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    Outline of Physics

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    dayan Toloza

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    16. Waves and Sounds ‘Awave is a periodic disturbance that travels through space. Examples are water waves, sound waves, electromagnetic waves (for example, radio waves, microwaves, ight, and x-rays), and vibrational waves on a stretched string. In quantum mechanics We encounter probability waves that tell us the likelihood of finding an electron at one place or another. We can learn about the basic properties of waves by studying the waves that propagate on a stretched string, and from there we can go on to understand other kinds of waves. 16.1. Transverse Mechanical Waves ‘Suppose one end of a strings tied to something, and you hold the other end, pulling the string taut. Ifyou now give a sudden jerk on your end of the string, a pulse will travel along the string, as shown in Fig. 16-1. Shown there are “snapshots” of the string at successively later time intervals. The pulse travels at speed v, the wave velocity, in the positive x direction, Figure 16-1 you move your hand up and down in simple harmonic motion, you will generate atransverse sinusoidal traveling wave on the string, as shown in Fig. 16-2. In this drawing the open circles indicate the progress of a certain feature of the wave (a peak), and the solid circles indicate the up and down motion of a piece of the string. In your mind's eye imagine a sine wave (the darkest curve) moving to the right at speed v. Its position at three subsequent times is described by the curves in the drawing. Observe that although the wave is moving to the right, no matter is moving in this direction. The particles of the string just move up and down, transverse (that is, perpendicular) to the direction of propagation of the wave. Be careful not to confuse the particle velocity dy/dt (in the y direction) with the wave velocity v (in the x direction). Figure 16-2 Although complicated waveforms are encountered in nature, | will focus on the properties of sinusoidal waves since more {© McGraw-Hill Education. llrightsreserved. Any uses subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright Information. complex waves can be described in terms of combinations (superpositions) of sinusoidal waves. We can obtain an equation of motion (a “wave equation’) for a particle on a stretched string by applying F = ma to a little piece of the string. When we do this, we find that a solution is any function whose argument is x+ Vt or x~ vt, that s, (x+ 1) of f(x v9). The exact nature of the function f(x~ vt) depends on how you wiggle the end of the string. When you wiggle the end of the string in simple harmonic ‘motion at frequency f, the transverse displacement of a piece ofthe string is given by (a, t) (16.1) ‘This describes a wave moving to the right along the x-axis with speed v. The quantity (2n/A)(x~ vt) is the phase of the ‘wave. When the phase has a given value,y has a given value. Thus a constant value ofy requires that the phase (2n/A)(x - vi) be constant. Suppose (2n/A)(x~ vt) = = constant. If we take the time derivative of the phase, we see that dx/dt - v= 0, or dx/dt, which shows that the quantity vis indeed the velocity of the wave. vis called the phase velocity (or wave velocity) because it describes the speed of a point of constant phase on the wave. Observe that a function of the form f(x + vi), that is, with argument (x-+ vf), instead of (x vt), describes a wave traveling toward the negative direction because for it we find that dx/dt = ~y, and vis a positive number. ‘The form of Eq. 16.1 is reminiscent of the way we described the y coordinate of a point on the rim of a rotating disk. As the disk rotated, the angle of rotation (the argument of the sine function) varied from 0 to 2rt rad, or from 0 to 360°. Thus we sometimes refer to phase in terms of degrees or radians. A picture of a wave at t= 0 is shown inFig. 16-3. Observe that ‘moving a distance of 4/4 in space along the x-axis causes the phase to change by 90°. Moving a distanceA/2 results in a phase change of 180°. Figure 16-3 ‘The maximum value y reaches is the amplitude A in meters. The separation in space between two adjacent points with the ‘same phase (for example, between two crests) is the wavelength A, in meters, of the wave. Amplitude and wavelength are indicated in Fig. 16-4 From Eq, 16.1 we see that when x increases by an amount A, the phase increases by 2r rad, and since sin (+ 2n) = sing, yhas the same value at pointsx and atx+A. Figure 16-4 {© McGraw-Hill Education. llrightsreserved. Any uses subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright Information. Ea AccesssEngineering ‘The number of crests passing a given point in space each second is the frequency f. One crest (or vibration) per second is hertz (Hz), so 1 Hz = 1s. Consider a length of the wave of length. = nA, where n is the number of crests in the length L. Int seconds it moves a distance L ‘or v=Ant. But n/tis the number of crests passing a given point per second, which is the frequency f. Thus v=fr= A> (16.2) Here the time in seconds between adjacent passing crests is the period T = 1/f, Thus if 10 crests pass each second (/= 10 Hz), the period is T= 1/f= 1/10 = 0.1 s = time between crests or for oscillations to repeat. We frequently encounter the wave number and the angular frequency w (in radians per second) defined as follows: on @ ly=2nf and k=, sov=fA=FI (16.3) Using this notation, Eq, 16.1 can be conveniently written as lv(e,t) = Asin =(e vl) = Asin2n ( (16.4) Inthe above | assumed the vertical displacement y(x, t) is zero att = 0 andx= 0. This need not be the case (we can startt = 0 ‘whenever we want), 50 a more general form for y(x,t)is y= A sin(kx ~ wt + ), where, the phase constant, is determined {from the given intial conditions. If we choose the zero of time and the x-axis origin so that @ = 90°, then y =A sin(kx - wt + 90°) = A cos(kx ~ wt). In some books we see the sine function and in others the cosine function. Either form can be used. Example on A string wave is described byy = 0.002 sin(0.Sx - 6281). Determine the amplitude, frequency, period, wavelength, and velocity of the wave. Solution From Eq. 16.4, A=0.002m 05 A=126m Qn T 628 T=00ls f 100Hz = v= fA=1260m/s 16.2. Speed and Enerav Transfer for Strina Waves {© McGraw-Hill Education. llrightsreserved. Any uses subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright Information. Ea AccesssEngineering vee Speen oe wey tee ee eee ee gerseee By applying F = ma to a small piece of a vibrating string, we can deduce the wave equation and the speed of the transverse ‘waves on the string. If the tension of the string is T and the mass per unit length (the linear mass density) isp, the wave velocity is = Isl (16.5) ‘Although no matters transported down the string as the wave propagates, energy is carried along by the wave with velocity v ‘As.a piece of the string moves up and down executing simple harmonic motion, ithas kinetic energy as well as potential energy (because the string is stretched like a spring). In Eq. 13.9 we saw that the total energy of a massm that oscillates with amplitude A and angular frequency w is E = 4kA? = tmw?A2, where kis the spring constant andk = mu, Consider a small length dx ofthe string. The mass of this piece is dm = ude, where is the mass per unit length of the string. This infinitesimal mass of string thus has a small energy dE! = Ldm? A? = 2ydzus2A?. As this small mass moves up and down, it pulls on the piece of string to its right and does work oni, thereby transferring eneray down the string tothe right as the wave moves in that direction. If energy dE is transferred in time at, the rate of energy transfer (the power) is P= dB/dt = pu? A’de/dt where di/dt = v= wave velocity. Thus the power transmitted by the wave is T svar A?| qh (16.6) Example Coes A string of linear mass density 480 g/m is under a tension of 48 N. A wave of frequency 200 Hz and amplitude 4.0 mm travels down the string. At what rate does the wave transport energy? Solution oJ aN ~V~ {0.48 kg/m P Sumit (0.5)(0.480 kg/m) (10 m/s)(40078)°(4 x 10-*m)* = 61 W w=2nf= (200) = 4007s =10 m/s Equation 16.6 proves to be qualitatively true for al kinds of waves, including electromagnetic waves such as light. The Power transmitted is proportional to the wave velocity and to the square of the frequency and to the square of the ‘amplitude. {© McGraw-Hill Education. llrightsreserved. Any uses subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright Information. 16.3. Superposition of Waves Consider a stretched string tied at one end (Fig. 16-5e). If you jerk the other end, a pulse will travel along the string. When the pulse reaches the tied end, it will be turned upside down (180° phase shift) and be reflected. Ifthe far end of the string is free to move up and down (perhaps it slides on a pole, as in Fig. 16-St), the reflected pulse does not turn upside down (no phase shift). Suppose two pulses are sent down the string. The first one is reflected, and on its way back, it encounters the second ‘oncoming pulse. The two will interact (they are said to interfere). As they pass each other, their displacements will add. The Pulses in Fig. 16-Sa are upside down from each other, and as they pass, they cancel each other out destructive interference). The two pulses in Fig. 16-5b reinforce each other (constructive interference). This adding together of wave displacements is called superposition. By adding together very many sine waves, very complicated wave forms can be constructed Figure 16-5 (a) Bnd tied (6) End loose Conversely, a complicated wave pattern can be decomposed into many sine waves. two waves of the same velocity and wavelength are traveling in the same direction on a string, they will interfere. If they are inphase (Fig. 16-62), they interfere constructively and result in a stronger wave. If they are out of phase Fig. 16-6b) and have the same amplitude, they cancel each other out (destructive interference) Figure 16-6 (a) Reinforcement (b) Cancellation 16.4. Standing Waves {© McGraw-Hill Education. llrightsreserved. Any uses subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright Information. Con two sinusoidal traveling waves with the same amplitude and wavelength moving in opposite directions on a string. ‘The resultant combination for the two waves is obtained by superposition; thus ula, t) = yy(2, t) +-yplm,t) = Asin(ke — wt) + Asin(ke + wt) (16.7) Use a trig identity to simplify tis: sina +sin§ =2 sin4(a + §)cos}(a— 8). Thus [ule #) = (Asin kx) cosa (16.8) Here y(x, 1) is a standing wave, We think of the magnitude of the quantity 24 sin kx as the amplitude for simple harmonic motion of a small piece of the string at the position x. A polnt where the amplitude of the standing wave Is zero is called @ node. A point where the amplitude is a maximum is anantinede. Now consider a string of length. with both ends fixed, soy = 0 atx = 0 and atx=L. Imagine that one end jiggles slightly, so that a wave travels down the wave and is reflected back. These two oppositely traveling waves can interfere and set up standing waves, as illustrated in Fig. 16-7. There we see that possible standing waves are those for which the length of the string is an integer multiple of one-half wavelength. aL L nd or A= or [fh where n = 1, 2, 3, (16.9) {© McGraw-Hill Education. llrightsreserved. Any uses subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright Information. ing, Ea ACCESS} Enginee Figure 16-7 ‘This makes ate=L ‘The standing waves described here result only when the string oscillates at frequencies given byEq, 16.9. These are called resonant frequencies, and they represent oscillations of the string with large amplitude. Waves traveling with other frequencies will nt set up standing waves. Instead, they will ust cause the string to vibrate with very small or imperceptible oscillations. The patterns shown in Fig. 16-7 are examples of resonant modes of the system. Structures such as bridges, buildings, and freeways have many possible resonant modes. Ifa structure is driven at one ofits resonant frequencies, large amplitude oscillations can result, and the structure may fall down. ‘The lowest resonant frequency (0 = 1 inEq. 16.5) is the fundamental frequency or the first harmonic fy. The second harmonic is the mode with n = 2 and frequency fy = 2f;, and so on for the higher harmonics fa, fa, and so on. Example Corre ‘The G string of a mandolin is 0.34 m long and has a linear mass density of 0.004 kg/m. The thumbscrew attached to the string is adjusted to provide a tension of 71.1 N. What then is the fundamental frequency of the string? Solution [7LIN_ Q)O.54m) |) 0.004kg/m or 196 Hz {© McGraw-Hill Education. llrightsreserved. Any uses subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright Information. Ea AccesssEngineering A stringed instrument such as a guitar is tuned by adjusting the tension in a string by means of a thumbscrew. The length, of the string is fixed, so adjusting the tension adjusts the fundamental frequency. Other fundamental frequencies can be ‘achieved by shortening the string length by pressing on a fret. Finally, several strings of different mass densities are used to give a range of wave velocities, thereby providing access to a greater range of fundamental frequencies, 16.5. Sound Waves ‘A-sound wave is a longitudinal pressure wave. Longitudinal means that the pressure variations are parallel to the direction of ‘travel, whereas in vibrating string waves, the variations in displacement are transverse to the wave velocity. We can envision ‘what happens by placing a long colled spring on a horizontal table. When one end is moved back and forth harmonically, regions of compression and rarefaction travel along the spring, as sketched in Fig. 16-8. We can derive the speed of a sound wave using F = ma, and the result is (16.10) Figure 16-8 OTT MOTTO HMI an Here B isthe bulk modulus and p is the mass density of the medium in which the sound s traveling. This is similar in form to the expression for the speed of the transverse waves on a stretched spring, v = VT] In fact, the velocity of any mechanical wave is of the form v= \/Alastic property inertial property or «/stiffiness /density. [As for all waves, (A= v. Representative values for sound velocities are 243 m/s in ar at 20°C, 1493 m/s in water at 25°C, and 5130 mys in iron, Example TCS For copper the bulk modulus is 14 x 101° N/m? and the density is 8920 kg/m®. What is the speed of sound in copper? Solution fe [ax 10°N ya 3060mm/s eo \ 8920k5/m* ’ {© McGraw-Hill Education. llrightsreserved. Any uses subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright Information. Ea AccesssEngineering ‘Asound wave can transport energy since as it moves along it causes molecules to vibrate with kinetic energy. When we hear a sound wave, we detect the pitch and the loudness, The pitch ofa sound is itsfrequeney, and ts loudness is proportional to the power intensity of the wave. Humans can typically hear a frequency range of 20-20,000 Hz (when youite 16 years old, not when you are over the hill at 25), As you get older, the high-frequency response gets worse and worse. The average power per unit area perpendicular tothe direction of travel ofa sound wave is the intensity. Humans ‘ean detect power intensities ranging from fg = 10°12 Wim up to about 1 W/m?. Any higher intensities ae very painful to the ear. Because sound intensities vary over such a wide range itis convenient to use a different quantity as a red, measured in units of decibels (48). measurement of intensity. A dimensionless quantity B is det a 10 06,07 where Jy = 10-2W/m? a (6.11) Example Tn? Normal conversation is carried on at about 60 dB. To what intensity level does this correspond? Solution 60=1Wlog gt, 30 10° and = 10° = 10-*W/' To To | can deduce the power carried by a sound wave as follows: Suppose the wave is traveling along the x-axis ofa cylinder of, material of eross-sectional area A and density p. A piece of mass dm occupies volume dV and is undergoing simple harmonic motion along the x-axis. The average energydE of the mass is equal to its maximum kinetic energy 1/2(dm) vax where ‘Umar = Wimax Is the maximum particle velocity (not the sound wave Velocity) and maxis the maximum amplitude of vibration. Also, din = pdV = pAdz. Thus Ay ° glam)o? = 50A deta) Power is the rate of energy transport, so and & vis the wave velocity T P= —pAw*ehn0} 3? {© McGraw-Hill Education. llrightsreserved. Any uses subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright Information. wa ferme ~ACCESS Engin ing, (16.12) Here vis the wave velocity, max is the maximum displacement,A is the cross-sectional area through which the sound is propagating, pis the density of the material, and w = 2nf, where fis the sound wave frequency. The sound intensity is defined as (16.13) Ian be shown that the variation APmax in pressure amplitude can be expressed as (AP nas)? 2pu APoax = pratt, 80 {I (16.14) Example Ces A source emits sound uniformly in all directions at a power level of 60 W. What is the intensity ata distance of 4 m from the source? Solution ‘The power is distributed over the surface area of a sphere: p= _80W_ 9 s0w/m? arr? n(n)? Example Cone ‘Ata distance of 5 m from a source the sound level is 90 dB. How far away has the level dropped to 50 dB? Solution P h_ tt h= 75 and h=T—, w3= = irri 4} ho 8,-10 log —90dB, so — 10° 5 To Similarly, {© McGraw-Hill Education. llrightsreserved. Any uses subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright Information. Thus sor = 10r, = 500m 16.6. Standing Sound Waves Standing sound waves can be set up whenever sound is reflected back and forth in an enclosure. n particular, standing sound Waves are set up in a column of air, such as in an organ pipe or in a horn. Longitudinal pressure waves are reflected back when they hit an obstruction (for example, the closed end of a pipe) or when they encounter any change in the nature of the structure in which they are propagating. Thus when a sound wave in a pipe encounters the open end of the pipe, itis reflected back. At the closed end of a pipe, the molecules cannot move longitudinally, so this point is a node for displacement (zero displacement). Conversely, a closed pipe end is a point where the pressure variations are large (an antinode). The open end of a pipe Is an antinode for displacement and a node for pressure variations. The latter Is plausible since the open end Is in contact with atmospheric pressure, and this is constant. The above ideas are only approximately true, and some corrections have to be made for very accurate calculations. Also, itis assumed that the pipe diameter is emall compared to its length. In Fig. 16-9 the pressure variation for several modes is shown for a pipe open at both ends and for a pipe closed at one end. The frequencies (resonances) are related to the pipe length. For a pipe open at both ends the resonant frequencies are integer ‘multiples of the first harmonic (the fundamental frequency), just as for a string fixed at both ends. {© McGraw-Hill Education. llrightsreserved. Any uses subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright Information. Ea AccesssEngineering, Figure 16-9 Fist harmonic Secon Thin barron Fist tronic Second barn Third bron Pip open at one nd Pipe open at both ends: lf,

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