, reducing odor problems, and controlling mudball formation. In
addition, the chlorine has a much longer contact time when added at the beginning of the
treatment process, so prechlorination increases safety in disinfecting heavily
contaminated water.

Postchlorination is the application of chlorine after water has been treated but before the
water reaches the distribution system. At this stage, chlorination is meant to kill
pathogens and to provide a chlorine residual in the distribution system. Postchlorination
is nearly always part of the treatment process, either used in combination with
prechlorination or used as the sole disinfection process.

Until the middle of the 1970s, water treatment plants typically used both prechlorination
and postchlorination. However, the longer contact time provided by prechlorination
allows the chlorine to react with the organics in the water and produce carcinogenic
substances known as trihalomethanes. As a result of concerns over trihalomethanes,
prechlorination has become much less common in the United States. Currently,
prechlorination is only used in plants where trihalomethane formation is not a problem.

Location in the Treatment Process

During prechlorination, chlorine is usually added to raw water after screening and before
flash mixing. Postchlorination, in contrast, is often the last stage in the treatment
process. After flowing through the filter, water is chlorinated and then pumped to the
clearwell to allow a sufficient contact time for the chlorine to act. From the clearwell, the
water may be pumped into a large, outdoor storage tank such as the one shown below.
Finally, the water is released to the customer.
 Photo Credit: Virginia Department of Health

Chlorination Chemistry

Introduction

When chlorine is added to water, a variety of chemical processes take place. The chlorine
reacts with compounds in the water and with the water itself. Some of the results of
these reactions (known as the chlorine residual) are able to kill microorganisms in the
water. In the following sections, we will show the chemical reactions which occur when
chlorine is added to water.

Chlorine Demand

When chlorine enters water, it immediately begins to react with compounds found in the
water. The chlorine will react with organic compounds and form trihalomethanes. It will
also react with reducing agents such as hydrogen sulfide, ferrous ions, manganous ions,
and nitrite ions.

Let's consider one example, in which chlorine reacts with hydrogen sulfide in water. Two
different reactions can occur:

Hydrogen Sulfide + Chlorine + Oxygen Ion Elemental Sulfur + Water +

Chloride Ions

H2S + Cl2 + O2- S + H2O + 2Cl-

Hydrogen Sulfide + Chlorine + Water Sulfuric Acid + Hydrochloric Acid

H2S + 4Cl2 + 4 H2O H2SO4 + 8 HCl

I have written each reaction using both the chemical formula and the English name of
each compound. In the first reaction, hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine and oxygen to
create elemental sulfur, water, and chloride ions. The elemental sulfur precipitates out of
the water and can cause odor problems. In the second reaction, hydrogen sulfide
reactions with chlorine and water to create sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.

Each of these reactions uses up the chlorine in the water, producing chloride ions or
hydrochloric acid which have no disinfecting properties. The total amount of chlorine
which is used up in reactions with compounds in the water is known as the chlorine
demand. A sufficient quantity of chlorine must be added to the water so that, after the
chlorine demand is met, there is still some chlorine left to kill microorganisms in the
water.

Reactions of Chlorine Gas With Water

At the same time that chlorine is being used up by compounds in the water, some of the
chlorine reacts with the water itself. The reaction depends on what type of chlorine is
added to the water as well as on the the pH of the water itself.

Chlorine may be added as to water in the form of chlorine gas, hypochlorite, or chlorine
dioxide. All types of chlorine will kill bacteria and some viruses, but only chlorine dioxide
will effectively kill Cryptosporidium, Giardia, protozoans, and some viruses. We will first
consider chlorine gas, which is the most pure form of chlorine, consisting of two chlorine
atoms bound together.

Chlorine gas is compressed into a liquid and stored in metal cylinders. The gas is difficult
to handle since it is toxic, heavy, corrosive, and an irritant. At high concentrations,
chlorine gas can even be fatal.

When chlorine gas enters the water, the following reaction occurs:

Chlorine + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Hydrochloric Acid

Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl

The chlorine reacts with water and breaks down into hypochlorous acid and
hydrochloric acid. Hypochlorous acid may further break down, depending on pH:

Hypochlorous Acid ↔ Hydrogen Ion + Hypochlorite Ion

HOCl ↔ H+ + OCl-

Note the double-sided arrows which mean that the reaction is reversible. Hypochlorous
acid may break down into a hydrogen ion and a hypochlorite ion, or a hydrogen ion and a
hypochlorite ion may join together to form hypochlorous acid.

The concentration of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions in chlorinated water will
depend on the water's pH. A higher pH facilitates the formation of more hypochlorite
ions and results in less hypochlorous acid in the water. This is an important reaction to
understand because hypochlorous acid is the most effective form of free chlorine
residual, meaning that it is chlorine available to kill microorganisms in the water.
Hypochlorite ions are much less efficient disinfectants. So disinfection is more efficient at
a low pH (with large quantities of hypochlorous acid in the water) than at a high pH (with
large quantities of hypochlorite ions in the water.)
Hypochlorites

Instead of using chlorine gas, some plants apply chlorine to water as a hypochlorite, also
known as a bleach. Hypochlorites are less pure than chlorine gas, which means that they
are also less dangerous. However, they have the major disadvantage that they
decompose in strength over time while in storage. Temperature, light, and physical
energy can all break down hypochlorites before they are able to react with pathogens in
water.

There are three types of hypochlorites - sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, and
commercial bleach:

 Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) comes in a liquid form which contains up to 12%

chlorine.
 Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2), also known as HTH, is a solid which is mixed
with water to form a hypochlorite solution. Calcium hypochlorite is 65-70%
concentrated.
 Commercial bleach is the bleach which you buy in a grocery store. The
concentration of commercial bleach varies depending on the brand - Chlorox
bleach is 5% chlorine while some other brands are 3.5% concentrated.

Hypochlorites and bleaches work in the same general manner as chlorine gas. They react
with water and form the disinfectant hypochlorous acid. The reactions of sodium
hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite with water are shown below:

Calcium hypochlorite + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Calcium Hydroxide

 Ca(OCl)2 + 2 H2O 2 HOCl + Ca(OH)2

Sodium hypochlorite + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Sodium Hydroxide

NaOCl + H2O HOCl + NaOH

In general, disinfection using chlorine gas and hypochlorites occurs in the same manner.
The differences lie in how the chlorine is fed into the water and on handling and storage
of the chlorine compounds. In addition, the amount of each type of chlorine added to
water will vary since each compound has a different concentration of chlorine.

Chloramines

Some plants use chloramines rather than hypochlorous acid to disinfect the water. To
produce chloramines, first chlorine gas or hypochlorite is added to the water to produce
hypochlorous acid. Then ammonia is added to the water to react with the hypochlorous
acid and produce a chloramine.

Three types of chloramines can be formed in water - monochloramine, dichloramine, and

trichloramine. Monochloramine is formed from the reaction of hypochlorous acid with
ammonia:

Ammonia + Hypochlorous Acid Monochloramine + Water

NH3 + HOCl NH2Cl + H2O

Monochloramine may then react with more hypochlorous acid to form a dichloramine:

Monochloramine + Hypochlorous Acid Dichloramine + Water

NH2Cl + HOCl NHCl2 + H2O

Finally, the dichloramine may react with hypochlorous acid to form a trichloramine:

Dichloramine + Hypochlorous Acid Trichloramine + Water

NHCl2 + HOCl NCl3 + H2O

The number of these reactions which will take place in any given situation depends on
the pH of the water. In most cases, both monochloramines and dichloramines are
formed. Monochloramines and dichloramines can both be used as a disinfecting agent,
called a combined chlorine residual because the chlorine is combined with nitrogen.
This is in contrast to the free chlorine residual of hypochlorous acid which is used in
other types of chlorination.

Chloramines are weaker than chlorine, but are more stable, so they are often used as the
disinfectant in the distribution lines of water treatment systems. Despite their stability,
chloramines can be broken down by bacteria, heat, and light. Chloramines are effective at
killing bacteria and will also kill some protozoans, but they are very ineffective at killing
viruses.

Breakpoint Chlorination

The graph below shows what happens when chlorine (either chlorine gas or a
hypochlorite) is added to water. First (between points 1 and 2), the water reacts with
reducing compounds in the water, such as hydrogen sulfide. These compounds use up
the chlorine, producing no chlorine residual.
Next, between points 2 and 3, the chlorine reacts with organics and ammonia naturally
found in the water. Some combined chlorine residual is formed - chloramines. Note that
if chloramines were to be used as the disinfecting agent, more ammonia would be added
to the water to react with the chlorine. The process would be stopped at point 3. Using
chloramine as the disinfecting agent results in little trihalomethane production but
causes taste and odor problems since chloramines typically give a "swimming pool" odor
to water.

In contrast, if hypochlorous acid is to be used as the chlorine residual, then chlorine will
be added past point 3. Between points 3 and 4, the chlorine will break down most of the
chloramines in the water, actually lowering the chlorine residual.

Finally, the water reaches the breakpoint, shown at point 4. The breakpoint is the point
at which the chlorine demand has been totally satisfied - the chlorine has reacted with all
reducing agents, organics, and ammonia in the water. When more chlorine is added past
the breakpoint, the chlorine reacts with water and forms hypochlorous acid in direct
proportion to the amount of chlorine added. This process, known as breakpoint
chlorination, is the most common form of chlorination, in which enough chlorine is
added to the water to bring it past the breakpoint and to create some free chlorine
residual.

Chlorine Dioxide

There is one other form of chlorine which can be used for disinfection - chlorine dioxide.
We have not discussed chlorine dioxide previously because it disinfects using neither
hypochlorous acid nor chloramines and is not part of the breakpoint chlorination
process.

Chlorine dioxide, ClO2, is a very effective form of chlorination since it will kill
protozoans, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and viruses that other systems may not kill. In
addition, chlorine dioxide oxidizes all metals and organic matter, converting the organic
matter to carbon dioxide and water. Chlorine dioxide can be used to remove sulfide
compounds and phenolic tastes and odors. When chlorine dioxide is used,
trihalomethanes are not formed and the chlorination process is unaffected by ammonia.
Finally, chlorine dioxide is effective at a higher pH than other forms of chlorination.

So why isn't chlorine dioxide used in all systems? Chlorine dioxide must be generated on
site, which is a very costly process requiring a great deal of technical expertise. Unlike
chlorine gas, chlorine dioxide is highly combustible and care must be taken when
handling the chlorine dioxide.

Efficiency

Residual and Dosage

A variety of factors can influence disinfection efficiency when using breakpoint

chlorination or chloramines. One of the most important of these is the concentration of
chlorine residual in the water.

The chlorine residual in the clearwell should be at least 0.5 mg/L. This residual,
consisting of hypochlorous acid and/or chloramines, must kill microorganisms already
present in the water and must also kill any pathogens which may enter the distribution
system through cross-connections or leakage. In order to ensure that the water is free of
microorganisms when it reaches the customer, the chlorine residual should be about 0.2
mg/L at the extreme ends of the distribution system. This residual in the distribution
system will also act to control microorganisms in the distribution system which produce
slimes, tastes, or odors.

Determining the correct dosage of chlorine to add to water will depend on the quantity
and type of substances in the water creating a chlorine demand. The chlorine dose is
calculated as follows:

Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand + Chlorine Residual

So, if the required chlorine residual is 0.5 mg/L and the chlorine demand is known to be 2
mg/L, then 2.5 mg/L of chlorine will have to be added to treat the water.

The chlorine demand will typically vary over time as the characteristics of the water
change. By testing the chlorine residual, the operator can determine whether a sufficient
dose of chlorine is being added to treat the water. In a large system, chlorine must be
sampled every two hours at the plant and at various points in the distribution system.

It is also important to understand the breakpoint curve when changing chlorine dosages.
If the water smells strongly of chlorine, it may not mean that too much chlorine is being
added. More likely, chloramines are being produced, and more chlorine needs to be
added to pass the breakpoint.

Contact Time

Contact time is just as important as the chlorine residual in determining the efficiency of
chlorination. Contact time is the amount of time which the chlorine has to react with the
microorganisms in the water, which will equal the time between the moment when
chlorine is added to the water and the moment when that water is used by the customer.
The longer the contact time, the more efficient the disinfection process is. When using
chlorine for disinfection a minimum contact time of 30 minutes is required for adequate
disinfection.

The CT value is used as a measurement of the degree of pathogen inactivation due to

chlorination. The CT value is calculated as follows:

CT = (Chlorine residual, mg/L) (Contact time, minutes)

The CT is the Concentration multiplied by the Time. As the formula suggests, a reduced
chlorine residual can still provide adequate kill of microorganisms if a long contact time
is provided. Conversely, a smaller chlorine residual can be used as long as the chlorine
has a longer contact time to kill the pathogens.

Other Influencing Factors

Within the disinfection process, efficiency is influenced by the chlorine residual, the type
of chemical used for chlorination, the contact time, the initial mixing of chlorine into the
water, and the location of chlorination within the treatment process. The most efficient
process will have a high chlorine residual, a long contact time, and thorough mixing.

Characteristics of the water will also affect efficiency of chlorination. As you will recall, at
a high pH, the hypochlorous acid becomes dissociated into the ineffective hypochlorite
ion. So lower pH values result in more efficient disinfection.

Temperature influences chlorination just as it does any other chemical reaction. Warmer
water can be treated more efficiently since the reactions occur more quickly. At a lower
water temperature, longer contact times or higher concentrations of chemicals must be
used to ensure adequate disinfection.

Turbidity of the water influences disinfection primarily through influencing the chlorine
demand. Turbid water tends to contain particles which react with chlorine, reducing the
concentration of chlorine residual which is formed. Since the turbidity of the water
depends to a large extent on upstream processes (coagulation, flocculation,
sedimentation, and filtration), changes in these upstream processes will influence the
efficiency of chlorination. Turbidity is also influenced by the source water - groundwater
turbidity tends to change slowly or not at all while the chlorine demand of surface water
can change continuously, especially during storms and the snow melt season.

Finally, and most intuitively, the number and type of microorganisms in the water will
influence chlorination efficiency. Since cyst-forming microorganisms and viruses are
very difficult to kill using chlorination, the disinfection process will be less efficient if
these pathogens are found in the water.

EFFICIENCY OF DISINFECTION

The efficiency of the disinfection depends upon the following factors:

 Nature of the disinfectant,

 Dose of the disinfectant,
  Length of contact time with the disinfectant,
 Temperature,
 Type and concentration of organisms in water to be disinfected, and
 pH of water

Dose of Disinfectant

A variety of factors can influence disinfection efficiency when using breakpoint

chlorination or chloramines. One of the most important of these is the concentration of
chlorine residual in the water. The chlorine residual depends upon the chlorine dose and
chlorine demand. The chlorine residual in the clear water storage should be at least 0.5
mg/L. This residual, consisting of hypochlorous acid and/ or chloramines, must kill
microorganisms already present in the water and must also kill any pathogens which may
enter the distribution system through cross-connections or leakage. In order to ensure
that the water is free of microorganisms when it reaches the consumer, the chlorine
residual should be about O.2 mg/L at the extreme ends of the distribution system. This
residual in the distribution system will act to control microorganisms in the distribution
system, which produces slimes, tastes, or odors.

Determining the correct dosage of chlorine to add to water will depend on the quantity
and type of substances in the water creating a chlorine demand. The chlorine dose is
calculated as follows:

Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand + Chlorine Residual

So, if the required chlorine residual is 0.5 mg/L and the chlorine demand is known to be 2
mg/L, then 2.5 mg/L of chlorine will have to be added to treat the water. The chlorine
demand will typically vary over time as the characteristics of the water change. By testing
the chlorine residual, the operator can determine whether a sufficient dose of chlorine is
being added to treat the water. In a large system, chlorine must be sampled every day at
the plant and at various points in the distribution system.

Contact Time

Contact time is as important as the chlorine dose in determining the efficiency of

chlorination. Contact time is the amount of time which the chlorine has to react with the
microorganisms in the water, which will equal the time between the moment when
chlorine is added to the water and the moment when that water is used by the consumer.
The longer the contact time, the more efficient the disinfection process is. When using
chlorine for disinfection a minimum contact time of 30 minutes is required for adequate
disinfection. The CT value is used as a measurement of the degree of pathogen
inactivation due to chlorination. The CT value is calculated as follows:

CT = (Chlorine dose, C in mg/L) x (Contact time, Tin minutes)

As the formula suggests, even a small chlorine dose, can provide adequate kill of
microorganisms if a longer contact time is provided. Conversely, a large chlorine dose,
needs only chlorine has a shorter contact time to kill the pathogens.

Temperature of Water
At lower temperatures, bacterial kill tends to be slower and higher doses are needed. The
effect of low temperatures is greater with combined chlorine than with free available
chlorine.

 The concentration of chemical substances is exerting demand on the chlorine.

Many of these compounds are not effectively removed in conventional water
treatment processes.
 The chlorine must be well dispersed and homogeneously mixed to assure that the
contact time for disinfection is applied throughout the water supply.

Types and Concentration of organisms

Most intuitively, the number and type of microorganisms in the water will influence
chlorination efficiency. Since cyst-forming microorganisms and viruses are very difficult
to kill using chlorination, the disinfection process will be less efficient if these pathogens
are found in the water.

pH

pH is an important factor that influences the efficiency of the disinfection. The

concentration of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions in chlorinated water will
depend on the pH of water.

A higher pH facilitates the formation of more hypochlorite ions and results in less
hypochlorous acid in the water. Lower pH facilitates the formation of less hypochlorite
ions and more of hypochlorous acid. Hypochlorous acid is the most effective form of free
chlorine residual, i.e., chlorine available to kill microorganisms in the water, while
hypochlorite ions are much less efficient disinfectants. So disinfection is more efficient at
a low pH (with large quantities of hypochlorous acid in the water) than at a high pH (with
large quantities of hypochlorite ions in the water.) At a high pH, the hypochlorous acid
becomes dissociated into the ineffective hypochlorite ion. So in lower pH water
disinfection will be more efficient.

Chlorination Equipment

Hypochlorinators

The simplest method of continuous chlorination of systems less than 75 gpm is by the use
of a hypochlorinator. Hypochlorinators are motor driven pumps which are used to
added hypochlorite solutions to water. The pump pulls the hypochlorite solution out of a
holding chamber and pumps it into the water to be treated. Where the pipe from the
pump joins the pipe carrying the raw water, the Venturi effect creates a small vacuum
and pulls the chlorine solution into the water.
It is often necessary to increase or decrease the amount of chlorine added to the water as
conditions change. Hypochlorinators allow you to adjust the amount of chlorine fed into
the water in three ways. You can adjust the stroke length or machine speed by varying
the pulley size. Both of these adjustments change the hypochlorinator feed rate - the
speed at which the machine puts chlorine into the water. You can also adjust the amount
of chlorine added by changing the strength of the hypochlorite solution.

Chlorinators and Cylinders

While hypochlorinators are usually used to perform continuous chlorination in smaller

systems, chlorinators are more economical when the supply source is greater than 75
gpm and may sometimes be used in smaller systems as well. Anticipated pumping
periods and chlorine demand (based on the chlorine residual test) determine whether a
hypochlorinator or chlorinator should be used in each situation.

Chlorinators are devices which introduce chlorine gas to water using liquid chlorine
supplied in steel cylinders. The following sections will explain how the proper quantity of
chlorine is delivered from the cylinder to the source water. But first we need to
understand how the liquid chlorine is stored.

Chlorine cylinders

Liquid chlorine can be stored in 100 or 150 pound cylinders, ton containers, or 55 to 90
ton rail cars. In each case, the chlorine has been condensed into a liquid form, but
expands back into a gas as it leaves the cylinder. Whenever a substance changes state
from a liquid to a gaseous form, heat is required. The heat which is absorbed by the
chlorine as it changes state in the cylinder comes from the surrounding air.

If chlorine is drawn off from a cylinder too quickly, the temperature of the air
surrounding the tank will drop and will cause frosting and lower gas flow. To prevent
frosting, the draw off rate should be no greater than 350 pounds of gas/day for a 100-150
pound cylinder. If greater feed rate are required, several tanks can be connected using a
manifold, which is a pipe joining the cylinders together so that chlorine gas is drawn
from several cylinders at once.

The only accurate way to determine the feed rate of chlorine from a cylinder is to weigh
the cylinder over time. By subtracting the tare weight (the weight of an empty cylinder),
the operator can determine how much chlorine gas remains in the cylinder so that empty
cylinders can be replaced in a timely manner. If the cylinders are weighed over time, the
feed rate of chlorine can be determined to ensure that the proper concentration of
chlorine is being added to the water.

Whenever dealing with gaseous chlorine, safety is an important issue. Ammonia should
be kept handy for checking for leaks and storage buildings should be well ventilated. If
the operator must walk through an area with chlorine in the air, he or she should use a
breathing apparatus. If no breathing apparatus is available, the operator should keep his
head high since chlorine is 2.5 times as heavy as air and will tend to sink to the ground.

Vacuum Chlorinators

The most typical kind of chlorinator, a vacuum chlorinator, is shown below:

In a vacuum chlorinator, chlorine gas is pulled from the cylinder into the source water
by a vacuum. The vacuum is created by water flowing through the injector and creating a
negative head. This negative head forces open the pressure regulating valve on the
cylinder and allows chlorine gas to flow out of the cylinder and into the chlorinator.

Once the gas has entered the chlorinator, the chlorine feed rate is measured using an
indicator known as a rotameter. Just beyond the rotameter, the chlorine gas flows past a
regulating device (a V-notch plug or a valve) which is used to adjust the chlorine feed
rate.

Then the chlorine gas is pulled into the injector, also known as an ejector. The injector
consists of a pipe filled with flowing water. The flowing water pulls chlorine into the
water, both chlorinating the source water and creating a vacuum in the chlorine line
which pulls more chlorine gas out of the cylinder. This type of chlorinator is also known
as a solution feeder since the chlorine gas is dissolved into a small amount of source
water, which is then piped into the main line of water to be chlorinated.

Chlorinators can be controlled manually (using the regulator) or with a controller. The
most common type of controller is the flow proportional controller which
automatically feeds chlorine based on the flow rate of the water.
Vacuum chlorinators are very safe since any break in the line with disrupt the vacuum
and close the pressure regulating valve. As a result, chlorine leaks are very uncommon.

Direct Feed Chlorinators

In a few cases, direct feed chlorinators are used instead of vacuum chlorinators. In a
direct feed chlorinator, the chlorine gas is under pressure and is pumped directly into the
main flow of water. There, the chlorine is evenly dispersed into the water using a
diffuser, like the one shown below.

Since the chlorine is under pressure, a pressurized water supply is not needed for use
with a direct feed chlorinator. However, the pressurized chlorine is prone to leakage, so
safety issues limit direct feed chlorinators to small installations or for use as emergency
equipment.
Other Disinfection Methods

Types of Disinfection

Up until this point, we have been concerned only with disinfection using chlorine.
However, a variety of other methods can be used to disinfect water. The table below
summarizes eight disinfection processes.

Disinfection Disinfection Process Uses

Method Advantages
Disadvantages
Chlorine chemical reaction with pathogens widespread use to disinfect
a small dose kills bacteria rapidly; residual can water; also used in color, taste,
be maintained and odor removal, improving
in some cases, chlorination can cause the coagulation, and killing algae.
formation of trihalomethanes
Iodine chemical reaction with pathogens emergency treatment of water
good disinfectanthigh cost; harmful to supplies; disinfecting small, non-
pregnant women permanent water supplies
Bromine chemical reaction with pathogens very limited use, primarily for
treating swimming pool water
handling difficulties; residuals hard to obtain;
supply is limited
Bases chemical reaction with pathogens sterilize water pipes
(sodium
hydroxide and bitter taste in the water; handling difficulties
lime)
Ozone chemical reaction with pathogens disinfection; treating iron and
good disinfectant; better virucide than manganese, helping flocculation,
chlorine; oxidizes iron, manganese, sulfide, removing algae, oxidizing
and organics; removes color, odor, and taste organics, removing color,
high cost; lack of residual; storage difficulties; treating tastes and odors
maintenance requirements; safety problems;
unpredictable disinfection; no track record
Ultraviolet UV light causes biological changes which kill small or local systems and
the pathogenslack of dangerous by- industrial applications
productslack of measurable residual; cost of
operation; turbidity interferes with
disinfection
Ultrasonic sound waves destroy pathogens by vibration
very expensive
Heat boiling water for about five minutes will Individuals may boil their water
destroy essentially all microorganismssimple, for household quantities of
requires little equipment water when quality of water is
very energy intensive; expensive questionable

Physical methods
Formation of mutagenic and carcinogenic agents in water and wastewater effluent
treated with chlorine has prompted research to seek alternative disinfecting methods
that would minimize environmental and public health impacts. The technology, based on
nonchemical methods, is undergoing rapid development. Some techniques are already
available commercially. This category is represented by techniques employing such
physical principles for disinfection as W radiation, ultrasound, ultrafiltration, reverse
osmosis, heating, freezing, and ionizing radiation (Cheremissinoff et al. 1981).
Disinfecting small quantities of water by pasteurizing with heat or solar energy is a
technology with some potential, but requires further development (Cheremissinoff et al.
1981; Ciochetti and Metcalf 1984). The recently developed method for water disinfection
by direct exposure to solar radiation (Acra et al. 1980, 1984) is further described in the
following sections.
Heat Sterilization
The disease-causing microorganisms cannot survive the heat of a sterilizing boil. The CDC
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) recommend that you boil water at a
vigorous rolling boil for at least one minute at sea level. At altitudes above 6,000 feet,
they recommend three minutes of rolling boil, since water boils at lower temperatures as
the altitude increases. Some references (Wilkerson 1992, 71) state that, regardless of
elevation, the boiling temperature and the time to reach that temperature are sufficient to
kill all pathogenic organisms (milk is pasteurized at 160˚F). Boiled water can be used
after cooling (do not add ice). Another recommendation is to heat water from 75 0C to
100 0C for 30 minutes.

In the past, water treatment plants have principally relied on the use of chlorine for
disinfection. The prevalent use of chlorine has come about because chlorine is an
excellent disinfecting chemical and, until recently, has been available at a reasonable cost.

However, chlorine has several disadvantages. Chlorine is becoming more expensive and
has been shown to be toxic to fish and other biota. In addition, chlorine can combine with
organic substances in water to produce trihalomethanes, which are suspected of causing
cancer.

As a result, future water treatment may see an increased use of ozone or ultraviolet (UV)
light. Both types of treatment are effective disinfecting agents and leave no toxic
residual. We will consider ozone and UV disinfection briefly below.

Ozone

Oxygen in the air (O2) is composed of two oxygen atoms. Under certain conditions, three
oxygen atoms can be bound together instead, forming ozone (O3).

Ozone has many advantages as a disinfectant. It kills all pathogenic organisms by a direct
effect on their DNA. Disinfection with ozone occurs 30,000 times faster than with
chlorine, so a prolonged contact time is unnecessary. And there is no harmful residual
left in the system.

The disadvantages of an ozone disinfection system include a corrosive nature, a high cost
for the initial set-up, and a high electricity consumption.

UV Light

Ultraviolet, or UV, light is light outside the range usually detectable by the human eye. It
can be used to deactivate protozoans so that they can't reproduce and to significantly
reduce the concentration of bacteria in water.

The picture below shows a UV disinfection setup:

The primary disadvantage of UV light is a high operating cost. In addition, anything

which blocks UV light from reaching the water will result in a lack of treatment, so water
must be free of turbidity before being treated with UV light.

Types of Disinfectants

Ozone Treatment:

Ozone gas, 03, is a powerful disinfecting agent that can be used in drinking water
applications.Ozone has been used extensively for disinfection and for taste and odour
control in Europe, US and Canada.

Oxygen in the air (02) is composed of two oxygen atoms. Under certain conditions, three
oxygen atoms can be bound together instead, forming ozone (0). Ozone has many
advantages as a disinfectant. It kills all pathogenic organisms by a direct effect on their
DNA. Disinfection with ozone occurs 30,000 times faster than with chlorine, so a
prolonged contact time is not necessary. And there is no harmful residual left in the
system. Ozone, being an unstable gas, must be generated onsite and must be distributed
into the water immediately to disinfect it. Ozone is produced by passing a discharge of
high voltage alternating current through dry air or exposing air or oxygen to a high
voltage electric arc. A voltage of between 4000 and 20000 volts is applied to dielectric
plates about 6 mm apart or to concentrated tubes, through which the dry air is blown.
The concentration of ozone produced by modern plant is of the order of 15 to 20g 1m3 of
air. The ozone containing air is then introduced into the water either by an injection
system which draws it under reduced pressure or by forcing it under pressure through
perforated pipes or ceramic materials immersed in water. The degree of absorption
depends upon the depth of immersion of the injection apparatus below the water level in
the contact tank and the fineness of the air bubbles introduced, and will vary from 60% to
90%.

Ozone treatment is generally effective in dealing with pathogenic bacteria and cysts.
Since no residual disinfectant is left in water, the water quality is likely to deteriorate in
storage.

Advantages of Ozone disinfection are as follows.

1. Complex taste, colour and odour problems are effectively reduced.

Organic impurities are readily oxidized.
2. Effective disinfection is achieved over wide range of temperature and pH.
3. Bactericidal action is rapid (300 to 3000 times faster than chlorine). only short
contact period is required.
4. It reduces chlorine demand and in turn lowers chlorine dosage and so THM
formation potential.

Disadvantages of Ozone disinfection are as follows.

Ozone gas is highly toxic; it does not have the distinct warning smell possessed by
chlorine gas and may not cause immediate discomfort when breathed. Careful safety
measure is therefore to be adopted with its use.

1. The residual does not last long.

2. High electric input and high capital and operating cost (10 to 15 times higher than
chlorine are required).
3. High temperature and humidities may complicate ozone generation.
4. The process is less flexible than those for chlorine in adjusting for flow rate and
water quality variation.

Ultraviolet (UV) Irradiation

Ultraviolet or UV systems expose supply water to intense UV light, which kill

pathogenic bacteria and may remove some pathogenic cysts. UV rays are found in
sunlight, but UV rays can be artificially produced, by passing electric current through
mercury vapour lamp enclosed in quartz bulb.

Ultraviolet light (UV) destroys microorganisms by changing their genetic information

(DNA), but does not produce residual or hazardous by-products, nor does it affect the
taste, odor or colour characteristics of the treated water. It is light with very high energy
levels and wavelength of 200-400 nanometer (nm). The most effective ultraviolet light for
disinfection is UV -C (200-280 nm), specially with a wavelength of 254 nm. (nm is equal
to 10 Angstrom units)

The heart of the UV systems is high-performance spectrotherm lamps (low pressure

technology) which provide a stable UV output through a wider temperature range. This
special spectro thermal lamps show higher degrees of effectiveness and stability than
other conventional lamps. They also exhibit a high UV power output (up to three times
more than competitive low pressure lamps) and long operating live (12,000 h), resulting
in decreased overall costs. The efficient lamps have a high UV emission in the area of the
effective wavelengths (254 nm), that makes it possible to destroy more than 99.99% of all
pathogens in water. To further increase efficiency, reliability and service lifetime,
electronic power supplies (ballasts) for the lamps were developed.

The power rating for a UV lamp may be as high as 200 watts. Water must flow very close
to the light source, in a thin layer, and at a uniform, appropriate, flow rate to assure that
bacteria are destroyed. Since any suspended particles (or turbidity) in the water could
“shade” bacteria from the direct rays from the UV source, “live” bacteria could pass
through the system. For this reason, all UV systems have pre-filtration, often including a
ceramic filter element, to assure the effectiveness of the UV disinfection system

The UV treatment, like ozone or mechanical filtering leaves no residual component in the
water to insure its continued disinfection.

Advantages of UV irradiation as a disinfectant are as follows.

1. No chemical is introduced into the water, so the water quality is not significantly
affected.
2. Taste or odours are neither produced nor removed.
3. Exposure time is short.
4. Over exposure does not produce any detrimental effect.

Disadvantages of UV irradiation are as follows.

1. Spores, cysts and viruses are less susceptible than bacteria

Complete turbidity removal is required prior to UV irradiation.
2. There is no residual; therefore, a secondary disinfectant is needed.
Expensive equipment and large amounts of electrical energy are required.
3. Frequent, expensive maintenance of apparatus is necessary.

Iodine

For emergency purposes iodine may be used for treatment of drinking water. Much work
at present is being done to test the effect of iodine in destroying viruses, which are now
considered among the pathogens most resistant to treatment. Tests show that 20 minutes
exposure to 8.0 mg/ L of iodine is adequate to render the water safe. As usual, the dose
required varies inversely with contact time. Lower doses require longer contact time,
while higher residuals require shorter contact time. While such test results are
encouraging, they are not enough to assess the physiological effects of iodine in treated
water on the human system. For this reason its use must be considered only on an
emergency basis.
Silver

Silver in various forms has been used to inhibit the growth of microorganisms. It is most
frequently found combined with activated carbon in filters. When some bacteria species
come into contact with this silver, they are rendered inactive. There is disagreement
among the experts as to the effectiveness of this process because silver ions in water kill
E.coli very well and probably also salmonella, shigella, and vibro bacteria, but it has found
lesser effect on viruses, cysts, and other bacteria species. Silver does not produce
offensive tastes or odors when used in water treatment.

Further, organic matter does not interfere with its effectiveness as is the case with free
chlorine. Its high cost, interferences by chlorides and sulfides, need for long periods of
exposure, and incomplete bactericidal action have hindered its widespread acceptance.

Copper

Copper ions and copper sulphate are used quite frequently to destroy algae in surface
waters such as lakes and reservoirs. But these ions are relatively ineffective in killing
bacteria.

Copper-silver ionization is brought about by electrolysis. An electric current is created

through copper-silver, causing positively charged copper and silver ions to form. When
copper-silver ionization is applied, positively charged copper (Cu+ and Cu2+) and silver
(Ag+) ions are formed.

The electrodes are placed close together. The water that is disinfected flows past the
electrodes. An electric current is created, causing the outer atoms of the electrodes to lose
an electron and become positively charged. The larger part of the ions flows away
through the water, before reaching the opposite electrode. Generally the amount of silver
ions at a copper ion rate of 0.15 to 0.40 ppm lies between 5 and 50 ppb.

Because of copper-silver ionization, drinking water could be produced safely in space

without the use of chlorine. Electrically charged copper ions (Cu2+) in the water search
for particles of opposite polarity, such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Positively charged
copper ions form electrostatic compounds with negatively charged cell walls of
microorganisms. These compounds disturb cell wall permeability and cause nutrient
uptake to fail. Copper ions penetrate the cell wall and as a result they will create an
entrance for silver ions (Ag+). These penetrate the core of the microorganism. Silver ions
bond to various parts of the cell, such as the DNA and RNA, celular proteins and
respiratory enzymes, causing all life support systems in the cell to be immobilized. As a
result, there is no more celular growth or cell division, causing bacteria to no longer
multiply and eventually die out. The ions remain active until they are absorbed by a
microorganism. In the United States, several drinking water production companies use
copper-silver ionization as an alternative for chlorine disinfection and to prevent the
formation of disinfection byproducts. The standard for trihalomethanes was decreased
by EP A from 100 to 80 Ilg/L.

When copper-silver ionization is combined with chlorine disinfection, it is an excellent

disinfection mechanism to deactivate viruses and bacteria.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2 ) and peroxone (Ozone and H2O2)

The use of hydrogen peroxide in the treatment of potable water has been very limited.
This is in part due to its instability in storage and the difficulty in preparing concentrated
solutions. It is a strong oxidising agent, but a poor disinfectant achieving little or
questionable inactivation of bacteria and viruses.

Hydrogen peroxide can be stored onsite, but is subject to deterioration with time and is a
hazardous material requiring secondary containment for storage facilities. Although of
little value itself, hydrogen peroxide has been used in conjunction with other
disinfectants to achieve improved oxidation of organic matter. Its use with ozone and
ultraviolet light produces increased concentrations of hydroxyl radicals. These are short-
lived, very strongly oxidising chemical species, which react with the organic matter.

One of the most common of these processes involves adding hydrogen peroxide to
ozonated water, a process commonly referred to as peroxone consequent to the addition
of hydrogen peroxide. Hydroxyl radicals are produced during the spontaneous
accelerated decomposition of ozone. By accelerating the ozone decomposition rate, the
hydroxyl radical concentration is elevated, which increases the oxidation rate. This
procedure increases the contribution of indirect oxidation over direct ozone oxidation. As
an oxidizing agent, peroxone can be used to remove natural organic carbon, organic
micropollutants such as pesticides and increase the biodegradability of organic
compounds.

However while peroxone is an effective disinfectant, slightly more effective than ozone
against bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, it is difficult to use it for disinfection purposes
because it is highly reactive and does not maintain a measurable residual level for CT
calculations. The difficulty in verifying peroxone systems in use makes it inappropriate
for use as a drinking water disinfectant.
Choosing a Disinfection Method

Of the many disinfection methods, five have been used extensively in water treatment.
The table below lists some of the factors which may influence the choice of treatment
method in a new plant.

Chlorine Chlorine Chloramine Ozone Ultraviolet

(Gas or Dioxide
Hypochlorite)
Produces yes no yes sometimes no
trihalomethanes?
Produces other yes yes yes yes sometimes
troublesome
byproducts?
Impacted by lime yes no yes no yes
softening?
Impacted by somewhat somewhat somewhat somewhat yes
turbidity?
Meets Giardia no yes no yes no
removal
standards?
Meets no no no yes no
Cryptosporidium
removal
standards?
Meets virus yes yes no yes yes
removal
standards?
Operator skill level low high low/medium high medium
Applicable to large yes yes yes yes no
utilities?
Applicable to small yes yes yes yes yes
utilities?

You may note that many of the disinfection methods do not meet standards for Giardia,
Cryptosporidium, and virus removal. This does not mean that these disinfection methods
cannot be used. When used in conjunction with filtration, all of the disinfection methods
can be used to meet removal standards.

Review

Drinking water is disinfected to kill or inactivate waterborne pathogens. The most

common form of disinfection is chlorination, although ozone and UV light are also used in
some plants. Chlorine may be added to the water as chlorine gas or hypochlorite (both of
which produce the disinfectant hypochlorous acid), as chlorine dioxide, or ammonia may
be added with chlorine to form disinfectant chloramines.
Chlorination may occur as a pretreatment process or as the final step in the treatment
process. A sufficient quantity of chlorine must be used to both kill microorganisms
already existing in the water and to maintain a chlorine residual throughout the
distribution system. Chlorination efficiency depends on chlorine residual, contact time,
type of chemical used, mixing effectiveness, location in the treatment process, and on
characteristics of the water being treated.

Breakpoint chlorination is a common form of disinfection in which chlorine is added to

water until the chlorine demand has been satisfied and some free chlorine residual has
been formed. The chlorine demand involves the reaction of chlorine with compounds in
water, reducing the amount of chlorine available to kill microorganisms. Once all of these
reactions have occurred, any additional chlorine added to the water will produce
hypochlorous acid, a free chlorine residual.

Disinfection equipment depends on the type of disinfectant used. Hypochlorite is added

to water using a hypochlorinator. Gaseous chlorine is added to water using a chlorinator.
Disinfection equipment used for chlorine dioxide, ozone, and UV light is more complex
and requires a higher level of operator skill.

New Formulas Used

To calculate chlorine dose during breakpoint chlorination:

Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand + Chlorine Residual

To calculate CT value:

CT = (Chlorine residual, mg/L) (Contact time, minutes)