Plastic and Local Buckling Behaviour of Structural Steel 617 Letx be the length of the plasticity zone. From the bending moment diagram shown in Fig. 8.7, M(LI2 = x12) = M(LP2) or MM, = (bx) 2VL2)=1 IL Thus, (L-)M,=1M, © mug Substituting the value of M, ~(2/3)M, and rearranging, we get x=LB Hence in this case, the hinged length is equal to, one-third of the span. For a uniformly loaded fixed-end beam, Bowles (1980) showed that the hinge ength at the ends (which is half the mid-span hinge length) is given by “GoM atin For an I-section, the length of the plastic hinge at the centre of the beam is (take v - = 1.12) Lyinge = 2L/8.645, ie, 23% of the span length. Generally the number of plastic hinges = r+ 1;, where r is the number of redundancies or the indeterminacy. (However, there are exceptions, e.g., the partial collapse of a beam in a structure.) 8.4 Plastic-collapse Load The load at which a sufficient number of plastic hinges are formed in a structure such that a collapse mechanism is created is called the. plastic-collapse load or plastic limit load. The feature of plastic design which distinguishes it from elastic design is that it takes into account the favourable redistribution of bending moment which takes place in indeterminate structures after the first hinge forms at the point of maximum bending moment. This redistribution may be considerable and the final load at which the collapse mechanism forms may be significantly higher than the load at which the first hinge forms. Thus, for example, in a fixed beam. having a concentrated load at the one-third point, the first hinge forms at one of the supports; as the load is increased further, the moment at this hinge rertiains constant at M,, while the moments at the other support and the load point increase until second hinge is formed. When the load is increased further, the moments at these two hinges remain constant at M,, until a third and final hinge is formed to make the beam a mechanism, In this beam, the final ultimate load. will be 33% higher than the first hinge load. . The working loads are multiplied with a factor called the/oad factor (see Section 8.7.1) to obtain the plastic limit loads. Depending on the combination of loads and their probability of acting at the same time, different load factors are. used (see Section 2.8.2 and Table 2.2), Though the structure is designed based on plastic design, thé serviceability conditions at working load are valid even for plastic618 Design of Sieel Structures design, since the structure generally behaves elastically under working loads during its lifespan. ‘A number of examples of plastic-collapse mechanisms in cantilevers and single- and multiple-span beams are shown in Fig. 8.8, Cantilevers and overhanging beams generally collapse as single-bar mechanisms with a single plastic hinge at one of the supports [Fig. 8.8(a)}. Note the formation of the plastic hinge in the weaker section when there is a reduction in section capacity. Single-span beams collapse as two-bar mechanisms with a hinge (plastic or frictionless) at each support and a plastic hinge within the span, Note that when there is a uniform moment region, general plasticity may occur [Fig. 8.8(b)]. Multi-span beams generally collapse in onie span only as a local two-bar mechanism, with a plastic hinge within the span and a hinge (plastic or frictionless) at each support. It is also possible to have a three-bar mechanism, where two adjacent spans combine to form @ mechanism [Fig. 8.8(c)]. A similar mechanism may occur in an overhanging-beam, rt et RY Cantilevers and overhanging beams abe be hd Single-span beams ) nth tab. bepr abe Muti-span beams : © Fig. 8.8 Plastic-collapse mechanisms in beams ‘As noted already, plastic hinges normally ‘occur at supports, points of concentrated Joad, and points where cross sections change. The location of a plastic hinge in a beam with a uniformly distributed load is, however, not well defined. 8.5 Conditions of Plastic Analysis The basic conditions that aré to be satisfied for any structure in clastic and plastic analysis are shown’in Table 8.2. If-all the three conditions are satisfied, the lowest plastic limit load (a'unique value) is obtained. If only the equilibrium and mechanism conditions are satisfied (this forms the basis for the mechanism method of plastic analysis), an upper bound solution for the tiu¢ ultimate load is obtained. A lower bound solution for the true ultimate load is obtained when the equilibrium and plasticity conditions only are Satisfied (statical method of plastic analysis). See Section 8.7 for the mechanism and statical methods of analysis. :Plastic.and Local Buckling Behaviour of Structural Steel 619 Table 8.2 Conditions to be satisfied in elastic and plastic analysis Elastic analysis, Plastic analysis Equilibrium The summation of the forces and ‘moments acting on any free body must be equal to zero, ie,, BF, = 0, EF, = 0, EM, = 0 Equilibrium The bending moment distribution defined by the assumed plastic hinges must be in static equitibrium with the applied toads and reactions. Mechanism There must be sufficient number of plastic and frictionless hinges for the beam! structure to form a mechanism, The ultimate ot collapse load is reached when a mechanism is formed. Plasticity The bending moments in any section of a structure must be less than the plastic moment of the section -M, <—-— fa) U2 L2 () “0.586 20.4140 Tu M, wits iM 1 \6/ [ea p= wee Meow My= W247 (c) Fig. 8.9 Plastic. collapse of internal.and end spans of continuous beams: (a) support conditions; (b) plastic collapse mechanisms; (c) bending moments at collapse622 Design of Steel Structures: 8.9 Plastic Design of Portal Frames. Plastic design is used extensively for the design of single-storey portal frame structures. An in-depth coverage of all the important aspects ofjdesign has been. provided by Davies and Brown (1996) and Horne and Mortis (1981). The actual application of plastic design involves the same two steps described in Section’ 8.8, namely, adequate strength and avoidance of secondary failures, In addition, the effect of axial load on vertical members should be considered (see Section 8.10). The design of portals is a little complicated because theré can be more than one mechanism of failure, and the mechanism giving the Jeast collapse load has to be chosen. Single-bay portal frames with fixed bases have three redundancies and require four hinges to produce a mechanism. “ Furthermore, as the numberof redundancies increases, so does tlie number of possible modes of collapse. The possible mechanisms are classified into two groups: elementary and combined mechanisms. Whereas the former are independent of each other, the latter are linear combinations of elementary mechanisms. The clementary-and combined mechanisms of a single-storey portal frame are shown in Fig. 8.10. The beam mechanism results when three plastic’ hinges form within any one of the elements of the frame {see Fig. 8.10(b)]. A set of columns'in a storey may develop plastic hinges at the top and-bottom.kket>| Frame (constant M,) Beam mechanism (@) (o) 4 ana 1 7 s 7 £ 4 yt a ‘Sway mechanisin ‘Combined mechanism © (@) Fig. 8.10 Collapse mechanisms of a single-bay, fixed-base portal framePlastic and Local Buckling Behaviour of Structural Steel -623 Figure 8.11 illustrates the different. collapse mechanisms for a normal pitched portal frame, which are dependent on the values of vertical (PJ and horizontal (£1) loads. P is assumed to represent any form of vertical loading such)as dead. or imposed, while H represents wind loading. Note that in the figure, P and have been idealized into two concentrated loads, the resulting modes of failures being indicative of the forms dfcollapse typical for such frames. For most portals, failure ‘occurs by mode | [Fig. 8.11(b)}. Only when the frame is tall or the wind pressure is high relative to the vértical loading, failure by mode 2 will occur [Fig. 8.11(c)]. Failure by mode 3 is possible only when the wind load is very high and the maximum imposed load is very low. A similar behaviour is observed for frames with pinned bases. Te o 1 Fig, 8,11 Collapse mechanisms vi a single-bay ieatads pitched portal frame When the ‘mechanism method is applied to structures with’ sloping members, the determination of displacements in the direction of applied forces is required. This difficulty may be resolved by the application of the centre-of-rotation technique (also called as method of instantaneous centres). The description of this method may be found in Home and Morris (1981) and Davies and Brown (1996).-Horie atid Morris (1981) also provide charts for the direct selection of a factored value of ~ M, for pinned- and fixed-base frames, subjected to a uniform vertical load plus a single horizontal eaves load. When the gravity load case governs the design, a g00d estimate of the required section (assuming uniform frame) may be obtained by using the following formulae (Horne & Morris 1981): For pinned-base frames: M,= y(wl7/8)[1 +k+ (1+ 2] (8.9a) For fixed-base frames: : M,= HWP) + 0.5 + (1+ KP] (8.9b) where 7, = 1,7 is the global load factor (see Sections 2.8.2 and 8.7.1), k= Ay/hy, and hi and hp are defined in Fig. 8.11. For single-bay frames having other geometries or frames having other than the same section throughout, the reader should consult Davies and Brown (1996) and Home and Morris (1981). The design of portal frames using haunches, either at the caves or at the apex. (which improve the strength. and stiffness of the frames), are also discussed in these references. Martin and Purkiss (1992): provide the624. Design of Steel Structures complete design of a hauniched portal frame as per BS 5950: Haunches shift the eaves plastic’ hinges to the column top immediately-below the lower end of the haunch for a fixed-based frame (Mortis 1981). Using haunches, about $ to 10 por cent can‘be saved on rafter'size, though it involves’ additional’ fabrication cost. Examples 8.16-8:18 illustrate the methods liséd to determine the collapse -load of simple poital frames. 8.10 Effect of Axial and Shear Force on Plastic Moment Capacity The effect of axial force, apart from introducing buckling, is to reduce the plastic moment capacity of a section. The presence of axial force implies that the sum of tension and compression forces in the section is not zero and hence we have the following equiation: J,fdd-P=0 (8.10) where P is the axial force. This also means that the neutral axis moves away from the equal-area axis providing an additional area in tension or compression depending on the type of axial load, Consider a rectangular section of width’ b and depth d subjected to an axial compressive force N together with a moment M.as shown in Fig. 8.12, (Note that ‘we have used the notation V to denote the axial force, instead of P, since the force can be tensile or compressive.) The values of M and N are increased at a constant value MN until the fully plastic’ stage is attained. The stress distribution at this stage will be as. shown in Fig. 8.12(a). This-may be split up into two portions as shown in Figs 8.12(b) and (c) for conyenience. The stress distribution shown in Fig. 8,12(b). may be. assumed. to balance the axial load and that shown in Fig, 8.12(c) to balance the bending moment. From these figures, N= 2f.byy i 8.11) and) ji. : : Mg = (0? vay f, = BUD? —yilf, = 0.25/,b(d? = 4y9) 3 (8.12) a T T . “hy fy Total stresses ‘Axial compression’ Bending @ ae ) © Fig. 8.12 Effect of axial force:on'the plastic moment capacity of a rectangular 2s seetionPlastic and Local Buckling Behaviour of Structural Steel 625 wheré yp is the distance from the neutral axis to:the point of stress change for M, without axial force (see Fig:'8.12) and'f, is the yield stress. Note that when the moment and axial force are applied alone, we gel the moment without axial force °M, = fybdt4 were . (8.13a) Thus, Mye=M, (1-46) “ (8.13b) For very low axial forces, say ess than 10-15% ofthe axil yield load, the reduction in M, may be ignored, since’) will be very small ind yj will be smaller still, For example, if Dyold = 0.15, 4yG/d? = 0.0225, and (1 ~ 4y6/d?) = 0.9775 then the fediiction is about 2% only. The axial force alone (without any moment), Nya fbd (8.13c) If the ratio NN, (the squash load ratio) is denoted by. then from Eqn (8.11), io NIQLB) = nN J(2f,p) = nd 4 (8.14) sovsttaing this value of yp in Eqn (8.13b) and puting M, Zpyhy atid My =Zif, ‘we get Zp = Z 1-1) fi (8.15) Substituting yp = N/(2/;5) and using Eqns (8. 13a) and (8.13c) in Eqn (8.12), we get the following interaction equation for rectangular sections: (M,,/M,) * (NIN, =1 oe (8.16) 8.10.1 Interaction Formula for |-sections In the case of I-sections, two. cases are to. be considered: one when the neutral axis is within the web and the other when the neutral axis iS within the flange (see Fig. 8.13), Dealing first with the case of Fig. 8.13(b), N=2y0ff, (8.17) where ris the thickness of the web. The reduced plastic moment M,, may be written as : M,,=M, ~ 1294, (8.18). ., t 4 4 hy T BZ fet al St se 7 [Jey | BG w tO ty @ (b) © (), Mp Interaction (MIN) Np Fig. 8.13 Effect of axial force on the plastic momént capacity of an I-section626 Design of Steel Structures The above value of. M,, is obtained by noting that the reduction of the plastic moment below the value , (when no axial force is present) is represented by the loss of the plastic moment of the web area. ; As in the case of a rectangular section, if the section becomes plastic under an axial thrust only, the value of the thrust would be N, = 4f,, where is the area of cross section. This thrust N, is known as the squash load representing the load that would have been sustained by a very short member failing by pure axial compressive deformation. If the ratio of WIN, (the squash load ratio) is denoted by n, then from Eqn (8.17), : Y= MIU) = AN, QUf) = nAl(2t) , (8.19) Substituting this value of yp into Eqn (8.18) and putting M,, = ‘rf, and M, = Zehr, we get Zyp= Z,- AA? (8.20) This formuta applies until the axial thrust becomes’ so high that the neutral axis ceases to lie within the web. The limiting thrust at which it happens is given by putting yp = d/2 — T, Since yy = nA/(21), this means that the formula given in Eqn (8.20) applies until n reaches the value of 2, where n, = (D-27 WA (8.21) ‘Now let us consider.the case when the neutral axis is within the flange [Fig, 8.13(c)]. It is seen that the core area is the area left after removing, from the original section of area 4, two flange areas each of width B and thickness (D/2 —yy). Hence, . N=[4—20D2—-y BY, (8.22) The moment of resistance M,, may be derived from the two rernaining flange areas, the ‘centroids of which are at a distance [yy + 0,5(D2 — y@)], i.c., 0.5(D2 — yo), from the centroidal axis. Hence; M,, = area of part flange x lever arm = 2[(D/2 — yo) Bf] 10.5(D/2 — yo) (8.23) Substituting N= ndf, in Eqn (8.22) gives Yy= 0.5[D ~ (1 = n)A/B] (8.24) Hence, from Eqn (8.23), putting M,, = Z, fy we get 2,, = (A*AB) (1 — m)(2BDid -1 + n) (825) The reduced plastic moduli of the I-seetion about the minor axis may be obtained in a similar manner, with the neutral axis either inside or outside the web [see Figs 8.14(a) and (b), respectively), When the neutral axis is inside the web, we get Zyyy = Ly - (AAD? * (8.26) This applies until yy = 1/2, that is, until # teaches the value ny = D/A. When neutral axis is outside the web [Fig. 8.14(b)], we get Zyry = (AIBT)(I =n) [(ATBIA)~ 1 +] (8.27) Equation (8.27) applies when is greater than 7).Plastic and Local Buckling Behaviour of Structural Stee! 627 4 © 4 Fig. 8.14 Effect ofaval force onthe pasts moment capecityatan section about the minor axis The interaction curves of Eqns (8.16), (8.25), and (8.27) are shown in Fig. 8.15. ‘An approximate straight line equation, which lies on the safer side for typical rolled I-sections bent about the major axis, can be written as (Petersen 1990; Salmon & Johnson: 1996) (NIN,) + (1/1.18)(MIM,) <1 for NIN, > 0.15 (8.288) M=M, for NIN, <0.15 (8.28b) 1.0 Y 08 06. Zoe’ Mor Zz OM, P04 o2 0 02 4 06 08. 10 ne Met Np ty Fig. 8.15 Interaction curves for the rectangular section and the I-section The formulae given in Eqns (8.16), (8.25), and (8.27) are foundto be correct for sections made from three plates and are sufficiently accurate for rolled beams and