Roeser Emergence of MBIs in Education

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The Emergence of Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Educational Settings
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Motivational Interventions
The Emergence of Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Educational Settings
Robert W. Roeser
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THE EMERGENCE OF
MINDFULNESS-BASED
INTERVENTIONS IN
EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS
Robert W. Roeser
ABSTRACT
Purpose ! The purpose of this paper is to describe the emergence

of school-based, secular, mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) for
educators and students that aim to cultivate mindfulness and its putative
benefits for teaching, learning, and well-being.
Design/methodology/approach ! The paper has four sections: (a) a
description of indicators of increased interest in mindfulness generally
and in education; (b) substantive and functional definitions of mindful-
ness; (c) rationales for the potential value of mindfulness for teaching,
learning, and well-being; and (d) a review of extant research on MBIs
for teachers and students in schools.
Findings ! On the basis of this review, it is concluded that school-based
MBIs represent a promising emerging approach to enhancing teaching,
learning, and well-being in schools; but that more research, with more
Motivational Interventions
Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Volume 18, 379!419
Copyright r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISSN: 0749-7423/doi:10.1108/S0749-742320140000018010
379
380 ROBERT W. ROESER
rigorous study designs and measures, need to be done to establish the

scientific validity of the effects of school-based MBIs for teachers and
students alike.
Keywords: Mindfulness; mindfulness-based interventions;
Contemplative Education; teachers; students
INTRODUCTION
Mindfulness has been described as “Paying attention, on purpose, in the
present moment, non-judgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 1994, p. 2). Consistent
with the themes of this volume of the Advances in Motivation and
Achievement on “Motivational Interventions,” this paper describes the
emergence of school-based, secular, mindfulness-based interventions
(MBIs) for educators and students that aim to cultivate mindfulness and its
putative benefits. In this paper, I begin by describing the societal and scienti-
fic markers of increased interest in mindfulness generally, and in MBIs is
school settings specifically. In this section, I first introduce Contemplative
Developmental Science, which focuses upon gaining an empirical under-
standing of the effects of secular mindfulness and related trainings, and sec-
ond, Contemplative Education, an allied, applied discipline focused on
understanding the development, implementation, and efficacy of secular
mindfulness and related trainings in school and community settings with
children, adolescents, parents, and educators. Second, I describe (a) sub-
stantive and functional definitions of mindfulness, (b) five basic mindfulness
practices used with adults that have also been adapted for children and ado-
lescents, and the skills and dispositions such practices aim to cultivate, and
(c) the current state of research on the outcomes and mediators of mindful-
ness training with adults. Third, I present (a) rationales for why MBIs may
contribute to teachers’ personal and professional development, and stu-
dents’ academic and social!emotional development, (b) a review of emer-
ging research on MT in school settings with teachers and students, and (c) a
holistic conceptualization of the “mindful school and classroom.” Finally, I
discuss future directions for research on MBIs in school settings. The overall
aim of this paper is to provide the reader with a primer, from one perspec-
tive, on the emerging science of mindfulness and its applications in educa-
tion currently.
Mindfulness-based Interventions in Education 381
BACKGROUND AND FRAMEWORKS
Mindfulness in Society and Science
Mindfulness in Society
A Google web search for the term “mindfulness” yields over 5 million
results today (March, 2014), and the cover of Time Magazine (February 3,
2014) recently announced “The Mindful Revolution” (Pickert, 2014; but see
Gregoire, 2014). Google Trends show a rise in public interest in “mindful-
ness” as evidenced by searches for the term since 2008, perhaps accelerated
by popular media stories like the one in Time (see Fig. 1). Similarly, Google
Book word searches show a rise in the last two decades in the appearance of
the word “mindfulness” in English books published in the USA from 1800
until now (see Fig. 2).
Although many factors have contributed to this current wave of interest
in mindfulness (see Harrington, 2008), in this paper the focus is on more
recent developments in American Buddhism in the late 20th and early 21st
centuries; and in particular, on Jon Kabat-Zinn’s creation of a secular form
of MT called “Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR).” Kabat-
Zinn’s work with MBSR started with adults facing chronic pain and other
significant health problems, and has grown within and beyond medical
Fig. 1. Google Web Searches: “Mindfulness” (2008!2014). Note: The numbers on

the graph reflect how many searches have been done for a particular term, relative
to the total number of searches done on Google over time. According to Google,
they don’t represent absolute search volume numbers, because the data is
normalized and presented on a scale from 0 to 100. Each point on the graph is
divided by the highest point or 100. When there is not enough data, 0 is shown.
Source: Google trends, http://www.google.com/trends.
Fig. 2. Google Books: Frequency of the Word “Mindfulness” (1800!2014). Note:

The numbers on the graph represent the percentage of times the word
“mindfulness” appears in relation to all other single words contained in Google
Books’ collection of books that are written in English and published in the United
States from 1800!2014. Source: Google Books Ngram Viewer, https://books.
google.com/ngrams.
institutions to enter mainstream society (see Cullen, 2011; Kabat-Zinn,

2011). MBSR, and MBIs derived from it, are now offered in a variety of
mental health, community, and workplace settings (see Miller, 2008; Ryan,
2012) in many nations (Cullen, 2011). MBSR, its practices, and the research
on them are described extensively in this paper, as they form one important
foundation for the work on mindfulness in education today (see Jennings,
Lantieri, & Roeser, 2012).
Mindfulness in Science
A Google Scholar search for the term “mindfulness” today yields over
100,000 results, and the Mindfulness Research Guide has a database that
lists 2,500 articles on mindfulness (http://www.mindfulexperience.org/
mindfo.php).1 During the past decade, the number of peer-refereed journal
articles and nationally funded research grants on the use of MBIs has risen
substantially (see Figs. 3 and 4). MBIs are being investigated in relation to
a variety of health (e.g., chronic pain) and mental health (e.g., depression)
conditions; and in a variety of workplace and community settings with
adults who are seeking stress reduction (see below).
In addition, a new field of scientific inquiry around the putative effects
of MBIs and related trainings on individuals during different periods in
the lifespan is emerging (see MLERN, 2012; Roeser & Zelazo, 2012), as
is a field of applied study focused on understanding the creation,
Fig. 3. PUBMED: Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles on “Mindfulness, Yoga,

Meditation” (2000!2013). Note: The graph above represents the number of peer-
reviewed publications as referenced by PubMed (through 2013). Source: PubMed is
a division of the US National Library of Medicine and the National Institute of
Health (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/). Figure used with permission of
David Vago, PhD (http://contemplativemind.wordpress.com/).
Fig. 4. NIH REPORTER DATABASE: Research Grants on “Mindfulness, Yoga,

Meditation” (2000!2013). Note: The graph above represents the number of grants
awarded by the NIH through 2013 based on the RePORTER database. Source:
RePORTER indexes data and analyses of NIH research activities (http://
projectreporter.nih.gov/reporter.cfm). Figure used with permission of David Vago,
PhD (http://contemplativemind.wordpress.com/).
implementation, evaluation, and scaling of MBIs in educational settings

(e.g., Roeser & Peck, 2009). I describe these two emerging fields of study
next.
Developmental Contemplative Science (DCS)
Definition and Goals

DCS is a nascent, interdisciplinary effort, rooted in Contemplative Science
(Lutz, Dunne, & Davidson, 2007) that casts mindfulness research into a
more explicitly developmental framework (Roeser & Zelazo, 2012). The
goals of DCS are threefold (Baltes, Reese, & Nesselroade, 1977): (a) to
describe the effects of contemplative practices on the navigation of stage-
relevant developmental tasks related to health, well-being, learning, and
social relationships during different phases of the lifespan, (b) to explain
the effects of contemplative practice on developmental outcomes through
mediating neurophysiological, psychological, and social processes, and
(c) to use descriptive and explanatory findings to optimize human develop-
ment through the delivery of MBIs in families, schools, clinics, and com-
munities in ways attuned to the needs of culture, developmental age, and
historical time.
Basic Assumptions
DCS holds three core assumptions. First, the brain is considered an inher-
ently adaptive organ, evolved to change in response to experience and
intentional training through various forms of neuroplasticity (MLERN,
2012). Second, practices such as tai chi or meditation on the breath repre-
sent specialized forms of physical and mental training, that, when engaged
in for an extended period of time with guidance, alter basic cognitive, emo-
tional, and sensory-perceptual and motor processes and correlated neural
substrates in ways akin to skill acquisition and the development of expertise
(e.g., Ericsson & Charness, 1994; Lutz et al., 2007). Third, there may be
windows of opportunity in the lifespan (e.g., early childhood, early adoles-
cence) when specific brain regions and networks are particularly modifiable
(based upon experience-expectant and experience-dependent forms of neu-
roplasticity), and when the introduction of specific forms of enrichment
and training may support young people in navigating developmental
tasks and building skills and dispositions that affect the quality of their
short- and long-term health, well-being, learning, and social participation
(e.g., Diamond & Lee, 2011; Larson, 2000; Moffitt et al., 2011). Such
windows of opportunity are not isolated to the early decades of life, how-
ever. They open to some degree whenever an individual embarks on beha-
vioral change through intentional, sustained efforts and social support over
a period of time (e.g., Davidson & Begley, 2013).
Meta-Model
DCS and these core assumptions are underpinned by a dialectic, rather
than dualistic meta-model of human development. As Lerner and Overton
(2008) noted:
Throughout its history, the study of human development has been the captive of
numerous fundamental antinomies (Overton, 1998, 2006). Whereas the original
Cartesian splits were between mind and body or subject and object, the most prominent
of contemporary split conceptions has been, of course, between nature and nurture or
variants of this split, such as maturation versus experience or innate versus
acquired … the central emphasis in contemporary developmental science is on mutually
influential, individual-context relations. (pp. 245!246)
The paradoxical assumptions of a dialectic meta-model of human develop-

ment include (a) the unity of apparent opposites (e.g., body and mind; emo-
tion and cognition) and (b) the interpenetration of apparent opposites
(e.g., genes and environments; persons and contexts; Sameroff, 2010).
Fig. 5 presents a comparison of these two meta-models.
Additional Assumptions
A dialectic model of development, applied to the study of MBIs across the
lifespan, leads to the following additional assumptions: (1) mindful aware-
ness and compassion are evolved, early-arising capacities of human beings
that nonetheless require cultural training and support to fully flower and
fructify (e.g., Goetz, Keltner, & Simon-Thomas, 2010); (2) reciprocally
influential, gene!person!context relations shape the development of, as
well as training-induced plasticity in, qualities such as mindfulness or com-
passion (e.g., Kaliman et al., 2014); (3) that mindfulness and compassion
are embodied qualities and therefore, should be amenable to observational
measurement at various levels of analysis (e.g., Varela, Thompson, &
Rosch, 1991); (4) MBIs, among other things, may alter the interaction
between cognition and emotion, which can be understood as reciprocally
related, “top-down” and “bottom-up” information-processing systems,
respectively (e.g., Ekman, Davidson, Ricard, & Wallace, 2005; Zelazo &
Carlson, 2012); and (5) MBIs, by transforming the way individuals relate
to their own minds and bodies, thoughts and feelings, also have the poten-
tial to transform behavior and social relationships. Specifically, training
Fig. 5. Dualistic and Dialectic Meta-Models of Human Development.
can hypothetically change the ways individuals engage in (relational) trans-

actions with other people (and their minds and bodies, thoughts and feel-
ings), with cultural tools and objects (e.g., digital technology), with
sociocultural settings and activities (e.g., classroom learning with peers),
and with nature and all its forms of life (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 2005;
Roeser, 2013; Sameroff, 2010). By attending to self and the “generalized”
other with awareness and kindness, opportunities are afforded for new
responses to emerge from ourselves, other people, cultural objects, and life
forms that we reciprocally interact with on a daily basis.
Overall Aim of DCS

By combining the assumptions of a dialectic meta-model (Sameroff, 2010)
with the study of lifespan development and plasticity (e.g., Baltes, 1987;
Baltes & Singer, 2001) and a research-paradigm focused on training-induced
plasticity and skill development across the lifespan (e.g., Davidson &
McEwen, 2012; MLERN, 2012; Zelazo & Lyons, 2012), the aspiration of
DCS is to seek new insights into how to optimize human development,
which may help to inform a new generation of community, clinical, and
educational services aimed at the alleviation of problems and the promotion

of flourishing.
Contemplative Education
Related to DCS is Contemplative Education, an umbrella term proposed by

Roeser and Peck (2009) to denote an emerging body of applied research, and
a growing group of scholars and educators interested in the creation, imple-
mentation, and scientific study of mindfulness and related contemplative prac-

tices in schools and community settings serving children and youth (Garrison
Institute, 2005; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Meiklejohn et al., 2012;
MLERN, 2012; Roeser & Peck, 2009). Contemplative education focuses on
the implementation and efficacy of mindfulness and related trainings for
the professional development for educators (e.g., Roeser, Skinner, Beers, &
Jennings, 2012b), as well as for the academic and social!emotional develop-
ment of students (e.g., Greenberg & Harris, 2012). From an educational per-
spective, contemplative education is primarily about the issues of teaching
and learning, and how mindfulness and related trainings are designed, imple-
mented, taught, and learned by participants of different ages and back-
grounds. Contemplative Education also examines how, by cultivating a basic
set of skills and dispositions, mindfulness and related trainings can enhance
the processes of leadership, teaching, and learning in schools. A review of the
extant research on MT for teachers and students is presented below. Next, I
discuss definitions of mindfulness, mindfulness practices and related skills and
dispositions, and training-related outcomes found in research with adults.
DEFINING MINDFULNESS AND RESEARCH

WITH ADULTS
Defining Mindfulness
Is mindfulness best described as a state, trait, or habit of mind (substan-

tively)? What does MT do functionally (with regard to physiology, psychol-
ogy, and behavior) and phenomenologically (with regard to the quality of
individuals’ experience)? How does MT transfer to life beyond the training
context to “show through” in terms of personal and social outcomes (beha-
viorally)? What are the implications of MT, therefore, for teaching and
learning in schools (educationally)? Before describing the definitions of

mindfulness and a current line of basic and applied research aimed at
addressing these questions that I emphasize in this paper, I begin by
describing a related line of work by Ellen Langer.
Langer’s Work on Mindlessness and Mindfulness
An important contribution to the work on mindlessness and mindfulness

has been made by Ellen Langer (1989). Early on she named the construct of
“mindlessness” and elucidated some of the underlying cognitive roots
of mindlessness in daily life. Mindlessness was defined in terms of three
components: (a) “entrapment by category,” (b) “automatic behavior,” and
(c) “acting from a single perspective” (p. 10). Regarding “entrapment by
category,” Langer (1989) proposed that “Mindlessness sets in when we rely
too rigidly on categories and distinctions created in the past (masculine/
feminine, old/young, success/failure). Once distinctions are created, they
take on a life of their own” (p. 11). Langer (1989) described “automatic
behavior” in relation to the notion of habit ! “the tendency to keep on
with behavior that has been repeated over time” (p. 16). Behavioral
habit, so defined, “naturally implies mindlessness” (p. 16). The third aspect,
acting from a single perspective, involves acting “as though there were only
one set of rules.” Explanatory roots of mindfulness are hypothesized to be
due to “cognitive miserliness” ! using automatic, efficiency information-
processing strategies as a way to conserve energy.
In contrast to mindlessness, Langer and Moldoveanu (2000) propose that
“Mindfulness is not an easy concept to define but can best be understood as
the process of drawing novel distinctions. It does not matter whether what is
noticed is important or trivial, as long as it is new to the viewer. Actively
drawing these distinctions keeps us situated in the present.” Similarly,
Langer (1989) described mindful learning as (a) continually creating new
categories of experience as one progressively masters new tasks, skills, and
domains of knowing, (b) being open to new information and experience,
(c) being open to perspectives other than one’s own, and (d) exercising
choiceful attention to the process, rather than the outcome, of learning.
In a subsequent article, Langer (2008) provided a succinct comparison
between her conceptualization of mindlessness and mindfulness:
When we are mindless, we are trapped in rigid mindsets, oblivious to context or per-
spective. When we are mindful we are actively drawing novel distinctions, rather than
relying on distinctions drawn in the past. This makes us sensitive to context and per-
spective. When we are mindless, our behavior is rule and routine governed. Essentially
we freeze our understanding and become oblivious to subtle changes that would have
led us to act differently, if only we were aware of them. In contrast, when mindful,
our behavior may be guided rather than governed by rules and routines, but we are
sensitive to the ways the situation changes. (http://secondjourney.org/newsltr/Archives/
LangerE_08Sum.htm)
Langer and her colleagues’ focus on mindfulness, as a curious awareness of

present moment experience that affords us the opportunity to learn from
the novelty, no doubt overlaps with the perspective on MBIs I discuss in
this paper. Still, the perspective I present may also be slightly different in
emphasis and approach for a few reasons. First, in the MBIs I discuss,
there is a focus upon developing mindful awareness of not only what is
novel, but also what is neutral and habitual, and gradually, what is difficult
and dissociated from experience. Thus, emotional awareness and emotion
regulation is a central theme (Cullen, 2011). Further, the programs
described here train skills for receiving and extending compassion to one-
self and others as part of this process of developing fuller awareness of our
habitual tendency to label aspects of our experience of self, others, and rea-
lity as positive, neutral, and negative; and then to approach the positive,
ignore the neutral, and avoid the negative. Finally, the MBIs described
here often include scientific teachings and experiential practices meant to
disclose insights into the nature of the mind, being human, and our com-
mon humanity (e.g., the impermanent nature of experience). I describe this
complementary perspective next, and then return to Langer’s (1997) work
on mindfulness in schools.
Conceptualizing Mindfulness
Substantive Perspectives
Substantive, consensual definitions of what mindfulness is remain elusive in
science today (see Cullen, 2011; Williams & Kabat-Zinn, 2011). Many cur-
rent scientific studies and intervention programs draw a pragmatic, secular
definition of mindfulness that was offered by Jon Kabat-Zinn (1994) who
defined mindfulness as “Paying attention, on purpose, in the present
moment, non-judgmentally” (p. 2; see Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, &
Freedman, 2006). In clinical science, this definition of mindfulness was
operationalized by Bishop et al. (2004) as consisting of two facets: (1) the
self-regulation of attention, “so that it is maintained on immediate
experience, thereby allowing for increased recognition of mental events in

the present moment” (p. 232), and (2) an orientation toward experience in
the present moment “that is characterized by curiosity, openness, and
acceptance” (p. 232).
In a similar vein, Young (2011) proposed a definition of mindful aware-
ness as a three-fold attentional skillset comprised of concentration (the abil-
ity to focus on what you consider to be relevant at a given time), sensory
clarity (the ability to keep track of what you’re actually experiencing in the
moment), and equanimity (the ability to allow sensory/mental experiences
to come and go without pushing them away as in suppression or avoidance;

or identifying with them as in personalization or attachment).
Functional Perspectives
Functional definitions of mindfulness focus on the specific practices used
in trainings, and what specific mindfulness practices function to do with
respect to the development of skills and dispositions that mediate between
training and such behavioral outcomes as improved health. For instance,
in adults, mindfulness practices (that involve focusing attention on the
breath and body, or moment-to-moment awareness of present experience)
have been linked to changes in attention and emotion regulation skills,
clarity of somatic and emotional awareness, and perspective on self
(Hölzel et al., 2011; Vago, 2014). Such practices, in part through these pro-
cesses, have also been associated with reduced stress, improved well-being,
and health (Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004), enhanced
academic performance (Mrazek, Franklin, Phillips, Baird, & Schooler,
2013), and prosocial behavior (Condon, Desbordes, Miller, & DeSteno,
2013). Similarly, in adults, loving-kindness (LK) and compassion practices
that involve the mindful cultivation and extension of feelings of kindness,
love, and forgiveness to self and to others have been linked to changes in
emotional awareness, emotion regulation, empathy, and feelings of self-
kindness and social-connectedness (e.g., Hutcherson, Seppala, & Gross,
2008, Neff & Germer, 2013). In turn, such practices are linked with
reduced stress, improved well-being and health (Hofmann, Grossman, &
Hinton, 2011).
In the next section, I describe the context and philosophy behind secu-
lar mindfulness programs, then describe five specific mindfulness practices
that are commonly used in these programs with adults (and now, children
and adolescents) to teach mindfulness. These practices have been analyzed
functionally already in terms of the skills and dispositions they appear to

cultivate over time, with sustained practice and guidance (see Table 1).
Secular MBI and Mindfulness Practices
MBI Program Contexts

A functional approach relies upon rich descriptions of MBI curricula and
practices. Cullen (2011) describes the key practices and aims of MBIs based
on the model of Kabat-Zinn’s MBSR (1994, 2011). First, mindfulness

training involves the familiarization with and attention to the “objects”
that constitute our moment-to-moment experience, where objects of aware-
ness refer to bodily sensations and emotions, thoughts and images, and
more complex and often implicit assumptions about the nature of self,
others, and reality. These are called the “Four Foundations of
Mindfulness” and are derived from a Buddhist text on mindfulness called
the Satipatthana Sutta (see Cullen, 2011). These four foundations of mind-
fulness (of bodily sensations, emotions, complex mental states, and mental
contents regarding the nature of self and reality) prescribe a sequence of
training that is followed in most MBIs today. This sequence involves the
development of skills associated with focused attention and a calm mind
and body; greater awareness of bodily sensations, feelings, thoughts; and
more complex views about self, others, and reality. Implicitly, such
Table 1. Lines of Skill and Disposition Development Hypothetically

Cultivated as a Function of MBIs.
Domains of Training Default Habit/Disposition Cultivated Habit/Disposition
Self-regulation Mind-wandering Focused attention

Mindlessness Mindfulness
Emotional reactivity Emotion regulation
Self-awareness Narrative self-awareness Experiential self-awareness
Self-evaluation Self-judgment Self-compassion
Social cognition Singular perspective Social-perspective taking
Social stereotyping Empathic curiosity
Social judgment Kindness
Social fear/distrust Social connection/trust
Motivation Self-interest Generosity
In-group favoritism Altruism
trainings also cultivate the development of dispositions associated with

relating to moment-to-moment experience and other people with greater
ease, acceptance, patience, and kindness (e.g., Cullen, 2011; Vago, 2014).
Cullen (2011) describes how mindfulness training unfolds with regard to
these four foundations of mindfulness in MBIs:
Through systematic instruction in the four foundations and applications in daily life,
as well through daily meditation practice over an 8-week period, many participants
taste moments of freedom that profoundly impact their lives. All of life serves as the
ground for the informal cultivation of mindfulness, but each week new themes invite
participants to explore mindfulness through different aspects of daily life (e.g., food,
perception, relationships, work, stress).
One important, distinguishing feature of mindfulness practice is the systematic applica-
tion of a particular type of awareness to a variety of phenomena (i.e., the four founda-
tions of mindfulness). In mindfulness practice, though it is common to begin with
breath awareness, it is essential to bring awareness to other aspects of experience, such
as thoughts and mental states in order to promote insights into no-self, impermanence
and the reality of suffering. After the practitioner develops sufficient clarity and
stability of mind, awareness can be directed not only towards more subtle aspects of
experience, but towards the fleeting, selfless and ephemeral nature of experience.
Collectively, dimensions of MBIs linked to their efficacy for participants

include the mindfulness instructor and her qualities; the group process and
its face-to-face interaction; the curriculum; in-class and home mindfulness
practices; and activities designed to extend the practice of mindfulness to
life (Cullen, 2011; Roeser, Horn-Keller, Stadick, & Urdan, 2012a).
Mindfulness Practices. The heart of MBIs is “doing mindfulness practice.”

In this section, I describe five basic mindfulness practices that have been
adapted for use with children and adolescents. Each practice in described
in general terms, as are the skills and dispositions (listed in Table 1) that
each practice is hypothesized to cultivate. The “default” and “cultivated”
skills and dispositions listed in Table 1 were derived from a synthesis of
existing research and logic.
Body Scan. One of the first forms of formal practice (usually done sitting or
lying down) is called the body scan. This practice is characterized by the sys-
tematic directing of attention to each region of the body to cultivate somatic
awareness ! the first foundation of mindfulness. The instruction is that one
simply attends mindfully to the body and sensation (e.g., tension), without try-
ing to change them in any way or relax muscle groups in the manner pre-
scribed by progressive relaxation practices (Cullen, 2011). This cultivates
mindfulness of the body (rather than mindlessness), experiential self-awareness

(focus on body-here-now rather than conceptions of self-there-then), and
focused attention (rather than mind-wandering; Hölzel et al., 2011).
Focused Attention (FA) Meditation. FA meditation is a foundational

mindfulness practice characterized by a one-pointed focus on a chosen
object (e.g., the breath, external sound, an image) for a sustained period of
time, and a nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, gentle observing, and re-
directing of attention upon noticing that it has drifted from the chosen
object (see Lutz et al., 2007). The emphasis upon one-pointedness and
monitoring increasingly enhances focused attention and mindfulness of
mental and physical states (in contrast to mind-wandering and mindless-
ness), while repeated returning of attention to the chosen object and not
reacting emotionally or becoming self-critical increasingly cultivates emo-
tion regulation and self-compassion (in contrast to emotional reactivity
and self-criticism) (see Hölzel et al., 2011; Vago & Silbersweig, 2012).
Open Monitoring (OM) Meditation. OM meditation, often introduced after

an individual has some experience with FA meditation, is characterized by
the absence of attentional focus on any particular object in favor of a
momentary attentional focus on whatever arises in one’s present experience
(e.g., sensations, feelings, and thoughts). In OM meditation, one attends in a
choiceless and nonattached way to their moment-to-moment flux of experi-
ence. One may momentarily direct attention toward any sensation, feeling,
or thought that arises, note it, then release it and attend gently and recep-
tively to the next moment (see Lutz et al., 2007). Attending to present experi-
ence is thought to cultivate emotional equanimity and regulation (rather
than emotional reactivity), mindful awareness (rather than mindlessness of
bodily and mental states), and a mode of experiential self-reference based on
one’s body/mind-here-and-now (rather than a mode of narrative self-
reference based on one’s concepts of self-there-and-then). By gently return-
ing the mind to an open and receptive stance in the present when it wanders,
emotion regulation and self-compassion, (rather than emotional reactivity
and self-criticism, are cultivated (Vago, 2014; Vago & Silbersweig, 2012).
This practice widens the scope of mindfulness inquiry from the first founda-
tion of mindfulness (the body and breath) to include all four foundations !
the body, feeling tone, mental states, and mental contents (Cullen, 2011).
Loving-Kindness (LK) Meditation. A third form of meditation that has

been adapted for secular contexts is called LK meditation. The cultivation of
LK is based on the idea that all beings wish to be happy and free from suffer-
ing (Salzberg & Bush, 1999). The practice of LK meditation is characterized
by visualization (of self and others) and then the cultivation and extension of
feelings of love, kindness, and forgiveness ! first toward oneself, and then
progressively ‘outward’ toward a good friend, a neutral person, a difficult
person, all four equally, and eventually everyone everywhere. A closely
related practice, Self-Compassion (SC) meditation, is based on the idea of
common humanity ! defined as a recognition that all people experience diffi-
culty and suffering, and that this shared experience connects us to (rather
than isolates us from) others (Neff, 2003). SC meditation involves mindful-

ness of emotions (especially difficult emotions) and extension of kindness
to oneself through sustained and guided practice (Neff & Germer, 2013).
Within LK/SC meditations, a number of skills may be developed. By
focusing on specific images of self and others, the practitioner is strengthen-
ing focused attention. By cultivating positive feelings toward self and social
others, the practitioner is cultivating self-compassion (rather than self-
judgment), as well as empathy, kindness, and social connection (rather
than a singular perspective, self/social judgment, and fear/distrust). By cul-
tivating love and kindness for self and those near to the self, as well as
those neutral and far from the self, LK meditation aims to cultivate emo-
tional equanimity and regulation (rather than reactivity) and impartiality
(rather than in-group favoritism) toward other people. By focusing on
those who have transgressed the self, these meditations aim to cultivate
social-perspective taking, generosity, and forgiveness in ways that include
and transcend self-interest (see Hofmann et al., 2011).
Mindful Movement (MM). Practices involving MM (e.g., yoga or tai chi)

train attention through a focus on the breath and the whole body. Similar
to the other practices, MM practices cultivate focused attention, mindful
awareness, and a mode of experiential self-awareness based on one’s body
here-and-now (rather than a mode of narrative self-awareness based on
one’s memories of self there-and-then). By gently returning the mind to the
pose when one notices it wanders, these practices also cultivate emotion
regulation and self-compassion (see Vago & Silbersweig, 2012). Because the
focal object of attention in MM practices is the body and breath, the
“transfer” of insights from the practice to action in the world is concrete
and may be particularly beneficial for youth (e.g., awareness of states of
tension and relaxation in the body and breath, attention to posture).
In sum, mindfulness training can be conceptualized as a process of skill
and disposition development (see Table 1). The skills and dispositions
taught in MBIs through the practices, curriculum, and instructor are

thought to mediate the effects of training on outcomes (see Table 1). In the
next section, a review of MBI outcomes research with adults is presented.
Outcomes of MBIs with Adults
Several meta-analyses of the effects of MBIs on the reduction of symptoms

of stress and psychological distress in clinical and community samples of
adults have been conducted. In this section, results and effect sizes from the
highest quality studies (those that use active or nonactive control groups)
identified in these meta-analyses are presented.
Grossman et al. (2004) conducted a meta-analysis investigating the rela-
tionship of MBSR and MBSR-based programs to health and mental
health-related outcomes in adults. The studies represented a wide spec-
trum of clinical populations (e.g., pain, cancer, heart disease, depression,
and anxiety) and also stressed nonclinical populations. The literature
search resulted in 10 published studies that met inclusion criteria (seven
were randomized controlled trials (RCTs); three were quasi-experimental).
Results across the 10 studies showed moderate effect sizes for MBIs with
regard to improvements in health (Cohen’s d = .53) and mental health
(Cohen’s d = .54) outcomes. Results were not significantly different when
comparing studies with clinical or community samples, nor when compar-
ing randomized and quasi-experimental studies. The authors concluded,
“Although derived from a relatively small number of studies, these results
suggest that MBSR may help a broad range of individuals to cope with
their clinical and nonclinical problems” (p. 35).
Samples with Chronic Illnesses

Bohlmeijer, Prenger, Taal, and Cuijpers (2010) conducted a meta-analysis
on the efficacy of MBSR with respect to the reduction of anxiety, depres-
sion, and general psychological distress in individuals with chronic somatic
diseases. The literature search resulted in eight published, RCTs that met
inclusion criteria. Results comparing MBSR to control groups showed
MBSR had a moderate effect sizes with regard to reducing anxiety (d = .47)
and distress (d = .32), and a small effect size with regard to reducing
depression (d = .24). The authors concluded “MBSR has small effects on
depression, anxiety and psychological distress in people with chronic
somatic diseases” (p. 539).
Community Samples
Chiesa and Serretti (2009) conducted a meta-analysis of the efficacy of
MBSR for stress reduction in healthy community samples of adults. The
literature search resulted in seven studies that met inclusion criteria.
Results comparing MBSR to inactive treatment groups included seven stu-
dies, and found significantly larger effect sizes for stress reduction between
those receiving MBSR compared with controls. The authors concluded
that, based on existing studies, “MBSR showed a non-specific effect on
stress reduction compared to inactive controls” (p. 593).
Workplace Samples
Virgili (2013) conducted a meta-analysis of studies published through 2012
that examined the effectiveness of MBIs in the workplace for the reduction
of psychological stress and distress among adults. The literature search
resulted in 19 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Results showed an overall
moderate, within-group, pre!post reduction in stress and distress (Effect size
Hedges’s g = .68) that persisted at follow-up (effect size Hedges’s g = .60).
Moderator analyses showed similar effect sizes in studies with standard,
eight-week MBSR interventions as compared to those with brief MBSR-
based interventions, although longer interventions of 10!12 weeks did show
slightly larger effect sizes than the eight-week programs on stress reduction.
These results suggest that workplace MBIs of at least 20 hours, carried out
over 10!12 weeks, can have significant effects on reducing employee stress
and burnout. Emerging research is examining MBIs in school settings with
teachers for such purposes and beyond (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009;
Roeser, Horn-Keller, et al., 2012a; Roeser, Skinner, et al., 2012b).
MINDFULNESS-BASED INTERVENTIONS
IN EDUCATION
Rationale for MBIs for Teachers
MBIs have been hypothesized to support school leaders and teachers in

developing habits of mind and practice that support professional expertise
and effectiveness (Roeser, Horn-Keller, et al., 2012a; Roeser, Skinner,
et al., 2012b). Learning mindfulness skills and dispositions might fill a criti-
cal gap in educators’ knowledge base, skillsets, and dispositions given that
these skills and dispositions are not typically taught in preservice education
and in-service teacher professional development programs (Jennings &

Greenberg, 2009). Given the uncertain, emotional, and socially demanding
nature of teaching, when teachers do not develop the kinds of skills and
dispositions listed in Table 1, their personal well-being and professional
effectiveness may not be fully optimized.
With regard to the economic bottom-line in education, for instance,
unmanaged job stress may not only undermine teachers’ health and well-
being and spiral into occupational burnout, but may engender health care
and human resource costs for school districts due to teacher illness, absen-
teeism, and desistance from the profession. With regard to student engage-
ment and achievement, teachers who have not developed the kinds of
habits of mind discussed in Table 1 may be less able to create and sustain
emotionally supportive, motivating classroom climates for student learning
(Briner & Dewberry, 2007; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Roeser, Horn-
Keller, et al., 2012a; Roeser, Skinner, et al., 2012b). A new generation of
MBIs for educators has arisen to teach mindfulness-based skills and dispo-
sitions to teachers directly in order to help them to help themselves improve
the quality of their own lives, and to address occupational demands
effectively (see Jennings et al., 2012).
Research on MBIs for Teachers
Only a handful of studies on MBIs for teachers have been published to

date. In an early pilot RCT, Winzelberg and Luskin (1999) examined the
effects of an MBI on teachers’ job stress. The four-week MBI included one
45-minute session per week. FA meditation on sound, followed by one of
these practices: mantra repetition (silent repetition of a word or phrase),
slowing down (the deliberate practice of slowing down one’s actions), or
continued one-pointed attention (the deliberate practice of focusing atten-
tion on one thing at a time). Results showed that teachers randomized to
the MBI showed greater reductions in self-reported somatic, emotional,
and behavioral manifestations of stress compared with controls.
Franco, Mañas, Cangas, Moreno, and Gallego (2010) conducted an
RCT on an MBI for public school teachers. Teachers were randomly
assigned to either a 10-week MBI or a 10-week psychomotor therapy
program. Mindfulness practices included body scans, FA on the breath in
conjunction with a word or sound, group discussion of practice, and
presentation of metaphors and exercises to explain mindfulness. The
psychomotor intervention involved playing games and doing exercises with
large balls, rings, music, etc. Results showed that teachers who received the
MBI showed greater reductions in self-reported psychological distress
(especially somatization) after the program and at four-month follow-up
compared with those in the psychomotor group.
In an uncontrolled pilot study, Jennings, Snowberg, Coccia, and
Greenberg (2011) examined the effects of a teacher MBI designed to reduce
stress and burnout. The program took place over four to five weeks and
included four full-day sessions. Program activities included emotion skills
training, mindful listening, and mindfulness practices (e.g., FA and body
scans). The program was assessed in two samples: in-service teachers in a

lower SES urban setting, and preservice student teachers in a university,
suburban setting. Results showed increase in self-reported mindfulness
among the in-service teachers in the MBI.
Kemeny et al. (2012) conducted an RCT on the effects of another tea-
cher MBI on the well-being and emotional skills of teachers. Eighty-two
female public school teachers took part in an eight-week, 42-hour MBI.
Program activities included FA, OM, and LK meditation, training in emo-
tion skills, MM, and didactic instruction on emotions and life purposes.
Results showed that teachers randomized to the MBI reported desirable
improvements on (a) self-reported mindfulness, rumination, symptoms of
depression and anxiety, and positive affect; and (b) a behavioral task of
emotion recognition, compared with waitlist controls.
In an RCT of an MBI for educators and parents of special needs students,
Benn, Akiva, Arel, and Roeser (2012) examined program effects on stress,
distress, and teaching and parenting practices. The MBI included ten 2.5-
hour sessions over five weeks, and two six-hour retreats. Core mindfulness
practices included body scans, FA, OM, and LK meditation, MM, and
didactic instruction regarding emotion, forgiveness, and stress reactivity.
Results showed that teachers and parents randomized to the MBI showed
positive improvements in self-reported mindfulness, self-compassion, forgive-
ness, empathic concern for others, stress, anxiety, and depression at the end
of the program and at 2-month follow-up compared with waitlist controls.
In two RCTs of the same MBI as in Benn et al. (2012), Roeser et al.
(2013) examined program effects on Canadian and American public school
teachers’ mindfulness, occupational self-compassion, stress, and burnout.
The eight-week program included 11 sessions for a total of 36 hours.
Results showed that teachers randomized to the MBI showed greater
increases in self-reported mindfulness and self-compassion, greater
improvements on a behavioral task requiring focused attention and
working memory; and greater reductions in stress and burnout at
postprogram and four-month follow-up compared with waitlist controls.

Results also showed that group differences in mindfulness and self-
compassion at post-program mediated reductions in occupational stress,
burnout, anxiety, and depression at follow-up.
In another RCT, Flook, Goldberg, Pinger, Bonus, and Davidson (2013)
examined the impact of an MBSR program modified specifically for tea-
chers, on stress reduction in 18 elementary-school teachers. The program
included eight weekly sessions for a total of 26 total hours. Results showed
significant reductions in burnout and increases in self-compassion at post-
program in MBI group compared with controls.

Jennings, Frank, Snowberg, Coccia, and Greenberg (2013) examined the
impact of the CARE program on 50 teachers, most at the elementary-
school level, compared to a waitlist-control condition. The program
included 30 in-class contact hours. Compared with the control group, MBI
participants were found to have significantly increased well-being and effi-
cacy, and significantly reduced stress and burnout.
Frank, Reibel, Broderick, Cantrell, and Metz (2013), in a quasi-
experimental study, assessed the impact of an MBSR-based program on self-
regulation, well-being, and sleep quality in 36 high-school educators. Teachers
were randomized to condition. The intervention included eight weekly two-
hour sessions. Results showed those receiving the MBI reported improved
self-regulation, self-compassion, mindfulness, and sleep quality compared with
controls.
In sum, this collection of recent studies, using largely self-report mea-
sures with randomized, waitlist-control designs, suggest the basic feasibility
and efficacy of MBIs with teachers’ self-regulations skills and well-being.
There are virtually no published studies to date on the impact of MBIs on
changes in teachers’ physiology, social relationships, behavior in the class-
room, or effects on students’ engagement in learning. These remain impor-
tant directions for future research with more rigorous study designs and
measures that extend beyond self-reports.
Several single-case studies using time-series analyses have moved in this
direction and examined classroom outcomes. Singh, Lancioni, Winton,
Karazsia, and Singh (2013) studied an eight-week MBI offered to three pre-
school teachers in order to assess its indirect effects on the classroom beha-
vior of a few students with mild intellectual disabilities. Drawing on
transactional models of development, the authors hypothesized that mind-
fulness would equip teachers with new intrapersonal and interpersonal
skills and mindsets (e.g., nonreactivity) that would then alter the nature of
their interactions with their special needs students in positive and prosocial
directions. The MBI included basic instruction in mindfulness practices,

and suggestions for how to apply mindfulness skills in interactions with
children in the classrooms. Using blind coders, classroom observations and
time-series analyses of single cases, results showed decreases in students’
challenging behavior and increases in compliance with teacher requests fol-
lowing teachers’ participation in the MBI.
In sum, a body of research is developing with teachers that examine the
values of MBIs for teacher wellness. A review of studies using RCT designs
shows that teachers’ randomization to an MBI is associated with decreased
occupational stress and burnout compared with controls. Few studies have
examined if and how mindfulness training might extend beyond these
effects and show through in teachers’ relationships with others and during
teaching in the classroom. This represents the greening tip of this research,
and requires a theory of change that could account for how such a “trans-
fer of skills” from the professional development context to the classroom
context might be realized. A key part of this theory of change will be an
understanding of the factors inside the “black box” of MBIs that enhance
teachers’ professional learning, and importantly, their transfer of skills to
interpersonal interactions with students and colleagues in school.
Teaching, Motivation and Learning, and Transfer of

Learning in MBIs for Teachers
A basic question requiring research at this juncture is: What is the nature
of teaching and learning that goes on in MBIs around the kinds of mindful-
ness practices described above? Although researchers and practitioners are
moving beyond individual mediators and outcomes to consider in more
detail the contexts and contents of MBIs themselves (see Cullen, 2011),
explicit theories and research on how these skills are taught in an engaging
and effective manner, and how practitioners learn and transfer mindfulness
skills to novel contexts, are only beginning (Vago, 2014).
Roeser, Horn-Keller, et al. (2012a) and recently conducted a mixed-
method feasibility study of the processes of teaching, learning, and transfer
within the context of an MBI for public school teachers in California. The
teacher MBI was taught by an expert mindfulness instructor who created
the program, has participated on a number of teacher MBIs, and has
taught MBIs extensively for 25 years. The goals of the feasibility study
were to (a) describe the nature of mindfulness instruction by an expert
instructor and its relation to teachers’ motivation and learning of
mindfulness skills and dispositions during the MBI and (b) document “exis-
tence proofs” of teachers’ transfer of mindfulness skills and dispositions
learned in the MBI to life beyond. Surveys, interviews, individual case stu-
dies of four participating teachers that included classroom observations,
and detailed analysis of HD video of the entire nine-week MBI provided
the data for the feasibility study. Survey results showed significant increases
in teachers’ self-reported mindfulness and self-compassion skills from base-
line to post-program and follow-up. How did teachers learn these skills
over time, and did they transfer them to the classroom context?
The results of the feasibility study of an expert instructor lead to a

preliminary theory of teaching, engagement, learning, and transfer in the
context of this teacher MBI (see Roeser, Horn-Keller, et al., 2012a; Roeser,
Skinner, et al., 2012b). This preliminary theory concerning the “black box”
of MBIs for teachers is depicted in Fig. 6. The propositions and initial qua-
litative data underlying this theory are as follows: First, the embodied
expertise of the mindfulness instructor, coupled with the aspiration of the
teacher to learn mindfulness are two essential elements in the efficacy
of MBIs on teacher outcomes (Cullen, 2011). We found teachers were
motivated to participate in the MBI primarily to reduce stress and improve
the quality of their lives. This intrinsic motive is hypothesized to provide
teachers’ initial aspiration to learn mindfulness.
Second, the embodied expertise of the mindfulness instructor cultivates
teachers’ aspiration to learn, and thereby their level of engagement and the
amount of time they invest in practicing mindfulness during the MBI (by
coming to and engaging in group sessions and by doing home practices
each day in between sessions). The instructor did this first and foremost by
embodying the goal the participants are seeking: a calm, clear, kind mind
and heart. Teachers in the MBI reported the instructor “embodied the skills
she was teaching in the program.” The mindfulness instructor also did this
Fig. 6. Preliminary Theory of Teaching, Learning, and Transfer in Teacher MBIs.

through providing many experiential learning opportunities and engaging

instruction ! both “bringing the teachers (and their aspiration) to the task
of learning mindfulness” and “bringing the task of mindfulness to the
teachers in a relevant, clear and engaging way” (Blumenfeld et al., 1991).
Results showed the majority of the MBI was devoted to experiential
learning of mindfulness and self-compassion skills, and teachers rated the
program as engaging, relevant, and clear. In essence, both embodiment of
the aim of the program and engaging instruction on the part of the instruc-
tor are hypothesized to cultivate teachers’ continuing motivation to learn
mindfulness (e.g., Maehr & Braskamp, 1986).

Third, teachers’ engagement with and practice of mindfulness over time,
through their aspiration and intention, persistence and learning, as well as
through instructor assistance (in both group sessions and through the
instructor’s voice on home-practice guided meditations), gradually leads
teachers to acquire mindfulness skills (e.g., Tharp & Gallimore, 1988).
Fourth, teachers’ enhanced mindfulness skills, coupled with their aspira-
tion, intention, and remembrance to apply those skills to improve the qual-
ity of their lives, lead to the gradual transfer of mindfulness skills to life
beyond the MBI to their home and classroom lives. Case studies of four
teachers who went through the MBI provide “existence proofs” of such
transfer. The primary mechanisms of transfer we found evidence for
included the direct transfer of activities from the MBI to the classroom, the
remembrance of the instructor’s voice in the form of a self-regulatory
prompt during stressful times, and the utilization of a new vocabulary for
experience and our relation to it (e.g., “letting go”).
The theory depicted in Fig. 6 provides a series of tractable research ques-
tions in need of further investigation; as well as how teachers’ embodiment
of mindfulness might have downstream effects on students in the classroom
(see Roeser, Skinner, et al., 2012b). In the next section, emerging research
on MBIs that directly train students in mindfulness is described.
MBIs with Children and Adolescents
Similar to emerging work with educators, MBIs have been suggested in

both the prevention of problems and cultivation of positive social!
emotional and academic development in children and youth. Indeed, it
appears that MBIs might fill a critical gap in students’ education, given that
the skillsets and dispositions that MBIs are hypothesized to cultivate (see
Table 1) are not typically emphasized in most classrooms (Greenberg &
Harris, 2012; MLERN, 2012; Roeser & Peck, 2009; Zelazo & Lyons, 2012).
Nonetheless, it is important to note that the research on MBIs with children
and adolescents is just beginning. Early efforts have focused primarily on
adapting practices for children and adolescents, on doing no harm, and on
examining the self-regulatory and stress reduction effects of such practices.
To date, few studies have examined the behavioral, academic, or interperso-
nal outcomes of MBIs with this age group (Greenberg & Harris, 2012;
Roeser & Peck, 2009; Zelazo & Lyons, 2012). Before reviewing the extant
research, two examples of how mindfulness may plausibly support students’
academic and social!emotional development are presented with the aim of

stimulating ideas for future research.
Hypothetical Examples of Mindfulness Skills and Student Development
Mindfulness and Academic Learning

Fig. 7 presents a psychological process model of how the skills and disposi-
tions that MBIs train may hypothetically affect students’ ability to regulate
stress during academic learning (MLERN, 2012). The model posits that in
situations like academic assessments, students often experience stress that
can motivate resistance (“fight”) or withdrawal (“flight”) behavior and
thereby undermine performance. Mindfulness skills and dispositions may
help in such situations by increasing (a) awareness of the situation and its
likely emotional effect; (b) awareness of stress and the need for emotion
regulation; (c) awareness of one’s intention and the construct accessibility
of beliefs about the importance of staying present in one’s body, focused
Fig. 7. Example of Relation between Mindfulness Skills and Academic Learning.

on the task and its mastery, and believing in one’s malleable capacities;
(d) the executive control needed to implement intentions in action; and
(e) the self-reflective capacities to learn from the episode for future
reference in encounters with similar situations. As discussed below, several
studies have shown evidence that MBIs for children and adolescents reduce
stress through enhanced attention and emotion regulation, but the full
chain of hypothesized linkages in Fig. 7 has not yet been examined. This is
a fruitful area for future research on MBIs with students.
Mindfulness and Prosocial Behavior

Fig. 8 presents a psychological process model of how the skills and disposi-
tions that MBIs train may hypothetically contribute to students’ prosocial
behavior toward others (MLERN, 2012). The model posits that in situa-
tions in which someone is in distress, individuals often are mindless and fail
to notice the person in need, or experience empathic over-arousal that can
motivate withdrawal or egoistic helping (see Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad,
2006). Mindfulness skills and dispositions may help in such situations by
increasing (a) awareness of others and their needs; (b) awareness of aroused
empathic distress and the need for emotion regulation; (c) awareness of
one’s intention and the construct accessibility of beliefs about our shared
human and the importance of taking care of and offering assistance to one
another; (d) the executive control needed to implement intentions in action;
and (e) the self-reflective capacities to learn from the outcome of the epi-
sode for future reference in encounters with similar situations. As discussed
below, few studies have looked at the prosocial outcomes of MBIs with
students. This is another fruitful area for future research on MBIs.
Fig. 8. Example of Relation between Mindfulness Skills and Prosocial Behavior.

Research on MBIs with School-Aged Children and Adolescents
In this section, I review the studies that have examined the effects of devel-
opmentally appropriate MBIs with preschool, elementary-, middle-, and
high-school children and adolescents.
Preschool
An RCT study examined the effects of a developmentally appropriate MBI
on executive function in preschool children. The program included focused

attention meditation on the breath, and activities related to awareness and
attention regulation. Randomization to a five-week long version of the
MBI was associated with improvements in sustained attention and
perspective-taking among those in the treatment group compared with con-
trols (Johnson, Forston, Gunnar, & Zelazo, 2011).
Early Elementary Grades (through 3rd Grade)

In an RCT study examining the effects of an eight-week MBI on self-
regulation in children (grades 2!3) with poor executive function, Flook
et al. (2010) reported increases at posttest in parent ratings and teacher
ratings of the treatment group students’ ability to direct, sustain, and moni-
tor attention compared with controls.
Napoli, Krech, and Holley (2005) examined the effects of randomization
to 24-week MBI on attention and anxiety levels in 1st!3rd grade elemen-
tary students. The primary activities included FA meditation on the breath
and the body. Results indicated that students receiving the MBI demon-
strated decreases in teacher-rated attentional problems and self-reported
test anxiety, and increases in a behavioral measure of selective visual atten-
tion compared with controls.
Carboni, Roach, and Fredrick (2013) studied the effects of a multisession
MBI for eight year-old boys with attention-deficit, hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) on their classroom engagement in learning. Results from teacher
and parent reports indicated a decrease in the students’ hyperactive beha-
viors following the MBI, and no change in their attentional problems.
Results from a time-series analysis of the classroom observations revealed
an increase in the percentage of observational periods in which the boys
were on-task and engaged in learning following the MBI. These results sug-
gest MBIs may help student who are vulnerable to academic difficulties due
to problems like ADHD.
Later Elementary-School Grades (Grades 4+)

Mendelson et al. (2010) examined the effects of randomization to a
12-week mindful yoga program on stress, mental health, and social adjust-
ment for inner-city elementary students in grades 4!5. Children were
taught yoga-inspired postures and movement series that were selected to
enhance muscle tone and flexibility, as well as the health benefits of the
poses. At the end of each class, instructors guided children through a mind-
fulness practice, such as paying attention to each breath or sending kind
thoughts to others. Children in the mindful yoga group self-reported
greater decreases in rumination, intrusive thoughts, and involuntary emo-

tional arousal to stressful events compared with controls.
In a quasi-experimental study with elementary-school students in grades
4!7 of what would become the MindUp program (Hawn Foundation,
2011), Schonert-Reichl and Lawlor (2010) examined the effects of the
10-week program on students’ social!emotional well-being and socially
responsible behavior compared to controls. The central mindfulness prac-
tice in this program was a FA meditation done three times per day for three
minutes throughout the duration of the program. Results showed that tea-
chers rated students who received mindfulness training as less aggressive
and less oppositional, better able to focus attention, and more likely to act
prosocially toward others compared with students in the control group. In
addition, students receiving mindfulness training reported greater well-
being (conceptualized as optimism and positive mood).
Middle and High School

A recent school-based RCT by Raes, Griffith, Van der Gucht, and Williams
(2013) with 408 students (age 13!20) examined the effects of mindfulness
training on reducing and preventing depression. Results showed that
students randomized to MBI reported a greater decrease in symptoms of
depression post-program and at a one-year follow-up compared with
controls. Similar results in RCTs with clinically referred adolescents have
been obtained in the USA (see Biegel, Brown, Shapiro, & Schubert, 2009).
In a nonrandomized study with a control group involving 150 high-
school students in grades 11!12, Broderick and Metz (2009) examined the
preliminary efficacy of a five-week MBI for adolescents (Broderick &
Jennings, 2012) on mental health outcomes. Each session included a short
introduction of the topic (e.g., body awareness, understanding and working
with feelings, reducing harmful self-judgments), several activities for group
participation, and an opportunity for in-class mindfulness meditation prac-
tice. Mindfulness practices included FA, OM, and LK meditation practices.
Results showed significant desirable changes in negative affect, feelings of

relaxation, and self-acceptance among adolescent girls receiving the MBI
compared with controls.
Two RCTs have been done looking at the stress-reduction effects of secular
mindful yoga programs for 11th and 12th grade high-school students com-
pared to participation in regular physical education classes. The yoga program
included physical exercises and postures, breathing exercises, deep relaxation,
and meditation. The majority of the exercise and postures were simple and
adaptable for all physical fitness levels. Noggle, Steiner, Minami, and Khalsa
(2012) found that students randomized to yoga showed greater reductions in

negative affect and anxiety. Using the same program and study design, Khalsa
et al. (2012) found yoga was associated with greater decreases in high-school
students’ self-reported fatigue, and greater increases in their self-reported
anger regulation and resilience to stress compared with active controls.
In sum, there is promising preliminary evidence regarding how develop-
mentally appropriate MBIs and mindful yoga can stabilize attention,
calm the mind, reduce negative affect, and improve social adjustment
among children and adolescents. Clearly, more work remains to be done.
Summarizing this emerging body of research, Greenberg and Harris (2012)
concluded, “meditation and yoga may be associated with beneficial out-
comes for children and youth, but the generally limited quality of research
tempers the allowable conclusions” (p. 161).
ENVISIONING MINDFUL SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

The research reviewed above described MBIs that taught educators and stu-
dents mindfulness skills directly. This research can be synthesized with other
lines of research on school reform into a preliminary conceptualization of
how MBIs could contribute to the creation of mindful and caring school
communities in which mindful teaching and learning occurs (Jennings &
Greenberg, 2009; Roeser, Taylor, & Harrison, 2013; Weaver & Wilding,
2013). A mindful school community can be conceptualized as having four
features (see Roeser et al., 2013): (1) mindful school leadership that includes
a developmental vision of the school, the creation of a school-wide profes-
sional learning community (PLC), and instructional leadership; (2) mindful
school cultures for educators, which emphasize trusting relationships, collec-
tive instructional improvement, and a mastery-goal, improvement-focused
school culture for teaching; (3) mindful classroom cultures for students, which
emphasize trusting relationships, collaborative learning, and a mastery-goal,

improvement-focused classroom culture for learning; and (4) the offering of
school-based MBIs, which aim to directly teach educators and students
mindfulness skills and dispositions (see Table 1) that allow them to co-
create, contribute to, and sustain such a mindful and caring school commu-
nity (MLERN, 2012).
Mindful School Leaders

Mindful Leadership and Vision

The first hypothesized characteristic of a mindful school is mindful school
leadership and vision (Lee, 2000). A recent meta-analysis found that when
school leaders have a clear vision of the school’s mission, focus resources
on teacher professional development, create professional learning commu-
nities (PLCs), and engage in instructional leadership, they can mobilize
their staff to collectively and significantly improve student learning
(Lomos, Hofman, & Bosker, 2011; MacNeil, Prater, & Busch, 2009; Mills,
McDowelle, & Rouse, 2011).
Research on the history of school reform provides support for the idea
that when school leaders adopt a vision and mindset that the school exists for
the growth, learning, and development of educators and students alike, their
ability to implement and sustain reform efforts is improved substantially
(e.g., Klem & Connell, 2004; Sarason, 1998). Such a vision acknowledges that
learning and development are lifelong. Educational leaders who take up this
basic assumption organize their professional development and resources
accordingly, and shift into a role in which instructional leadership is central.
Instructional Leadership
Mindful leaders exercise instructional leadership ! activities in which they
actively support teachers and collaborate with them on the planning, coor-
dinating, and evaluating of their teaching and curriculum (Robinson,
Lloyd, & Rowe, 2008). One way to implement instructional leadership in a
school is by creating PLCs.
Professional Learning Communities

Mindful leadership also requires that school leaders invest and participate
in professional development with staff to enhance the basic operations of
teaching and learning in a school. PLCs function to bring all of the educa-
tors in the school together to inquire into challenges facing the school, and
to collectively problem-solve, implement, and review reforms aimed at
addressing those challenges (Lieberman & Miller, 2008). These horizontal

structures serve as a cultural space for the principal and teachers to provide
emotional and intellectual support to one another, develop a sense of
shared community, address needs of members of the school, share instruc-
tional challenges and solutions, select and modify curricula, and review,
discuss, and act upon the basis of data regarding student well-being,
learning, and progress in school. They also provide a space in which school
leaders and teachers can practice mindfulness together. Helping to organize
and make possible these kinds of PLCs may represent effective use of
professional development time and money, and may be a useful strategy

for school leaders who wish to create mindful school cultures (see
MacDonald & Shirley, 2009). In sum, mindful leadership can be seen as
encompassing a vision of the school as focused on the lifelong learning and
development of educators and students, and on mindful collaboration
and problem-solving to improve teaching and learning (e.g., Langer, 1997).
Mindful School Cultures
Mindful leadership, so defined, is a foundation for the creation of a mind-

ful, participatory school culture. Hoy (2003) identified a mindful school
culture as one in which the principal, teachers, and staff, together as mem-
bers of a PLC, practice five qualities together as they work to improve
teaching and learning in their school: (1) a normalization of and curiosity
regarding the reasons for organizational challenges, (2) a reluctance to sim-
plify interpretations of challenges, (3) sensitivity to issues of teaching and
learning (e.g., daily operations), (4) commitment to resilience in the face of
situational demands and challenges, and (5) deference to expertise when
problem-solving.
Members of the administration and faculty in a mindful school do not
focus on their successes alone, but rather continually scan for potential chal-
lenges. They remain close to the day-to-day operations of the classroom and
the school, and are able to bounce back from challenging situations that
inevitably occur. Educators strive to maintain a mindset that interprets chal-
lenges not as “failures” but “opportunities to learn.” When a problem
arises, leaders and teachers in mindful schools defer to the person who is an
expert in the area needed, rather than, as is traditional, to the person at the
highest level of authority. Just as individual mindfulness can facilitate a per-
son’s capacity for self-awareness and regulation in the form of responding
versus reacting to stressful events, organizational mindfulness can facilitate
a school staff’s ability to be aware of and regulate day-to-day operations

regarding teaching and learning in a problem-focused and prevention-
oriented, as opposed to an emotionally reactive, manner (Hoy, 2003).
Mindfulness at the organizational level requires trust between teachers,
staff, and school leaders (Bryk & Schneider, 2002). A trusting organiza-
tional culture is one in which teachers believe that their principal and their
fellow teachers have common goals, good intentions, and the capacity to
realize those goals together. It includes a context of honesty, in which peo-
ple can discuss problems or mistakes openly, and where individuals support
one another in solving or rectifying them. Through organizational trust, a

sense of openness is cultivated that directly facilitates an organization’s
ability to stay close to the day-to-day operations of the school and to
bounce back resiliently from any mistakes that do occur (Hoy, 2003). Hoy,
Sweetland, and Smith (2002) found that mindfulness of the principal, the
faculty, and the whole school was associated with teachers’ trust for one
another, for their principal, and for students. Thus, it seems that mutual
support, cooperation, and trust go hand and hand with mindful awareness,
openness, and resilience in constituting a mindful school culture. More
research on these ideas is needed.
Mindful Classroom Cultures
Based on the interdependence between the work culture school leaders

create for teachers, and the classroom cultures teachers create for students
(Sarason, 1998), we hypothesize that mindful school cultures will promote
mindful classroom cultures (see Fig. 1). Drawing on Langer’s (1997)
work, Hoy (2003) proposed that teachers in mindful schools may be more
likely to adopt a mindful approach to classroom teaching by encouraging
their students to (a) create new categories for experience as a fundamental
part of learning, (b) remain open to new information, and (c) attend to
and try to understand multiple perspectives on a single issue. These factors
are hypothesized, in turn, to reduce student boredom, promote interest,
and to make learning more like play than work. Although these hypotheses
have not yet been tested, this description of a mindful approach to teaching
is quite close to what others have termed mastery-focused, autonomy-
supportive, emotionally supportive classroom environments (Ames, 1992).
Based on this work, we propose that teachers’ ability to create mindful
classroom cultures requires principal leadership (Maehr, Midgley, & Urdan,
1992) and a gradual rethinking of basic aspects of pedagogical practice,
including how teachers use time, evaluate students, distribute authority in

the classroom, recognize students, group students, and design academic
tasks (Ames, 1992). For instance, Roeser, Marachi, and Gelhbach (2002)
found that when elementary- and middle-school teachers perceived their
school culture in terms of differential treatment of teachers by school lea-
ders and a sense of competitiveness among their colleagues regarding access
to resources and voices in reform processes, they were also more likely to
say they used teaching practices in the classroom that highlighted differen-
tial treatment and competition between students. However, when teachers
in elementary and middle schools perceived their school culture in terms of

support for innovation and cooperation from school leaders and colleagues,
they were more likely to emphasize these ideas in their own approaches to
motivating students to learn in the classroom. The implication of this work
is that school leadership and the organizational culture affect teachers’
mindsets, skills, and creation of social norms around learning in the
classroom, which in turn affects the classroom cultures that teachers create
for students. The classroom culture, in turn, affects the development of
students’ mindsets.
In summary, the work reviewed here provides a basis for the conceptua-
lization of mindful and caring school communities as multilevel systems
characterized by mindful leadership, a mindful school culture for teaching,
and mindful classroom cultures for student learning. In order for school
leaders, teachers, and students to have the skills to participate productively
in the creation and maintenance of a mindful and caring school commu-
nity, MBIs for educators and students may also be helpful. The examina-
tion of such ideas requires future research in the form of case studies and
design experiments at the whole school level.
DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
MBIs are now being introduced in educational settings for teachers and stu-
dents. There now exists preliminary evidence regarding how developmen-
tally appropriate mindfulness training can stabilize attention, calm the
mind, reduce negative affect, and increase well-being among children, ado-
lescents, and educators. There is great need for more rigorous research on
MBIs and mindful yoga in education regarding the cultivation of the
kinds of mindfulness-based skills and dispositions described in Table 1.
Future studies might incorporate rigorous study designs that include
randomization, active control groups, blind raters, and both self-report and
behavioral, physiological, social-observational, and other-informant mea-
sures of outcomes. At the same time, diversity in methodology will continue
to be important in this emerging line of research, and including case studies
and multiple baseline designs that incorporate randomization will also
increase the rigor of the work (Kratochwill & Levin, 2010). In addition, stu-
dies that use rich ethnographic description, intensive studies of contextual
supports and barriers in this work, and other forms of qualitative and idio-
graphic assessment of MBIs will be important. Finally, longitudinal study
designs that examine the long-term effects of MBIs on teachers’ and stu-
dents’ development may be particularly fruitful moving forward, especially
if MBIs serve preventative effects. In that case, long-term follow-ups are
needed to capture “the risks that did not occur.”
Another direction for future research is to examine the effects of MBIs
not only on intrapersonal outcomes (e.g., self-regulation, stress reduction),
but also on interpersonal outcomes in teachers and students (trust, kindness,
empathy, perspective-taking, generosity, altruism ! see Table 1). Beyond
that, examining how MBIs in education can contribute to changes in social
adjustment and social relationship outcomes at multiple levels of school sys-
tems (e.g., trust and emotional support in whole classrooms and schools)
will also be important.
A third direction for future research concerns the timing of MBIs. A key
hypothesis is that the putative effects of MBIs, if delivered during different
“windows of opportunity” in the lifespan such as early childhood or early ado-
lescence, may cultivate habits and dispositions that have long-term positive
effects on individuals and society (e.g., Heckman, 2007; Moffitt et al., 2011).
A fourth direction for future research concerns a determination of
dose!response relationships in the effects of MBIs for individuals at different
ages. How much mindfulness training is needed, over what duration of time,
to be feasible and efficacious regarding salutary effects on children, adoles-
cents, and teachers? This question is very important given the time pressures
that are characteristic of schools, families, and children’s lives today.
CONCLUSION
In summary, mindfulness and MBIs are becoming more widespread in
society and schools. The overall aim of this paper was to provide the reader
with a kind of primer on the emerging science of mindfulness and its appli-
cations in education. Several contexts for the emergence of MBIs in schools
were described ! including rises in both public and scientific interest in

mindfulness. In addition, two emerging areas of interdisciplinary scholar-
ship on mindfulness training, education, and human development !
Contemplative Developmental Science and Contemplative Education ! were
described. Next, definitions of mindfulness, MBI programs and practices,
and a research-derived taxonomy of the kinds of mindfulness skills and dis-
positions MBIs cultivate were presented. After overviewing the research on
MBIs with adults generally, rationales for why MBIs might contribute to
teachers’ personal and professional development, and students’ academic
and social!emotional development were outlined. This was followed by

the presentation of a preliminary theory of teaching, learning, and transfer
in MBIs for teachers; a review of emerging research on MBIs in school set-
tings with teachers and students; and a conceptualization of a “mindful
and caring school community.” The paper concluded with directions for
future research. I look forward to practical and scientific advances regard-
ing the introduction of MBIs in educational settings, and the creation and
study of whole schools that aim to be mindful and caring, in the future.
NOTE
1. The Mindfulness Research (Black, 2010) is part of an online resource that pub-
lishes a monthly newsletter on new mindfulness research; organizes and catalogues
the extant research base on topics including mindfulness-based stress reduction and
interventions with parents, teachers, and youth; offers a bibliography with live links
to many mindfulness measures in use in research today; and provides a list of centers
involved in mindfulness research and training (http://www.mindfulexperience.org/).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Special thanks to Jessica Harrison, Cristi Pinela, Cynthia Taylor, and
Timothy C. Urdan for their assistance and support with this manuscript.
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Roeser Emergence of MBIs in Education

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The Emergence of Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Educational Settings

Article in Advances in Motivation and Achievement · November 2014

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Purpose ! The purpose of this paper is to describe the emergence

rigorous study designs and measures, need to be done to establish the

BACKGROUND AND FRAMEWORKS

Mindfulness in Society and Science

Fig. 1. Google Web Searches: “Mindfulness” (2008!2014). Note: The numbers on

Fig. 2. Google Books: Frequency of the Word “Mindfulness” (1800!2014). Note:

institutions to enter mainstream society (see Cullen, 2011; Kabat-Zinn,

Fig. 3. PUBMED: Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles on “Mindfulness, Yoga,

Fig. 4. NIH REPORTER DATABASE: Research Grants on “Mindfulness, Yoga,

implementation, evaluation, and scaling of MBIs in educational settings

Developmental Contemplative Science (DCS)

Definition and Goals

The paradoxical assumptions of a dialectic meta-model of human develop-

Fig. 5. Dualistic and Dialectic Meta-Models of Human Development.

can hypothetically change the ways individuals engage in (relational) trans-

Overall Aim of DCS

educational services aimed at the alleviation of problems and the promotion

Related to DCS is Contemplative Education, an umbrella term proposed by

mentation, and scientific study of mindfulness and related contemplative prac-

DEFINING MINDFULNESS AND RESEARCH

Is mindfulness best described as a state, trait, or habit of mind (substan-

learning in schools (educationally)? Before describing the definitions of

Langer’s Work on Mindlessness and Mindfulness

An important contribution to the work on mindlessness and mindfulness

Langer and her colleagues’ focus on mindfulness, as a curious awareness of

experience, thereby allowing for increased recognition of mental events in

to come and go without pushing them away as in suppression or avoidance;

functionally already in terms of the skills and dispositions they appear to

Secular MBI and Mindfulness Practices

MBI Program Contexts

on the model of Kabat-Zinn’s MBSR (1994, 2011). First, mindfulness

Table 1. Lines of Skill and Disposition Development Hypothetically

Self-regulation Mind-wandering Focused attention

trainings also cultivate the development of dispositions associated with

Collectively, dimensions of MBIs linked to their efficacy for participants

Mindfulness Practices. The heart of MBIs is “doing mindfulness practice.”

mindfulness of the body (rather than mindlessness), experiential self-awareness

Focused Attention (FA) Meditation. FA meditation is a foundational

Open Monitoring (OM) Meditation. OM meditation, often introduced after

Loving-Kindness (LK) Meditation. A third form of meditation that has

than isolates us from) others (Neff, 2003). SC meditation involves mindful-

Mindful Movement (MM). Practices involving MM (e.g., yoga or tai chi)

taught in MBIs through the practices, curriculum, and instructor are

Outcomes of MBIs with Adults

Several meta-analyses of the effects of MBIs on the reduction of symptoms

Samples with Chronic Illnesses

Rationale for MBIs for Teachers

MBIs have been hypothesized to support school leaders and teachers in

and in-service teacher professional development programs (Jennings &

Research on MBIs for Teachers

Only a handful of studies on MBIs for teachers have been published to

scans). The program was assessed in two samples: in-service teachers in a

postprogram and four-month follow-up compared with waitlist controls.

program in MBI group compared with controls.

directions. The MBI included basic instruction in mindfulness practices,

Teaching, Motivation and Learning, and Transfer of

The results of the feasibility study of an expert instructor lead to a

Fig. 6. Preliminary Theory of Teaching, Learning, and Transfer in Teacher MBIs.