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Corrosion in O - G
Corrosion in O - G
Most metals exist in nature as stable ores of oxides, carbonates or sulfides. Refining them, to make them
useful, requires energy. Corrosion is simply nature’s way of reversing an unnatural process back to a lower
energy state. Preventing corrosion is vital in every step in the production of oil and gas.
Denis Brondel Corrosion costs US industries alone an esti- or blasted by formation sand. Hydrogen sul-
Montrouge, France mated $170 billion a year. The oil industry, fide [H2S] poses other problems (next page ).
with its complex and demanding produc- Handling all these corrosion situations, with
Randy Edwards tion techniques, and the environmental the added complications of high tempera-
Columbus, Ohio, USA threat should components fail, takes an tures, pressures and stresses involved in
above average share of these costs.1 drilling or production, requires the expertise
Andrew Hayman Corrosion—the deterioration of a metal or of a corrosion engineer, an increasingly key
Clamart, France its properties—attacks every component at figure in the industry.
every stage in the life of every oil and gas Because it is almost impossible to prevent
Donald Hill field. From casing strings to production plat- corrosion, it is becoming more apparent that
Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA forms, from drilling through to abandon- controlling the corrosion rate may be the
ment, corrosion is an adversary worthy of most economical solution. Corrosion engi-
Shreekant Mehta all the high technology and research we can neers are therefore increasingly involved in
St. Austell, England throw at it. estimating the cost of their solutions to cor-
Oxygen, which plays such an important rosion prevention and estimating the useful
Tony Semerad role in corrosion, is not normally present in life of equipment. For example, develop-
Mobil producing formations. It is only at the ment wells in Mobil’s Arun gas field in
Sumatra, Indonesia drilling stage that oxygen-contaminated flu- Indonesia have been monitored for corro-
ids are first introduced. Drilling muds, left sion since they were drilled in 1977.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Dylan untreated, will corrode not only well casing, Production wells were completed using
Davies, Schlumberger Cambridge Research, Ahmad
Madjidi, Schlumberger GeoQuest, Abu Dhabi, UAE;
but also drilling equipment, pipelines and 7-in. L-80 grade carbon steel tubing—an
Nabil Mazzawi, Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, mud handling equipment. Water and car- H2S-resistant steel—allowing flow rates in
Tripoli, Libya; Perry Nice, Statoil, Stavanger, Norway; bon dioxide—produced or injected for sec- excess of 50 MMscf/D [1.4 MMscm/D] at
Barry Nicholson, Schlumberger Wireline & Testing,
Jakarta, Indonesia; Daniel Roche, Elf, Bergen, Norway; ondary recovery—can cause severe corro- over 300°F [150°C]. High flow rates, H2S
Philippe Rutman and Derek Stark, Schlumberger Wire- sion of completion strings. Acid—used to and carbon dioxide [CO 2] all contributed
line & Testing, Montrouge, France; Dave Thompson, reduce formation damage around the well to the corrosion of the tubing. Laboratory
Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, Bergen, Norway; and
Piers Temple, Joe Vinet and Mohamed Watfa, Schlum- or to remove scale—readily attacks metal. experiments simulated the Arun well con-
berger Wireline & Testing, Abu Dhabi, UAE. Completions and surface pipelines can be ditions, alongside continued field monitor-
CET (Cement Evaluation Tool), CORBAN, CPET (Corro- eroded away by high production velocities ing. These help find the most economical
sion and Protection Evaluation Tool), FACT (Flux Array
Corrosion Tool), IDCIDE, IDFILM, IDSCAV, METT (Mul- solution to the corrosion problem.2 The
tifrequency Electromagnetic Thickness Tool), PAL (Pipe results showed that the carbon steel tubing
Analysis Log), UBI (Ultrasonic Borehole Imager) and would have to be changed to more expen-
USI (UltraSonic Imager) are marks of Schlumberger.
sive chromium steel or to corrosion-resis-
tant alloy (CRA).
4 Oilfield Review
Paint Cathodic protection
Stress
Pipeline coating
Sacrificial
anodes
nCorrosion in every
aspect of the oil
industry. From gen-
eralized corrosion
caused by oxygen-
Inhibitors rich environments
Cement on marine struc-
tures to sulfide
Stress stress corrosion in
Mud inhibitors, scavengers hostile wells, the
corrosion engineer
Unsupported is faced with a
casing stress whole gamut of
problems.
Scale
Water injection,
oxygen scavengers
Acidizing
The Basic Corrosion Cell 1. For a comprehensive reference book see: 2. Sutanto H, Semerad VAW and Bordelon TP: “Simula-
By recognizing corrosion when it does ASM Handbook Volume 13 Corrosion. Materials Park, tion of Future Wellbore Corrosion With Low Produc-
Ohio, USA: ASM International, 1992. tion Rate Field Tests,” paper 571, presented at the Cor-
occur, and by understanding the mecha- rosion 91 NACE Annual Conference and Corrosion
For an easier read:
nisms involved, corrosion engineers may Show, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, March 11-15, 1991.
Jones LW: Corrosion and Water Technology for
begin to eliminate corrosion by design. Semerad VAW and Sutanto H: ”Wellbore Corrosion
Petroleum Producers. Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA: OGCI
Logging of Deep Hot Corrosive Wells,” paper OSEA
The basic galvanic corrosion mechanism Publications, 1988.
90141, presented at the 8th Offshore South East Asia
follows the principle of a battery. A typical Tuttle RN: “Corrosion in Oil and Gas Production,” Conference, Singapore, December 4-7, 1990.
Journal of Petroleum Technology 39 (July 1987):
battery requires two dissimilar metals con- 756-762.
Asphahani AI, Prouheze JC and Petersen GJ: “Corro-
sion-Resistant Alloys for Hot, Deep, Sour Wells: Prop-
nected together and immersed in an elec- erties and Experience,” SPE Production Engineering 6,
no. 4 (November 1991): 459-464.
Farooqul MASZ and Holland S: “Corrosion-Resistant
Tubulars for Prolonging GWI Well Life,” paper SPE
21365, presented at the SPE Middle East Oil Show,
Manama, Bahrain, November 16-19, 1991.
April 1994 5
trolyte (below ).3 All metals have a tendency Electrolyte Steel Identifying the Causes and
to dissolve or corrode to a greater or lesser Applying Controls
degree. In this case, the metal with the O2 Fe2O3.H2Ox There are many sources of corrosion and
greater tendency to corrode forms the nega- e– Anode many more methods of slowing the process
tive pole and is called the anode.4 When H2S FeSx down. This section looks at different parts
the two are connected, the other metal Fe++ Fe of the industry and identifies typical corro-
forms the positive pole, or cathode. sion problems and some of the solutions
CO2 Fe2CO3
Loss of positive metal ions from the anode e– (next page ).
causes a release of free electrons. This pro- H2O Offshore structures—On surface equip-
e– e–
cess is called oxidation. The buildup of O2 2 OH– ment, the simplest solution is to place an
electrons generates an electrical potential, 1
/2 O2 insulating barrier over the metal concerned.
causing them to flow through the conductor Cathode Offshore installations are often painted with
to the cathode. At the cathode, excess elec- zinc-rich primers to form a barrier against
e– H+
trons are neutralized or taken up by ions in e– rain, condensation, sea mist and spray. The
H2S or CO2 H2
the electrolyte. This process is called reduc- zinc primer not only forms a physical bar-
tion. As long as reduction reactions predom- H+ rier, but also acts as a sacrificial anode
inate, no metal is lost at the cathode. The should the barrier be breached.
anode will continue to corrode as long as nCorrosion on a steel surface. At anodic Offshore structures are also protected in
the electric circuit is maintained and the sites, iron readily goes into solution as iron other ways.5 The zone above the high tide
metal ions are removed from solution by ions, Fe++, which combine with oxygen, mark, called the splash zone, is constantly
combining with other elements to make up O2, hydrogen sulfide, H2S, or carbon diox- in and out of water. The most severe corro-
ide, CO2, depending on the constituents of
corrosion products. the electrolytic fluid. These form corrosion sion occurs here. Any protective coating or
Anodes and cathodes can form on a sin- products or scales as rust—iron oxide film is continually eroded by waves and
gle piece of metal made up of small crystals [Fe2O3 • H2 Ox ], iron sulfides [FeSx ] or iron there is an ample supply of oxygen and
of slightly different compositions. (They can carbonate [Fe2CO3]. While this is happen- water. Common methods of controlling cor-
be next to each other or separated by large ing, the electrons migrate to the cathode. rosion in this zone include further coating
At the cathode surface, they reduce oxy-
distances–sometimes tens of kilometers.) genated water to produce hydroxyl ions and also increasing metal thickness to com-
The electrolyte may simply be water (right ). [OH -] or reduce hydrogen ions to produce pensate for higher metal loss.
For example, pure iron [Fe] in steel has a hydrogen gas [H2]. The part of the structure in the tidal zone is
subjected to less severe corrosion than the
tendency to dissolve, going into solution as splash zone and can benefit from cathodic
Conductor Fe++. As each Fe++ ion is formed, two elec- protection systems at high tide.6 Cathodic
e– trons are left behind, giving that area of the protection works by forcing anodic areas to
metal a small negative charge. If nothing become cathodes. To achieve this, a reverse
happens to remove Fe++ ions around the current is applied to counteract the corrosion
anodic site, the tendency to dissolve will current. The current can be generated by an
Anode Cathode
diminish. In oil production, Fe++ ions are external DC source—impressed cathodic
removed by reacting with oxygen [O2], protection—or by using sacrificial anodes.
hydrogen sulfide, or carbon dioxide. The The rest of the structure—exposed to less
corrosion products are precipitates or scales severe seawater corrosion—is protected by
Metal ions (M+) Electrolyte of rust [Fe2O3], iron sulfides [FeSx] or iron cathodic protection. However, crustaceans
carbonate [Fe2CO3]. and seaweed attach to the submerged parts
Excess electrons flow away from the adding weight that may increase stress-
nCorrosion cell. The basic corrosion cell is anodic region to a site where they form a related corrosion. This mechanism occurs
formed by two dissimilar metals immersed cathode, and where reduction occurs. when the combined effects of crevice, or
in an electrolyte joined by a conductor.
Reduction of oxygenated water forms pitting, corrosion and stress propagate
One electrode will tend to corrode more _
readily than the other and is called the hydroxyl ions [OH ]. If oxygen is not pre- cracks leading to structural failure. How-
anode. The anode loses positive metal ions sent, but CO2 or H2S is, then the dominant ever, a covering of life does restrict oxygen
to the electrolyte leaving free electrons and cathodic reaction is the reduction of reaching metal, and so reduces corrosion.
a net negative charge. At the other elec- hydrogen ions to produce hydrogen gas. If Other forms of structural stress are also
trode, called the cathode, free electrons are
taken up by ions in the electrolyte leaving the electrolyte is salt water, chlorine gas is important. Low-frequency cyclic stress—
a net positive charge. Free electrons can produced (see “Corrosion Mechanisms,” resulting from factors such as waves, tides
travel from anode to cathode along the page 8 ). and operating loads—can allow time for
conductor. The electrolyte then completes corrosion within cracks as they are opened.
the circuit.
Modeling and accounting for these stresses
are therefore an extremely important part of
corrosion prevention.7
6 Oilfield Review
Ultraviolet exposure
Precipitated salt
Condensation
0 2 4 6
Relative corrosion rate
April 1994 7
Corrosion Mechanisms
Corrosion encountered in petroleum production operations involves several mechanisms. These have been grouped into
electrochemical corrosion, chemical corrosion and mechanical and mechanical/corrosive effects.
8 Oilfield Review
Tubing
Methane,
Pit
hydrogen sulfide,
water
Chloride film
Iron sulfide
scale
Chemical Corrosion essary. In deep sour wells where HCl inhibitors
Hydrogen Sulfide, Polysulfides and lose effectiveness, 9% formic acid has been
Sulfur—Hydrogen sulfide [H2S] when dissolved used. Corrosion control is normally achieved by
Well fluids
in water, is a weak acid and, therefore, it is a a combination of inhibitor loading and limiting
source of hydrogen ions and is corrosive. (The nBarnacle-type corrosion. As tubing corrodes in a exposure time, which may range from 2 to 24 hr.
effects are greater in deep wells, because the pH hydrogen sulfide and water environment, iron sulfide If corrosion-resistant alloys are present
is further reduced by pressure.) The corrosion scale builds up. This is porous and is also cathodic (austenitic and duplex stainless steels), concern
with respect to the steel tubing. An intervening layer
products are iron sulfides [FeSx] and hydrogen. for stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) and inhibitor
of iron chloride [FeCl 2] is acidic and prevents precip-
Iron sulfide forms a scale that at low tempera- itation of FeS directly onto the steel surface. This effectiveness may rule out the use of HCl. In
tures can act as a barrier to slow corrosion. The establishes a pit-forming corrosion cell. addition to spent acid, other stagnant columns
absence of chloride salts strongly promotes this rosion product is iron carbonate (siderite) scale. such as drilling and completion fluid, may also
condition and the absence of oxygen is abso- This can be protective under certain conditions. be corrosive.
lutely essential. At higher temperatures the scale Siderite itself can be soluble. Conditions favoring
is cathodic in relation to the casing and galvanic the formation of a protective scale are elevated Concentrated Brines—Dense halide brines of the
corrosion starts. In the presence of chloride ions temperatures, increased pH as occurs in bicar- cations of calcium, zinc, and, more rarely, mag-
and temperatures over 300°F [150°C] barnacle- bonate-bearing waters and lack of turbulence, so nesium are sometimes used to balance forma-
type corrosion occurs, which can be sustained that the scale film is left in place. Turbulence is tion pressures during various production opera-
under thick but porous iron sulfide deposits often the critical factor in the production or reten- tions. All may be corrosive because of dissolved
(above, right). The chloride forms a layer of iron tion of a protective iron carbonate film. Siderite is oxygen or entrained air. In addition, these brines
chloride [FeCl2], which is acidic and prevents the not conductive, so galvanic corrosion cannot may be corrosive because of acidity generated
formation of an FeS layer directly on the corrod- occur. Thus corrosion occurs where the protective by the hydrolysis of metallic ions. Corrosion due
ing steel, enabling the anodic reaction to con- siderite film is not present and is fairly uniform to acidity is more severe with dense zinc brines.
tinue. Hydrogen produced in the reaction may over the exposed metal. Crevice and pitting cor- More expensive brines of calcium bromide are
lead to hydrogen embrittlement. rosion occur when carbonic acid is formed. Car- now often used at densities above 14 lbm/gal
Carbon Dioxide—Like H2 S, carbon dioxide bon dioxide can also cause embrittlement, result- [1.7 gm/cm3] to avoid long-term exposure to zinc
[CO2] is a weakly acidic gas and becomes corro- ing in stress corrosion cracking. chloride [ZnCl2] brines.
sive when dissolved in water. However, CO2 must
hydrate to carbonic acid [H2 CO3]—a relatively Strong Acids (direct chemical attack)—Strong
slow process—before it becomes acidic. The cor- acids are often pumped into the wells to stimu-
late production by increasing formation perme-
ability in the near wellbore region. For limestone
formations, 5 to 28% hydrochloric [HCl] acid is
commonly used. For sandstones, additions of
hydrofluoric acid—normally up to 3%—are nec-
April 1994 9
Biological Effects—The most important biological Erosion Corrosion—When erosion removes the Hydrogen Embrittlement
effect is the generation of H2S by sulfate-reducing protective film of corrosion products, corrosion
bacteria. These anaerobic bacteria metabolize can occur at a faster rate. Erosion corrosion may H+ H+
Electrolyte
sulfate ions (using an organic carbon source) and play a role in CO2 corrosion. Under mild flow H2 H H
produce hydrogen sulfide. They can thus intro- conditions, sand may also cause erosion corro- Steel
duce H2S into an H2S-free system. Colonies of sion. This type of corrosion is also seen in anchor
H H2 H
SRBs can also form deposits that lead to crevice chains where corrosion between links pro- H
corrosion with produced H2S accelerating corro- ceeds quickly.
H H2 H
sion, because it is known to be an anodic stimu-
Air
lant. In low-flow rate systems, hard rust nodules Corrosion Fatigue—This results from subjecting
or tubercles can form creating differential oxygen a metal to alternating stresses in a corrosive
cells, which lead to crevice corrosion (below). environment. At the points of greatest stress, Sulfide Stress Corrosion
the corrosion product film becomes damaged
allowing localized corrosion to take place. Corrosion fatigue Cyclic stress
Hard rust tubercle
Eventually this leads to crack initiation and crack
O2
FeCO3 O2 growth by a combination of mechanical and cor-
rosive action. Because of this combined action,
OH
Fe(OH)3 corrosion fatigue is greater at low stress cycles
Cathodic FeS
Fe3 that allow time for the corrosion process.
Fe2 Hydrogen Stress Static
SO42
Welded connections on drillships, drilling and
H2S embrittlement corrosion stress
production rigs and platforms are subject to this
SRB type of corrosion.
Highly anodic
Iron or steel Sulfide Stress Corrosion—Production of hydrogen Stress Corrosion Cracking
nRust tubercle. Tuberculation is a complex localized results from sulfide stress cracking (SSC). SSC Steel
process that forms a nodule-like structure. It often occurs when a susceptible metal is under tensile
forms in a region of low fluid velocity where a stress and exposed to water containing hydrogen
deposit of sludge or rust can shield a part of the
sulfide or other sulfur compounds—generally
metal and reduce the oxygen available to that area. H Cl– Cl– Cl–
under anaerobic conditions. Corrosion cells gen- H Cl–
The portion of steel exposed to water with low oxy-
gen concentration becomes anodic and corrodes at erate FeS and atomic hydrogen. The amount of
a faster rate than the rest.
metal loss is small and the FeS layer thin. The
layer of FeS promotes the movement of hydrogen Plastic zone
Mechanical and Mechanical/Corrosive Effects
Cavitation—This type of metal loss—often grain into the metal, usually into impurities at the grain
by grain—is due to high-pressure shock waves, boundaries. Penetration of hydrogen into the body
generated from the collapse of minute bubbles of the metal reduces ductility. Accumulations of nHydrogen embrittlement and stress corrosion.
hydrogen at imperfections generate tremendous When H2S is present, corrosion cells generate FeS and
in high-velocity fluids impinging on nearby metal atomic hydrogen. The layer of FeS promotes the move-
surfaces. Cavitation metal loss is usually found pressure. For hard high-strength steel the combi- ment of hydrogen into the metal (top), and accumula-
on pump impellers developing too low a suction nation of lack of ductility and internal stress tions generate tremendous pressure. This leads to
superimposed on the tensile stress causes the embrittlement and, if combined with static or cyclic
pressure.
stress, can lead to failure of the metal by corrosion
metal to break and crack (right). Penetration of
fatigue or stress corrosion (middle). Stress corrosion
Erosion—This is direct metal removal by the cut- molecular hydrogen can also lead to blistering. cracking (bottom) starts at a pit or crevice. The zone
around the tip of the crevice becomes plastic under
ting action of high-velocity abrasive particles.
stress allowing a crack to develop. Chlorine ions,
Erosion failures (washouts) are seen in drillpipe Chloride Stress Cracking (CSC)—While under
which act as a catalyst to corrosion, can migrate into
when leaks (loose connections or a corrosion tensile stress, austenitic stainless steels can fail the crack accelerating the process. The development of
fatigue crack) allow drilling mud to flow through by cracking when exposed to saline water above the crack within the plastic zone is another site for
200°F [95°C]. hydrogen embrittlement.
the wall under high pressure. Erosion of flow-
lines at bends and joints by produced sand is
probably the other most common occurrence of Stress Corrosion Cracking (combined with SSC,
metal erosion in the petroleum industry. CSC and corrosion fatigue)—CSC is an example
of a broad range of stress-corrosion cracking,
defined as corrosion accelerated by tensile
stress. This type of corrosion starts at a pit or
notch, with cracks progressing into the metal pri-
marily along grain boundaries.
10 Oilfield Review
threads provide ideal places for crevice cor- 25
nComparison of
April 1994 11
ing prevents sand blasting that causes ero-
sion corrosion. Erosion corrosion will be
more pronounced on equipment that
restricts flow such as nipples, valves or Corrosion Logging Tools
sharp pipe bends. Once erosion has
removed protective coatings, other forms of
corrosion can start. The velocity of pro-
duced fluids has the same effect as pro-
duced sand with erosion occurring at places
of turbulence and cavitation.
Stimulation programs may, inadvertently,
Casing Geometry Max Internal Radii Metal Loss %
nMultiFinger Caliper log
Depth, ft
promote internal corrosion. Depending on from the North Sea. This
pit. -25 0 20 70
lithology, highly corrosive hydrochloric acid % log shows the 16 calipers
[HCl] with additions of hydrofluoric [HF] from the Tubing Geometry
acid are used to improve near-wellbore per- X40 Sonde multifinger caliper
meability. These acids can also remove scale (middle track). An image
buildup on the inside of casing and tubing, of metal loss (right-hand
allowing direct attack on bare metal. (Scale, track) shows severe corro-
sion at X54 ft.
produced by iron sulfide and iron carbonate
deposits, restricts the corrosion process.
Other types of scale are porous and do not
protect.) It is therefore essential to use
X50
inhibitors and to flow the well to remove
spent acid and allow pH levels to increase.
Inhibitors are mixed with acid to provide
a protective film over exposed completion
strings. 12 The first generation of acid
inhibitors was based on highly poisonous
arsenic products, but over the years less
toxic and more environmentally appropri- X60
ate products have been developed. The
CORBAN range of inhibitors produced by
Dowell are designed for acid inhibition of
most oilfield tubulars, including coiled tub-
ing, duplex steels and other exotic alloys at
up to 400 °F [200 °C].
The type and amount of inhibitor used—
X70
inhibitor loading—depends not only on the
acid and its strength, but also on the metal
it is protecting, the working temperature
range and the protection time desired. Caliper Devices Corrosion Rate Devices
Inhibitor loadings are determined by mea- Mechanical multifinger calipers have been used The CPET Corrosion and Protection Evaluation
suring the corrosion of samples of casing or for many years to measure the internal diameter Tool has four sets of three electrodes, spaced at
tubing—coupons—in a corrosion-test auto-
of tubing and casing. The Tubing Geometry 2-ft [60-cm] intervals along the tool (next page).
clave that duplicates the well-treating
environment. Sonde (TGS) tool has interchangeable 16-finger The tool takes stationary measurements of poten-
Corrosion during production—Corrosion sections covering tubing sizes from 2 7/ 8 to 7 in. tial differences and casing resistance between
can continue inside the casing and along [7 to 18 cm]. The larger MultiFinger Caliper electrode pairs. Casing current is calculated from
completion strings and pipelines during the (MFC) tool has interchangeable sections with 36, these measurements at each depth. By taking the
life of a well. Gas condensate wells may pro-
60 and 72 arms covering casing sizes from 7 to difference in current between stations, the radial
duce gas, hydrocarbons, formation water,
acid gases (CO 2 and H 2 S) and organic 13 3/ 8 in. [18 to 34 cm]. Both tools can be run in current density can be calculated and the corro-
any borehole fluid and are able to measure small sion rate computed. Casing thickness can also be
12. Frenier WW, Hill DG and Jansinski RJ: “Corrosion holes as long as a caliper passes over them. Log derived by assuming casing conductivity and
Inhibitors for Acid Jobs,” Oilfield Review 1, no. 2
(July 1989): 15-21. presentations vary and may be quite sophisti- using the nominal casing outside diameter. A plot
Crowe C, Masmonteil J, Thomas R and Touboul E: cated (above). of casing current flow against depth, shows
“Trends in Matrix Acidizing,” Oilfield Review 4,
no. 4 (October 1992): 24-40. anodic regions where corrosion is likely to occur.
Samant AK, Koshel KC and Virmani SS, “Azoles as If the well is cathodically protected, the log will
Corrosion Inhibitors for Mild Steel in a Hydrochloric
Acid Medium,” paper SPE 19022, 1988. also show the efficiency of the protection. The
tool can be run successively after adjustment of
the cathodic protection system current to ensure
that anodes have been biased out.
12
Telemetry cartridge
Electronic cartridge
Electrodes
A3
A1
A2 B3
the anomalies. Inner wall defects are detected by
B1 inducing surface eddy currents using a separate
coil array with a high-frequency signal. This
B2 C3
helps to distinguish internal from external
C1 defects. The PAL tool is primarily used to detect
casing holes.
C2 D3
Hydraulic section The FACT Flux Array Corrosion Tool works on
Ultrasonic Devices
nCPET Corrosion and Protection Evaluation Tool. The CPET tool has four sets of three electrodes, each one at The USI UltraSonic Imager tool and the CET
the end of a hydraulically operated arm. Stationary readings (inset) are taken and 12 separate contact resis-
Cement Evaluation Tool use ultrasonic sound
tances and electrode potential differences are measured.
pulses that reflect off and resonate within the
Electromagnetic Devices the thickness of the casing. By using a multifre- casing wall. The transit time of the first received
The METT Multifrequency Electromagnetic Thick- quency transmitter, other properties of the casing echo gives the internal casing radius. Frequency
ness Tool is used to detect large-scale corrosion. that also affect the phase shift can be measured analysis of the resonant portion of the signal pro-
It works on the same principle as an induction so that thickness can be calculated. An internal vides casing thickness, allowing internal and
tool, having a transmitter coil and a receiver coil. caliper measurement is derived from a high-fre- external metal loss to be computed. The CET tool
The transmitter generates an alternating mag- quency field that penetrates the casing skin only. has eight transducers equally spaced in a helix
netic field that induces eddy currents in the cas- The casing inside diameter (ID) measurement is around the tool to give a limited casing cover-
ing. These produce a secondary magnetic field not affected by nonmagnetic scale deposits. Mon- age. The more advanced USI tool has a single
that interferes with the primary field causing a itoring a well over several years using the METT rotating transducer to provide full coverage. The
phase shift. This is detected by the receiver coil. tool gives the general corrosion rate.
The phase shift is proportional to the total The PAL Pipe Analysis Log tool measures mag-
amount of metal surrounding the tool and hence netic flux leakage anomalies on the casing wall.
Low-frequency magnetic flux is generated by an
electromagnet, and pad-mounted sensors detect
April 1994 13
Casing ID Inner Radii Thickness Roughness Eccentering Defect acids.13 Wells that produce formation water,
0 in. 0.5 code from or allow it to condense, are likely to cor-
-7 in. 3 PAL rode; this may occur anywhere in the tubing
OD Rel Bearing
5-10% gain 1-.9 0 deg 360 string, wellhead or flowline. Higher temper-
Well Sketch
Inner defect
Metal Loss
Penetration
-9 in. 1 0-5% loss .7-.6 atures accelerate the corrosion rate, as does
Radius Deviation faster flow. Corrosion increases with water
Code 2
Code 3
Code 4
10-15% loss .2-.1 0 deg 360
Thickness above 25%
salinity up to about 5% of sodium chloride.
–0
Above this, the solubility of oxygen in the
water decreases reducing corrosion rates. In
fact, when the salt content is above 15%,
the rates are lower than with fresh water
( next page, top ). When water and acid
gases are present, the corrosion rates rise
rapidly. Water dissolves CO2 or H2S and
becomes acidic.
In highly corrosive environments, carbon
steel can be protected by corrosion
inhibitors during production.14 Like acid
corrosion inhibitors, these adhere to casing
and completion strings to form a protective
film. Inhibitors can be continuously intro-
duced into a producing well by a capillary
tube run on the outside of the tubing as part
of the completion design (next page, right ).
Other methods include batch treatment
where inhibitor is pumped down the tubing
regularly, say every six weeks, or squeeze
treatments, where inhibitor is pumped into
the formation.
To protect wells and pipelines from exter-
nal corrosion, cathodic protection is used.15
In remote areas sacrificial ground beds may
be used for both wells and pipelines (next
page, left ). A single ground bed can protect
up to 50 miles [80 km] of pipeline. In the
CET and USI tools were developed to record cement nComposite corrosion log. Three corrosion tools Middle East, solar panels have been used to
bond and inspect the casing. have provided the data for this composite log. Track power impressed current cathodic protec-
1 shows the nominal casing ID and OD along with tion systems. Other methods include ther-
The Borehole Televiewer (BHTV) tool, Acoustic the ID and OD from the CET Cement Evaluation Tool moelectric generators fueled directly from
TeleScanner (ATS) and the UBI Ultrasonic Borehole and indicates the presence of corrosion, or scale or the pipeline. To protect several wells, a cen-
Imager tool were all developed for openhole appli- wax buildup. Track 2 shows the total metal loss from
tral generator may be used and a distribu-
the METT Multifrequency Electromagnetic Thickness
cations and employ a rotating transducer. The ATS
Tool. Track 3 shows the well sketch along with a flag
and UBI tools use a focused transducer to show if the corrosion is more than 50%. Track 4 shows the 13. Gunaltun Y: “Carbon Dioxide Corrosion in Oil
much finer detail than the CET or USI tools. increase or decrease in radius images generated Wells,” paper SPE 21330, presented at the SPE
Middle East Oil Show, Manama, Bahrain, November
from the eight transducers of the CET tool. Track 5
All acoustic tools are affected by dense highly 16-19, 1991.
shows the increase or decrease in casing thickness
attenuating muds and casing scale. They also, at Crolet J-L and Bonis MR: “Prediction of the Risks
from the CET tool. Track 6 shows roughness image, of CO2 Corrosion in Oil and Gas Wells,” paper SPE
present, do not work in gas-filled holes. again from the CET tool, to indicate the presence of 20835, presented at the Offshore Technology Con-
pitting or scale. Track 7 gives casing geometry infor- ference, Houston, Texas, USA, May 7-10, 1990.
mation from the CET tool. Track 8 gives defect identi- 14. Argent CJ, Kokoszka CL, Dale MJ and Hindmarsh
Composite Logs fication from the PAL Pipe Analysis Log tool. The MW: “A Total System Approach to Sweet Gas
Corrosion Control by Inhibition,” paper SPE 23153,
Many corrosion tools can be combined to give a coding has been accepted by the National Associa- presented at the Offshore Europe Conference,
detailed picture of internal or external corrosion, tion of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) and the Energy Aberdeen, Scotland, September 3-6, 1991.
Resources Conservation Board (ERCB) in Canada. Stephens RM and Mohamed MF: “Corrosion Moni-
general corrosion or pits and holes. Modern com- toring and Inhibition in Khuff Gas Wells,” paper
Code 2 means 20 to 40% of wall penetration; code 3,
puters can present these data in many different SPE 11511, presented at the SPE Middle East Oil
40 to 60% wall penetration; code 4, 60 to 80% wall
Technology Conference, Manama, Bahrain, March
ways according to customer requirements (above). penetration; inner defect means over 20% wall pene- 14-17, 1983.
tration and penetration means a potential hole. 15. Seubert MK: “Design Parameters for Offshore Well
Casing Cathodic Protection,” paper SPE 17934,
presented at the SPE Middle East Oil Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Manama, Bahrain,
March 11-14, 1989.
14 Oilfield Review
2.5
Wellhead
Relative corrosion rate
0.5
0
5 10 15 20 25
% NaCI by weight
Clamp
nCorrosive effects of sodium chloride [NaCl]. As the weight per-
centage of NaCl increases up to about 5%, the corrosion rate
increases rapidly. Increasing the salt content above this reduces
the solubility of oxygen, so the corrosion rate decreases and at Tubing
about 15% NaCl, the rate is less than with fresh water.
nTypical cathodic
Rectifier protection installa-
tion for a pipeline.
Vented and secured Sacrificial anodes
casing cap are buried deep
– + underground in a
hole filled with
conductive mate-
rial to ensure elec-
Pipe casing through trical continuity
Protected pipeline loose surface soils between the
Pipe support anodes through
the ground to the
pipeline. The cir-
Medium gravel to cuit is completed
hold hole open and by connecting a Side pocket
vent any gases cable through a mandrel
Centering device rectifier to the
pipeline. The recti-
fier ensures that Packer
the cathodic pro-
tection system
does not reverse,
causing the
Anode strapped to
pipeline to corrode.
pipe support
nCapillary tube inhibitor injection.
Conductive material Inhibitors are chemicals that are absorbed
onto a metal surface from solution to pro-
tect against corrosion. The protective film
slows corrosion by increasing anodic and
Cabled individual
cathodic polarization, reducing diffusion of
anode leads
ions to the metal surface, increasing the
Working portion of electrical resistance at the metal-elec-
ground bed trolyte interface and by increasing the
hydrogen over voltage—the voltage
required to remove hydrogen and prevent
a buildup stifling the corrosion process.
The choice of inhibitor depends on the
metal to be protected and its environment.
Equally important is the method of appli-
cation. Shown is a continuous injection
method to protect tubing. Inhibitor is
pumped down a capillary tube strapped
to the outside of the tubing to a side pocket
Pipe foot
mandrel where it will then mix with pro-
duction fluid and form a protective film on
the inside.
April 1994 15
Steel ring Plastic Insulator tion network set up. Wells should be insu- Sonde
lated from pipelines so that protection sys-
tems do not cause unwanted anodic regions
and stray current corrosion.
Under the right conditions, iron sulfide
and iron carbonate scales—the corrosion
products when H2 S or CO2 are present—
provide protective coatings. The composi-
tion of production fluids, however, may
change during the life of a reservoir so rely-
ing on natural protection may not be wise.
Corrosion monitoring, in some form, should
Drillpipe
always be undertaken.
Compensating device
Monitoring Corrosion
Corrosion monitoring is just as important as
recognizing the problem and applying con-
Motor assembly
trols. Monitoring attempts to assess the use-
ful life of equipment, when corrosion condi- Gear box assembly
tions change and how effective the controls Rotating electrical
are. Techniques used for monitoring depend connection
Tool joint on what the equipment is, what it is used for
and where it is located.
Structures— Monitoring corrosion on
Test coupon exposed structures is fairly straightforward
and is carried out by visual inspection. More Centralizer
rigorous tests are required when a structure
is load-bearing. Some form of nondestructive
testing is used, such as magnetic particle Rotating shaft with
testing to reveal cracks.16 Sedco Forex rigs built-in electronics
are inspected every four years and require
underwater divers or remote operated vehi-
nTest coupon for monitoring corrosion of cles (ROVs) using still or video photography
Rotating seal
drillpipe. Test coupons may be inserted in to check the condition of legs and risers.
any type of pipe work to monitor corrosion. During this inspection the corrosion rate of
Rings inserted in the tool joints of drillpipe sacrificial anodes can be assessed. Normally
are later removed and examined to moni-
tor corrosion type and corrosion rate—the anodes are designed to last seven or eight
assumption being that the coupons cor- years so they will have to be replaced during
rode at the same rate as the drillpipe. the typical 20-year life of a rig. Transducer
Mud engineers also use drillpipe coupons Drillpipe—To monitor drillpipe corrosion
to check the corrosive properties of the Interchangeable
mud system. and the effectiveness of mud treatments, rotating sub
coupon rings are installed between joints
(left ). The rate of corrosion can then be
assessed by measuring the amount of metal 7.5 rps
lost from the rings. Rates of 0.5 to 2
lbm/ft 2/yr [2.4 to 9.8 kg/m 2/yr] without pit-
ting are acceptable. Drillpipe is also regu- nThe UBI Ultrasonic Borehole Imager tool.
The UBI tool uses a rotating focused trans-
larly inspected on racks by ultrasonic and X- ducer to produce an image of the casing.
ray techniques. The transducer fires an ultrasonic pulse at
Mud—During drilling, mud systems are the casing. Some energy is reflected back
routinely monitored for chemical and physi- to the transducer from the internal surface
cal properties. Tests specifically related to of the casing. By measuring the time
between transducer firing and the arrival
corrosion control include an analysis of of the first echo an accurate casing inter-
oxygen, CO2 , H2S and bacteria. Hydrogen nal diameter is calculated. The amplitude
sulfide is detected by measuring the total of the first arrival also gives a vivid image
of the inner casing surface. The tool has a
vertical resolution of 0.2 in. [5 mm].
16 Oilfield Review
level of soluble sulfides. Mud filtrate can be Amplitude, dB Internal Radii Radius Metal Loss, in. nUBI log in cased
minus avg, in. min. hole. This log is
tested further by adding acid to liberate H2S, presented on a
which can be measured using any standard max. scale of 1:10 and
–0.1500
–0.0711
–0.1842
0.1842
0.0868
H2 S detector such as a Draeger tube. Bacte- avg, in. shows a large hole
0.15
–0.5
0.5
rial attacks can be recognized by a drop in in the 7-in. liner
11
15
0
7
pH, increase in fluid loss or change in vis- around X220 ft.
2.5 in 3.5
Just above the cor-
cosity. Anaerobic bacteria can turn the mud roded hole is a pat-
black and produce a smell of rotten eggs. tern of several
Casing and tubing— Various corrosion X212
smaller holes
logging tools measure internal corrosion, where the casing
has been perfo-
external corrosion and even evaluate rated. Track 1
cathodic protection of oil wells (see “Corro- shows the ampli-
sion Logging Tools” page 12).17 One of the tude image, Track
most commonly used techniques has been perforations 2 the increase or
the multifinger caliper run on either slickline decrease in the
internal radius
or electric line. This measures the internal image and Track 4
radius of casing and tubing using lightly shows the metal
sprung feeler arms. (Heavy springing can loss image. Track 3
cause the fingers to leave tracks through gives a cross sec-
tion of the well.
protective scales and chemical inhibitors
leading to enhanced corrosion from running
the survey itself!) An improvement on con-
tact calipers is the ultrasonic caliper (previ-
ous page, right ), which uses a rotating ultra-
sonic transducer to measure the echo time X220
April 1994 17
sion. In the past, the onset of well problems nThe FACT Flux
Array Corrosion Tool.
instigated monitoring. While waiting for a This highly articu-
failure is not recommended, recovering cor- lated sensor mea-
roded tubing or casing at least provides sures flux leakage
valuable after-the-fact information, and and eddy current
every opportunity is taken to find out what anomalies associ-
ated with pit or
caused the corrosion and the failure. crevice corrosion
Some downhole monitoring techniques on pipeline walls.
have been adapted to logging pipelines.19 A powerful electro-
The same surface logging equipment is Electronics
magnet generates
low-frequency mag-
used, but the logging tools themselves have netic flux. Corrosion
been made more flexible to pass around causes changes in
sharp bends (right ). Short lengths of pipe the flux, inducing
may be logged by this method, but longer a voltage in the pad-
lengths are usually monitored by smart pigs. mounted sensor coils.
Separate coils detect
These are sophisticated instrument pack- inner wall defects
ages, which use ultrasonic, flux leakage and by inducing surface
other electromagnetic techniques to check eddy currents with a
for corrosion. The data are usually stored in high-frequency sig-
nal. This helps distin-
the pig itself for later retrieval. The pig is guish internal from
pumped along a pipeline from a specially- external defects
built launching station to a purpose-built detected by the flux
receiving section of the pipeline. Surveys leakage coils.
cover tens or even hundreds of miles.
Conclusion
The oil industry has invested heavily in
Pad-mounted sensors
material and personnel to try to tame corro- and electromagnet
sion and prevent metal from returning to its
natural state. New oil fields benefit from
predevelopment planning and the growing
knowledge of all aspects of corrosion con-
trol and monitoring. Older fields will con-
tinue to benefit from the expertise of the
corrosion engineer and the constant moni-
toring required to prevent disaster. —AM
18 Oilfield Review
3D Seismic Survey Design
There’s more to designing a seismic survey than just choosing sources and receivers and shooting away. To
get the best signal at the lowest cost, geophysicists are tapping an arsenal of technology from integration of
of a marine 3D sur-
Angus Mann vey has decreased
25
Nick Moldoveanu by more than 50%.
Houston, Texas, USA 20 (Courtesy of Ian Jack,
BP Exploration, Stock-
15 ley Park, England.)
Christian Déplanté
Elf Aquitaine 10
Pau, France
5
DickiIreson 0
Thor Sinclair 1990 1991 1992 1993
Glen Redekop Increased efficiency has brought the cost of taken into account. This article investigates
Maersk Oil Qatar AS marine three-dimensional (3D) seismic data the objectives and methods of seismic sur-
Doha, Qatar to its lowest level ever, expanding the popu- vey design and reviews field examples of
larity of 3D surveys (above ). In the past five state-of-the-art techniques.
years, oil companies have increased expen- The ideal 3D survey serves multiple pur-
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Jack ditures on seismic surveys by almost 60%, poses. Initially, the data may be used to
Caldwell and Greg Leriger, Geco-Prakla, Houston, USA;
Mandy Coxon and Dominique Pajot, Geco-Prakla, to $2.2 billion. 1 However, an estimated enhance a structural interpretation based on
Gatwick, England; Jacques Estival, Elf Petroleum Nigeria, 10% of surveys fail to achieve their primary two-dimensional (2D) data, yielding new
Lagos, Nigeria; Dietmar Kluge, Geco-Prakla, Hannover, objective—some because the technology drilling locations. Later in the life of a field,
Germany; Lloyd Peardon, Schlumberger Cambridge
Research, England; Lars Sonneland, Geco-Prakla, does not exist to process the data, some seismic data may be revisited to answer
Stavanger, Norway; and Tim Spencer, British Gas, because the surveys are improperly questions about fine-scale reservoir architec-
Reading, England.
planned. 2 Careful planning can result in ture or fluid contacts, or may be compared
Appreciation is expressed to Qatar General Petroleum
Corporation (QGPC) for its consent to the release of data. more cost-effective acquisition and process- with a later monitor survey to infer fluid-front
QUAD-QUAD is a mark of Geco-Prakla. TWST ing, and in data of sufficient quality to bene- movement. All these stages of interpretation
(Through-Tubing Well Seismic Tool) is a mark of Schlum- fit from the most advanced processing. rely on satisfactory processing, which in turn
berger.
But before the first shot is fired or the first relies on adequate seismic signal to process.
1. For the most recent worldwide figures:
trace recorded, survey designers must deter- The greatest processing in the world cannot
Riley DC: “Special Report Geophysical Activity in
1991,” The Leading Edge 12, no. 11 (November mine the best way to reveal the subsurface fix flawed signal acquisition.
1993): 1094-1117. target. As basics, they consider locations
2. Personal communication: Thor Sinclair. and types of sources and receivers, and the
time and labor required for acquisition.
Many additional factors, including health,
safety and environmental issues, must be
April 1994 19
Temporal Aliasing Elements of a Good Signal
nTemporal and What makes a good seismic signal? Process-
50 Hz 200 Hz spatial aliasing
caused by sam- ing specialists list three vital require-
pling less than ments—good signal-to-noise ratio (S/N),
twice per cycle. high resolving power and adequate spatial
Temporal aliasing coverage of the target. These basic elements,
(top) occurs when
insufficient sam- along with some geophysical guidelines (see
pling renders a 50- “Guidelines from Geophysics,” page 22 ),
Hz signal and a form the foundation of survey design.
200-Hz signal indis- High S/N means the seismic trace has
tinguishable
(arrows represent high amplitudes at times that correspond to
0 8 16 24 32
Time, msec sample points). The reflections, and little or no amplitude at
50-Hz signal is ade- other times. During acquisition, high S/N is
quately sampled, achieved by maximizing signal with a seis-
but not the 200-Hz. mic source of sufficient power and directiv-
Minor Aliasing Extreme Aliasing (Adapted from Sheriff,
reference 4.) Spatial ity, and by minimizing noise.3 Noise can
aliasing (bottom) either be generated by the source—shot-
occurs when generated or coherent noise, sometimes
receiver spacing is orders of magnitude stronger than deep seis-
more than half the
spatial wavelength. mic reflections—or be random. Limitations
With minor aliasing in the dynamic range of acquisition equip-
Two-way time
Hyperbolic
moveout much slower velocity than the signal, and
so need closer receiver spacing to be prop-
erly sampled. Planners always try to design
+ Stacking surveys so that surface waves do not con-
velocity = + + =
taminate the signal. But if this is not possi-
ble, the surface waves must be adequately
CMP gather Corrected Stacked
CMP gather CMP trace sampled spatially so they can be removed.
During processing, S/N is enhanced
nBetter stacking from a wide and evenly spaced set of offsets. through filters that suppress noise. Coherent
Reflection arrival times from different offsets are assumed to fol- noise is reduced by removing temporal and
low a hyperbola. The shape of the hyperbola is computed from spatial frequencies different from those of
the arrivals. Traces are aligned by flattening the best-fitting
hyperbola into a straight line, then summed, or stacked. Perfect the desired signal, if known. Both coherent
alignment should yield maximum signal amplitude at the time and random noise are suppressed by stack-
corresponding to zero offset. A wide range of evenly spaced off- ing—summing traces from a set of source-
sets gives a better-fitting hyperbola, and so a better stack. receiver pairs associated with reflections at
a common midpoint, or CMP.4 The source-
receiver spacing is called offset. To be
stacked, every CMP set needs a wide and
evenly sampled range of offsets to define the
reflection travel-time curve, known as the
normal moveout curve. Flattening that
curve, called normal moveout correction,
will make reflections from different offsets
arrive at the time of the zero-offset reflec-
tion. They are then summed to produce a
stack trace (left ). In 3D surveys, with the
20
advent of multielement marine acquisi- Offsets and Azimuths in a CMP Bin
tion—multistreamer, multisource seismic
1 2 3
vessels—and complex land acquisition
geometries, reflections at a CMP come from
a range of azimuths as well as a range of
offsets (right ).5 A 3D CMP trace is formed by
stacking traces from source-receiver pairs 4 5 6
whose midpoints share a more or less com-
mon position in a rectangular horizontal
area defined during planning, called a bin.
The number of traces stacked is called Source Receiver
fold—in 24-fold data every stack trace rep- Bin Offset Distribution
resents the average of 24 traces. Theoreti- 1 2 3
cally, the S/N of a survey increases as the
square root of the fold, provided the noise is
random. Experience has shown, however,
that for a given target time, there is an opti-
mum fold, beyond which almost no S/N 4 5 6
improvement can be made.
Many survey designers use rules of thumb
and previous experience from 2D data to
choose an optimal fold for certain targets or
certain conditions. A fringe—called the fold nReflections from source-receiver pairs bounce in a bin, a rectan-
taper or halo—around the edge of the sur- gular, horizontal area defined during planning. In a 3D survey a
vey will have partial fold, thus lower S/N, CMP trace is formed by stacking traces that arrive from a range of
azimuths and offsets (top). The distribution of offsets is displayed in
because several of the first and last shots do a histogram within each bin (bottom). The vertical axis of the his-
not reach as many receivers as in the central togram shows the amount of offset, and the horizontal axis indi-
part of the survey (below, right ). Getting full cates the position of the trace in offset.
fold over the whole target means expanding
the survey area beyond the dimensions of Shotpoint number
the target, sometimes by 100% or more. 130 160 190 220
Many experts believe that 3D surveys do not
require the level of fold of 2D surveys. This
is because 3D processing correctly positions 130
energy coming from outside the plane con- 40
taining the source and receiver, which in the
36
2D case would be noise. The density of data 160
in a 3D survey also permits the use of noise- 33
reduction processing, which performs better 29
on 3D data than on 2D.
190 25
Filtering and stacking go a long way
Fold
toward reducing noise, but one kind of 22
noise that often remains is caused by multi- 18
220
ple reflections, “multiples” for short. Multi-
14
ples are particularly problematic where
there is a high contrast in seismic properties 11
near the surface. Typical multiples are rever- 250
7
berations within a low-velocity zone, such
3
as between the sea surface and sea bottom,
April 1994 21
a a
Time, sec 0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Primary
reflection
22
Long-path
multiple
Seafloor reflection
Seafloor multiple
Seafloor multiple
Primary reflection
Multiple
Multiple
nMultiple reflec-
tions. After leav-
ing the source,
seismic energy
can be reflected a
number of times
before arriving at
the receiver.
∆x = V rms
4f max sin ϑ
,
2D fold ∆x∆y
2Rf dx
,
or between the earth’s surface and the bot-
tom of a layer of unconsolidated rock
(below, left ). Multiples can appear as later
arrivals on a seismic section, and are easy to
confuse with deep reflections (left ).6 And
because they can have the same character-
istics as the desired signal—same frequency
content and similar velocities—they are
often difficult to suppress through filtering
and stacking. Sometimes they can be
removed through other processing tech-
niques, called demultiple processing, but
researchers continue to look for better ways
to treat multiples.
The second characteristic of a good seis-
mic signal is high resolution, or resolving
power—the ability to detect reflectors and
quantify the strength of the reflection. This is
achieved by recording a high bandwidth, or
wide range of frequencies. The greater the
bandwidth, the greater the resolving power
of the seismic wave. A common objective of
seismic surveys is to distinguish the top and
bottom of the target. The target thickness
determines the minimum wavelength
required in the survey, generally considered
to be four times the thickness.7 That wave-
length is used to calculate the maximum
required frequency in the bandwidth—
average seismic velocity to the target
divided by minimum wavelength equals
maximum frequency. The minimum fre-
quency is related to the depth of the target.
Lower frequencies can travel deeper. Some
seismic sources are designed to emit energy
in particular frequency bands, and receivers
normally operate over a wider band. Ideally,
sources that operate in the optimum fre-
quency band are selected during survey
design. More often, however, surveys are
shot with whatever equipment is proposed
by the lowest bidder.
X max = 2Tv 2
∆f ∆v
v
,
a
receivers, and the earth or sea surface. If the
path of the multiple is short enough, the
multiple—sometimes called a ghost—will
closely trail the direct signal, affecting the
signal’s frequency content. The two-way
travel time of the ghost is associated with a
frequency, called the ghost notch, at which
signals cancel out. This leaves the seismic
record virtually devoid of signal amplitude
at the notch frequency. The shorter the dis-
tance between the source or receiver and
the reflector generating the multiple, the
higher the notch frequency. It is important to
choose a source and receiver depth that
places the notch outside the desired band-
width. It would seem desirable to plan a
survey with the shallowest possible sources
and receivers, but this is not always optimal,
especially for deep targets. On land, short-
path multiples can reflect off near-surface
layers, making deeper sources preferable. In
marine surveys, waves add noise and insta-
bility, necessitating deeper placement of
both sources and receivers. In both cases,
survey design helps reach a compromise.
The third requirement for good seismic
data is adequate subsurface coverage. The
lateral distance between CMPs at the target
is the bin length (for computation of bin
length, see ”Guidelines from Geophysics,”
previous page ). Assuming a smooth hori-
zontal reflector, the minimum source spac-
ing and receiver spacing on the surface
must be twice the CMP spacing at the tar-
get. If the reflector dips, reflection points are
not CMPs (above, right ). Reflected waves
may be spatially aliased if the receiver spac-
ing is incorrect. A survey designed with good
spatial coverage but assuming flat layers
might fail in complex structure. To record
reflections from a dipping layer involves
more distant sources and receivers than
reflections from a flat layer, requiring expan-
April 1994
a
Horizontal Reflector
Dipping Reflector
Shotpoint
Receiver
23
Theoretical Grid choose the one that best suits the survey Checkerboard Pattern
(right ). Once a survey pattern is selected,
subsurface coverage can be computed in
terms of fold and distribution of offset and
azimuth. If the coverage has systematic
holes, the pattern must be modified.iIn com-
plex terrain, planned and actual surveys
may differ significantly (left ).9
Land acquisition hardware can cost $5
million to $10 million for recording equip-
Brick Pattern
ment and sources—usually vibrating trucks
or dynamite—but labor is the major survey
cost. Cost can be controlled by limiting the
number of vibrator points or shotpoints, or
the number of receivers. But limiting
receivers limits the area that can be shot at
one time. If a greater area is required,
receivers must be picked up and moved,
increasing labor costs. The most efficient
surveys balance source and receiver Zigzag Pattern
requirements so that most of the time is
spent recording seismic data and not wait-
Final Grid ing for equipment to be moved. Land prepa-
ration, such as surveying source and
receiver locations and cutting paths through
vegetation or topography, must be included
on the cost side of the planning equation. In
countries where mineral rights and land sur-
24 Oilfield Review
tens of thousands of dollars per day to oper-
ate. Sources are clusters of air guns of differ-
ent volumes and receivers are hydrophones
strung 0.5 m [1.6 ft] apart in groups of up to
48, on cables up to 6000 m [19,680 ft]
long. Sources and receivers are almost
always towed in straight lines across the tar-
get (below, right ), although other geometries
are possible. Circular surveys have been
acquired with sources and receivers towed
by vessels running in spirals or concentric
circles.10 Geco-Prakla’s QUAD-QUAD sys-
tem tows four receiver cables and four
source arrays simultaneously, acquiring 16
lines at a time. Currents and tides can cause
the long receiver cables to deviate by calcu-
lable amounts—up to 30°—from the towing
direction. Spacing between shotpoints is a
function of vessel speed, and can be limited
by how quickly the air guns can recover full
pressure and fire again. Access is usually
limited only by water depth, but drilling
rigs, production platforms and shipping
lanes can present navigational obstacles.
Environmental constraints also influence
marine surveys: the commercial fishing
industry is imposing limits on location of,
and seasons for, marine acquisition.11 For
example, planning in the Caspian Sea must
avoid the sturgeon breeding season or seis-
mic surveys would wipe out caviar produc-
tion for the year.
a Transition zones—shallow water areas—
have their own problems, and require spe-
cialized equipment and creative planning.12
Transition zones are complex, involving
shorelines, river mouths, coral reefs and
swamps. They present a sensitive environ-
ment and are influenced by ship traffic,
commercial fishing and bottom obstruc-
tions. Survey planners have to contend with
varying water depths, high environmental
noise, complex geology, wind, surf and
multiple receiver types—often a combina-
tion of hydrophones and geophones.
One thing all surveys have in common is
that planning must be done quickly. The
April 1994
a
clock starts ticking once acreage is licensed.
Exploration and development contracts
require oil companies to drill a certain
number of wells, spend a certain amount of
money, or shoot a certain amount of seis-
mic data before a given date. There is often
little time between gaining approval to
explore or develop an area and having to
drill. In some cases, oil companies plan
every detail of the acquisition before putting
the job out to bid. In other cases, to
increase efficiency, oil companies and seis-
mic service companies share the planning.
In many cases, service companies plan the
survey from beginning to end based on
what the oil company wishes to achieve. In
the quest for cost savings, however, seismic
signal is often compromised.
Bin
Cost-Effective Seismic Planning
How would 3D seismic acquisition, pro-
cessing and interpretation be different if a
little more emphasis were given to survey
design? Geco-Prakla’s Survey Evaluation
and Design team in Gatwick, England, has
shown that by taking a bit more care, signal
can be improved, quality assured and cost
optimized simultaneously. There are three
parts to the process as practiced by Geco-
Prakla—specification, evaluation and design
(next page ). Specification defines the survey
objectives in terms of a particular depth or
target formation, and the level of interpreta-
tion and resolution required. The level of
interpretation must be defined early; data to
be used solely for structural interpretation
can be of lesser quality, leading to lower
nMarine acquisi-
tion geometry
showing seismic
vessels looping in
oblong circuits.
The length of
straight segments is
calculated from
fold plots, and must
include additional
length—“run in”
and “run out”—to
allow cable to
straighten after
each turn.
25
Specification
Define survey Resolution Required
objectives analysis geophysical
parameters
Design
Planning No
Source,
No Required Yes template Preferred
Objectives Yes Final survey
equal survey
obtainable? and array achieved? design
design parameters
Evaluation
Analysis of Resolution, noise Obtainable
and coverage Prospect Operational,
existing data description geophysical
analysis parameters cost and safety
constraints
•Source peak amplitude •Source signature Evaluation of existing data, which can be
for various depths
•Peak-to-bubble ratio done independently and concurrently, tells
•Source volume which geophysical parameters are obtain-
•Bandwidth at target
•Source depth able—sometimes different from those stipu-
•Apply losses to lated by specification. The types of data
•Resolution attainable source signatures •Target wavelet
evaluated include logs, vertical seismic pro-
•Noise levels
files (VSPs) and 2D or existing 3D data.
•Estimate spatial and •Modeled section Existing data can provide models for simu-
temporal resolution •Build geological •Synthetic lating the effects of the geophysical parame-
2D model and CMP gathers ters on new seismic data. If the required
•Shooting direction apply appropriate
1D Models
•Primary/multiple target wavelet •Synthetic shots parameters are not obtainable, the survey
Logs or
•Amplitude versus
S/N relationship time plots cost, safety and environmental constraints.
2D or 3D
•Group interval
•Mute, stack,
•Crossline spacing fold tests
•Spatial frequency •Migration of
•Spatial resolution synthetic
•Analysis of zero-offset data
migration
•Shotpoint interval requirements •Migration of
•Migration aperture existing 2D data
•Shooting direction
•Ambient noise
•Record length estimation
26 Oilfield Review
Shot Depth 28 m Shot Depth 9 m
Putting Planning into Practice
In 1991 Elf Petroleum Nigeria Limited put
0 nTests with dyna-
mite sources at dif-
out for tender a 160-km2 [62-sq mile] land ferent depths.
survey in the Niger Delta. Working with the Traces recorded
Seismic Acquisition Service of Elf Aquitaine from the shot at 28
Production in Pau, France, the Survey Eval- m [92 ft] (left) show
less low-frequency
uation and Design group evaluated sources noise—ground
and geometries for optimal acquisition. The roll—than from the
primary target is the structure of the Ibewa shot at 9 m (right).
1.0 In general, the
oilfield at 3500 m [11,480 ft], at or below 3
sec two-way time, with secondary deeper deeper the source,
the less ground roll
objectives. Signal-to-noise requirements, generated.
based on previous experience, suggested
the data should be 24-fold. Resolution of
the target required signal bandwidth of 10 to
60 Hz and 25 m by 25 m [82 ft by 82 ft]
bins. The source was specified to be dyna- Time, sec
mite, which would be fired in shotholes 2.0
April 1994 27
0-10 Hz 10-20 Hz 20-30 Hz 30-40 Hz 40-50 Hz
0 nFiltered 2D data
showing frequency
content variation
with depth. Each
panel has been fil-
tered to allow a dif-
1.0 ferent band of fre-
quencies, called the
passband, to pass.
As the passband
rises, the maximum
depth of penetration
Time, sec
of seismic energy
2.0 decreases. Lower
frequencies (left)
penetrate deeper.
Higher frequencies
(right) do not propa-
gate to deeper lev-
els. At the target
3.0
level of 3.0 sec there
is still some 50 Hz
energy left.
4.0
expected from seismic data in the area The complete survey evaluation and and acquire a 3D survey that would provide
(above ). Resampling along the 2D line at design took two months and reached the a 25 km 2 [9.6 sq mile] image, requiring
the sampling interval planned for the 3D following conclusions. about 49 km2 [18.8 sq mile] of full fold data,
survey confirmed that the 50-m [165-ft] 1. A target bandwidth of 10 to 60 Hz is a and to spud a vertical development
receiver and shot spacings initially recom- reasonable acquisition objective. appraisal well. Given the tight schedule—
mended were appropriate. Fold-reduction 2. Placement of sources deeper than 40 m processing alone normally takes a year—
simulations performed on the 2D sections would avoid complex processing prob- Maersk Oil contracted a survey evaluation
showed that 24-fold would be appropriate lems and high levels of ground roll in the and design study based on existing VSPs and
for the survey. However, a brick pattern 3D data set. If logistics prevent locating 2D surveys. This study was more extensive
would give better fold and offset distribution the sources at this depth, then a fallback than the previous example, with more pre-
than the roll-along pattern, potentially deployment of sources at 9 m would existing data, particularly well data.
improving the survey results. The brick pat- meet the target bandwidth criterion with The objective of the 3D survey was to
tern would also reduce the lateral offset minimal notching but higher levels of produce a stratigraphic image of the
between source and receiver line, thus ground roll. Field quality control should Kharaib limestones and a thin 13- to 15-ft
reducing the potential for ground roll arriv- verify there is no notch between 10 and [4- to 4.6-m] thick overlying oil-filled sand.
ing at the same time as the reflection from 60 Hz. The seismic data were to be analyzed for
the target and making the ground roll easier 3. A 144-trace brick pattern with 300-m porosity-related amplitude variations along
to handle in processing. [984-ft] receiver line spacing and 300-m with small-scale faulting and fracturing to
shot line spacing would give the best off- help in planning the trajectory of future hor-
set distribution. izontal wells. The acquisition vessel had
4. Shot and receiver intervals should be no already been contracted, limiting the seis-
more than 50 m. mic source to a 1360- or 1580-in.3 [22,290-
Drilling 40-m holes for each source location or 25,900-cm3] air gun.
was deemed impractical. Optimizing costs Evaluation of existing data indicated areas
and logistics, the company obtained satis- where special care had to be taken to
factory results with a 24-m [79-ft] source ensure a successful survey. For example,
depth, single-shot dynamite, and brickwork high-velocity beds at the seafloor promised
acquisition pattern. to cause strong multiples, reducing the
Evaluation and design can be different in energy transmitted to deeper layers and
the marine setting. A case in point is the Al
Shaheen location in offshore Qatar, under
development appraisal by Maersk Oil Qatar
AS, according to an agreement with Qatar
General Petroleum Corporation (QGPC).
Maersk Oil had only eight months to design
28 Oilfield Review
5-10 Hz 10-20 Hz 20-40 Hz 40-60 Hz 60-80 Hz 80-100 Hz
0
0.5
Time, sec
1.0
1.5
60
5175
Level number
April 1994 29
3-m throw 6-m throw 12-m throw 24-m throw
0.3
energy sources, source and streamer depth,
spatial sampling and minimum and maxi-
mum offsets. Some of the early 2D lines
0.4
were reprocessed to evaluate migration
requirements and techniques for removing
multiples. 15 Five recommendations were
Two-way time, sec
30 Oilfield Review
drilling. Faults with throws as little as 8 to 10 0
Depth, m
Salt
survey evaluation and design studies, some- 3000
times with surprising results. In one case,
analysis of tidal currents led the team to pro-
4000
pose a change of 120° in shooting direction,
which would add $150,000 to the process-
ing cost, but cut 45 days and $1,500,000 off 5000
April 1994 31
0
1000
2000
Depth, m
3000
4000
5000
6000
0 4000 8000 12,000 16,000 20,000 24,000 28,000
Distance, m
1000
2000
Depth, m
3000
4000
5000
6000
0 4000 8000 12,000 16,000 20,000 24,000 28,000
Distance, m
nRaytrace modeling to optimize cable length. Refraction through salt may mean a longer
cable is required to image structure below. Two cable lengths, 8075 m (top) and 5425 m
(bottom) were tested using the model on the previous page. Surprisingly, in this case both
cables give similar coverage of subsalt horizons.
seismic data (above ). Surprisingly, a stan- proprietary data to three oil companies. The example, in a recent TQ3D survey, steeply
dard 5425-m [17,794-ft] cable provides remaining 25% is nonexclusive, and dipping reflectors in 20% of the area would
coverage similar to that of the proposed although sponsored in part by the current have been optimally sampled if the receiver
8075-m [26,500-ft] cable. players in this area, the data will also be spacing had been reduced from 25 m to 20
Another advance may come through inte- available to new players. m [66 ft], but the 25% additional cost was
gration of survey design with acquisition, Defining the objectives of a TQ3D survey unacceptable to clients. Having flagged this
processing and interpretation into a single can be a difficult process. Rather than haz- as an area where data quality could be
quality-assured operation. The aim is to arding a guess at which reflectors in an area improved, attention will be paid to process-
maximize cost-effectiveness of the overall are the sought-after targets, Geco-Prakla ing that may help imaging of steep dips.
seismic survey, to supply quality-assured planners involve proprietary and nonexclu- As oil companies and service companies
processed data with minimum turnaround sive clients at early stages of the project. strive for efficiency and acquisition of high-
time and optimal cost. Within Geco-Prakla, Over open acreage they examine a data quality, cost-effective seismic data, more
this idea is called Total Quality 3D, or base of nonexclusive 2D seismic surveys to emphasis is being placed on survey design.
TQ3D. Such surveys may be acquired on a learn about the targets. The other pieces of the seismic puzzle—
proprietary (exclusive) or a speculative Choosing acquisition parameters that will acquisition, processing and interpreta-
(nonexclusive) basis, or a combination of be optimal over the entire survey is also a tion—have all benefited from advances in
the two. For example, 75% of a 700-km2 challenge. It is not always practical to follow technology, and survey design is following
[271-sq mile] TQ3D survey in the southern all the recommendations proposed by a sur- the trend. Through powerful modeling and
UK continental shelf will be delivered as vey evaluation and design study, but a judg- integration of log, VSP and surface seismic
ment can be made of the impact that any data, 3D survey design will become the
decision will have on the quality of the data. foundation for all that follows. —LS
Then, other options can be explored. For
32 Oilfield Review
Designing and Managing
Drilling Fluid
Gone are the days when drilling fluid—or mud as it is commonly called—comprised only clay and water.
Today, the drilling engineer designing a mud program chooses from a comprehensive catalog of ingredients.
The aim is to select an environmentally acceptable fluid that suits the well and the formation being drilled, to
understand the mud’s limitations, and then to manage operations efficiently within those limitations.
Ben Bloys There are good reasons to improve drilling What Influences the Choice of Fluid?
ARCO Exploration and fluid performance and management, not Among the many factors to consider when
Production Technology least of which is economics. Mud may rep- choosing a drilling fluid are the well’s
Plano, Texas, USA resents 5% to 15% of drilling costs but may design, anticipated formation pressures and
cause 100% of drilling problems. Drilling rock mechanics, formation chemistry, the
Neal Davis fluids play sophisticated roles in the drilling need to limit damage to the producing for-
Chevron Petroleum Technology Company process: stabilizing the wellbore without mation, temperature, environmental regula-
Houston, Texas, USA damaging the formation, keeping formation tions, logistics, and economics (see “Critical
fluids at bay, clearing cuttings from the bit Decisions,” next page).
Brad Smolen face, and lubricating the bit and drillstring, To meet these design factors, drilling flu-
BP Exploration Inc. to name a few.1 High-angle wells, high tem- ids offer a complex array of interrelated
Houston, Texas, USA peratures and long, horizontal sections properties. Five basic properties are usually
through pay zones make even more rigor- defined by the well program and monitored
Louise Bailey ous demands on drilling fluids. during drilling: rheology, density, fluid loss,
Otto Houwen Furthermore, increasing environmental solids content and chemical properties (see
Paul Reid concerns have limited the use of some of “Basic Mud Properties and Ingredients,”
John Sherwood the most effective drilling fluids and addi- page 36 ).3
Cambridge, England tives.2 At the same time, as part of the indus- For any type of drilling fluid, all five prop-
try’s drive for improved cost-effectiveness, erties may, to some extent, be manipulated
Lindsay Fraser drilling fluid performance has come under using additives. However, the resulting
Houston, Texas, USA ever closer scrutiny. chemical properties of a fluid depend
This article looks at the factors influencing largely on the type of mud chosen. And this
Mike Hodder fluid choice, detailing two new types of choice rests on the type of well, the nature
Montrouge, France mud. Then it will discuss fluid management of the formations to be drilled and the envi-
during drilling. ronmental circumstances of the well.
In this article MSM (Mud Solids Monitor) and FMP (Fluid 2. Geehan T, Helland B, Thorbjørnsen K, Maddin C,
Monitoring Package) are marks of Schlumberger. McIntire B, Shepherd B and Page W: “Reducing the
Fann 35 is a mark of Baroid Corporation. Oilfield’s Environmental Footprint,” Oilfield Review 2,
no. 4 (October 1990): 53-63.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to John
Astleford, Schlumberger Dowell, Bottesford, England; Minton RC, McKelvie DS, Caudle DD, Ayres RC Jr.,
Thom Geehan, Schlumberger Dowell, Houston, Texas, Smith JP, Cline JT, Duff A, Blanchard JR and Read AD:
USA, Alan McKee and Doug Oakley, Schlumberger “The Physical and Biological Impact of Processed Oil
Dowell, St. Austell, England; Eric Puskar, Schlumberger Drill Cuttings: E&P Forum Joint Study,” paper SPE
Dowell, Clamart, France. 26750, presented at the Offshore Europe Conference,
Aberdeen, Scotland, September 7-10, 1993.
1. For a comprehensive review of the role of drilling
fluids: 3. For a full description of these properties and their
measurement:
Darley HCH and Gray GR: Composition and Proper-
ties of Drilling and Completion Fluids, 5th ed. Hous- Geehan T and McKee A: “Drilling Mud: Monitoring
ton, Texas, USA: Gulf Publishing Co.,1988. and Managing It,” Oilfield Review 1, no. 2 (July
1989): 41-52.
April 1994 33
Critical Decisions Shales are the most common rock types
encountered while drilling for oil and gas
Issue Decision and give rise to more problems per meter
drilled than any other type of formation.
• Environmental and health considerations Estimates of worldwide, nonproductive
Specific health and Determines mud system costs associated with shale problems are put
environmental concerns cuttings treatment/
at $500 to $600 million annually.4 Common
on type of mud and disposal strategy
disposal of cuttings drilling problems like stuck pipe arise from
hole closure and collapse, erosion and poor
mud condition. In addition, the inferior
wellbore quality often encountered in shales
may make logging and completion opera-
tions difficult or impossible.
Shale instability is largely driven by
changes in stress and chemical alteration
• Logistics
caused by the infiltration of mud filtrate
Remote location well May prevent the use of
containing water (next page, top).5 Over the
systems that consume
large quantities of years, ways have been sought to limit inter-
chemicals action between mud filtrate and water-sensi-
tive formations. So, for example, in the late
1960s, studies of mud-shale reactions
resulted in the introduction of a water-base
mud (WBM) that combines potassium chlo-
• Geology ride [KCl] with a polymer called partially-
Composition and Determines mud hydrolyzed polyacrylamide—KCl-PHPA
arrangement of the chemistry/composition
mud.6 PHPA helps stabilize shale by coating
minerals in the formation
and the clay chemistry it with a protective layer of polymer—the
role of KCl will be discussed later.
The introduction of KCl-PHPA mud
• Well design data reduced the frequency and severity of shale
Well profile/angle Indicates the rheology instability problems so that deviated wells in
needed to optimize highly water-reactive formations could be
hole cleaning. High-
angle wells may need
enhanced lubricity •
April 1994 35
Basic Mud Properties and Ingredients
Basic Mud Properties mud, plus drilled solids from dispersed cuttings Thinners—These are added to the mud to reduce
Five basic properties are usually defined by the and ground rock. The amount and type of solids in its resistance to flow and to stifle gel develop-
well program and monitored during drilling:1 the mud affect a number of mud properties. A high ment. They are typically plant tannins, polyphos-
solids content, particularly LGS, will increase phates, lignitic materials, lignosulfonates or syn-
Rheology—A high viscosity fluid is desirable to
plastic viscosity and gel strength. High-solids thetic polymers.
carry cuttings to surface and suspend weighting
muds have much thicker filter cakes and slower
agents in the mud (such as barite). However, if Surfactants—These agents serve as emulsifiers,
drilling rates. Large particles of sand in the mud
viscosity is too high, friction may impede the cir- foamers and defoamers, wetting agents, deter-
cause abrasion on pump parts, tubulars, measure-
culation of the mud causing excessive pump gents, lubricators and corrosion inhibitors.
ment-while-drilling equipment and downhole
pressure, decrease the drilling rate, and hamper
motors. Measurement of total solids is tradition- Inorganic chemicals—A wide variety of inorganic
the solids removal equipment. The flow regime
ally carried out using a retort—which distils off the chemicals is added to mud to carry out various
of the mud in the annulus is also affected by vis-
liquid allowing it to be measured, leaving the functions. For example, calcium hydroxide is
cosity.2 Measurements made on the rig include
residual solids. used in lime mud and calcium chloride in OBM;
funnel viscosity using a Marsh funnel—an orifice
sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide
viscometer—and plastic viscosity, yield point Chemical properties—The chemical properties of
(caustic soda and caustic potash) are used to
and gel strength using a Fann 35 viscometer or the drilling fluid are central to performance and
increase mud pH and solubilize lignite; sodium
equivalent. hole stability. Properties that must be anticipated
carbonate (soda ash) to remove hardness, sodium
include the dispersion of formation clays or disso-
Density—Sufficient hydrostatic pressure is chloride for inhibition and sodium chloride has
lution of salt formations; the performance of other
required to prevent the borehole wall from caving many uses—such as increasing salinity, increas-
mud products—for example, polymers are
in and to keep formation fluid from entering the ing density, preventing hydrate formation and pro-
affected by pH and calcium; and corrosion in the
wellbore. The higher the density of the mud com- viding inhibition.
well (see “Corrosion in the Oil Industry,” page 4).
pared to the density of the cuttings, the easier it
Measurement rigside usually relies on simple Bridging materials—Calcium carbonate, cellulose
is to clean the hole—the cuttings will be less
chemical analysis to determine pH, Ca2+, total fibers, asphalts and gilsonites are added to build
inclined to fall through the mud. If the mud
hardness, concentrations of Cl- and sometimes K+. up a filter cake on the fractured borehole and help
weight is too high, rate of drilling decreases, the
prevent filtrate loss.
chances of differential sticking and accidentally Mud Ingredients
fracturing the well increase, and the mud cost Water—In water-base mud (WBM) this is the Lost circulation materials—These are used to
will be higher. The most common weighting largest component. It may be used in its natural block large openings in the wellbore. These
agent employed is barite. Density is measured on state, or salts may be added to change filtrate include walnut shells, mica and mud pills con-
the rig using a mud balance. reactivity with the formation. Water hardness is taining high concentrations of xanthum and modi-
usually eliminated through treatment and alkalin- fied cellulose.
Fluid loss—The aim is to create a low-permeabil-
ity is often controlled.
ity filter cake to seal between the wellbore and Specialized chemicals—Scavengers of oxygen,
the formation. Control of fluid loss restricts the Weighting agents—These are added to control for- carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide are sometimes
invasion of the formation by filtrate and mation fluid pressure. The most common is barite. required, as are biocides and corrosion inhibitors.
minimizes the thickness of filter cake that builds
Clay—Most commonly, bentonite is used to pro-
up on the borehole wall, reducing formation dam- 1. For a complete description of the traditional mud check
vide viscosity and create a filter cake on the bore- techniques:
age and the chances of differential sticking.
hole wall to control fluid loss. Clay is frequently Geehan T and McKee A: “Drilling Mud: Monitoring and
Static fluid loss is measured on the rig using a Managing It,” Oilfield Review 1, no. 2 (July 1989): 41-52.
replaced by organic colloids such as biopolymers,
standard cell that forces mud through a screen, 2. Plastic viscosity (PV) and yield point (YP) are related
cellulose polymers or starch. parameters and follow common oilfield conventions
and also using a high-temperature, high-pressure
based on the Bingham rheological model. PV is largely
test cell. Polymers—These are used to reduce filtration, dependent on the type of mud and its solids content. The
stabilize clays, flocculate drilled solids and lower the PV, the faster the drilling penetration rate. How-
Solids content—Solids are usually classified as ever, this is limited by the YP, which is a direct measure of
increase cuttings-carrying capacity. Cellulosic, the fluid’s cuttings-carrying efficiency.
high gravity (HGS)—barite and other weighting
polyacrylic and natural gum polymers are used in For details of rheology:
agents—or low gravity (LGS)—clays, polymers
low-solids mud to help maintain hole stability and Bittleston S and Guillot D: “Mud Removal: Research
and bridging materials deliberately put in the Improves Traditional Cementing Guidelines,” Oilfield
minimize dispersion of the drill cuttings. Long- Review 3, no. 2 (April 1991): 44-54.
chain polymers are adsorbed onto the cuttings,
thereby preventing disintegration and dispersion.
36 Oilfield Review
achieved by providing cation exchange with to WBM—particularly where OBM would those laid down in Norway, the UK, The
the clays in the shale—the K+ or Ca2+ com- have been used prior to the introduction of Netherlands, Denmark and the USA.
monly replace the sodium ion [Na+] associ- new environmental constraints. Glycols in mud were proposed as lubri-
ated with the clay in the shale, creating a cants and shale inhibitors as early as the
more stable rock that is better able to resist The State of the WBM Art 1960s. But it was not until the late 1980s
hydration. Hence KCl-PHPA fluids.9 This article will now concentrate on that the materials became widely consid-
The movement of WBM filtrate from the advances in WBM technology by looking at ered. Properly engineered polyol muds are
wellbore into the surrounding shale is con- two distinct directions of development: the robust, highly inhibitive and often cost-
trolled by the difference between the chemi- use of polyols for shale inhibition and the effective. Compared with other WBM sys-
cal potentials of the various species in the introduction of mixed-metal hydroxides to tems, low volumes are typically required.
mud, and the corresponding chemical improve hole cleaning and help reduce for- Polyols have a number of different effects,
potentials within the formation. Chemical mation damage. such as lubricating the drillstring, opposing
potential depends both on the mud’s hydro- Polyol muds—Polyol is the generic name bit balling (where clays adhere to the bit)
static pressure in the wellbore and on its for a wide class of chemicals—including and improving fluid loss. Today, it is their
chemical composition.10 glycerol, polyglycerol or glycols such as shale-inhibiting properties that attract most
To design an effective WBM, it is neces- propylene glycol—that are usually used in attention. For example, tests carried out by
sary to know the relative importance of mud conjunction with an encapsulating polymer BP show that the addition of 3 to 5% by vol-
differential pressure versus chemical con- (PHPA) and an inhibitive brine phase (KCl).13 ume of polyglycol to a KCl-PHPA mud dra-
centration and composition, and how this These materials are nontoxic and pass the matically improves shale stabilization
relates to the type of mud and formation. current environmental protocols, including (below ). However, a significant gap still
For example, if the rock is chemically inert
to WBM filtrate (as is the case with sand- 100
stone), then invasion is controlled solely by
the differences between the welIbore pres-
80
sure and the pore pressure within the rock.
Shale recovery, wt%
April 1994 37
Rheology Profile Rheology Profile at 190°F and 2500 psi
50 28
MMH MMH
PHPA, Partially hydrolized polyacrylamide PHPA
24
40
20
Shear stress
Dial reading
30
16
12
20
10
4
0 0
0 3 6 100 200 300 600 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Fann rheometer speed, rpm Shear rate, sec–1
nComparison of the rheologies of MMH and conventional PHPA mud. For MMH, the relatively high 3-
and 6-rpm readings and low 300- and 600-rpm readings result in a flat rheology profile that is quite dif-
ferent from that of conventional PHPA mud. With use of a Huxley-Bertram rheometer to measure the
rheologies at 190°F [88°C] and 2500 psi, the MMH shows a relatively high shear-stress intercept and a
nearly linear rheologic profile. This contrasts with the downward curve of the PHPA mud. [Adapted from
Sparling DP and Williamson D: “Mixed Metal Hydroxide Mud Improves Drilling in Unstable Shales,” Oil & Gas Journal 89
(June 10, 1991): 29.]
remains between the performance of polyol •Polyol is not depleted rapidly from the Mixed-metal hydroxide (MMH) mud —
muds and that of OBM. mud even when reactive shales are MMH mud has a low environmental impact
Field experience using polyol muds has drilled. and has been used extensively around the
shown improved wellbore stability and •Many polyols work effectively at concen- world in many situations: horizontal and
yielded cuttings that are harder and drier trations as low as 3%, which is too low to short-radius wells, unconsolidated or
than those usually associated with WBM. significantly change the water activity of depleted sandstone, high-temperature,
This hardness reduces breakdown of cut- the base fluid. unstable shales, and wells with severe lost
tings and makes solids control more effi- •Polyols that are insoluble in water are sig- circulation. Its principal benefit is excellent
cient. Therefore, mud dilution rates tend to nificantly less inhibitive than those that hole-cleaning properties.14
be lower with polyol muds compared with are fully soluble. Many new mud systems—including
other WBM systems (for an explanation of •No direct link exists between the perfor- polyol muds—are extensions of existing flu-
solids control and dilution, see mud man- mance of a polyol as a shale inhibitor and ids, with perhaps a few improved chemicals
agement, page 39 ). its ability to reduce fluid loss. added. However, MMH mud is a complete
As yet, no complete explanation of how Many of these clues eliminate theories that departure from existing technology. It is
polyols inhibit shale reactivity has been try to explain how polyols inhibit shales. based on an insoluble, inorganic, crystalline
advanced, but there are some clues: Perhaps the most likely hypothesis— compound containing two or more metals
•Most polyols function best in combination although so far there is no direct experimen- in a hydroxide lattice—usually mixed alu-
with a specific inhibitive salt, such as tal evidence supporting it—is that polyols minum/magnesium hydroxide, which is
potassium, rather than nonspecific high act as a structure breaker, disrupting the oxygen-deficient. When added to prehy-
salinity. ordering of water on the clay surface that drated bentonite, the positively charged
would otherwise cause swelling and disper-
sion. This mechanism does not require the
glycol to be strongly adsorbed onto the
shale, which is consistent with the low
depletion rates seen in the field.
38 Oilfield Review
MMH particles interact with the negatively This effect is difficult to demonstrate in the bore acting as a reactor vessel. In this reac-
charged clays forming a strong complex that laboratory, but there is evidence that a static tor, the composition of the drilling fluid will
behaves like an elastic solid when at rest. layer of mud forms adjacent to the rock face be changed dynamically by such factors as
This gives the fluid its unusual rheology: and helps prevent mechanical damage to filtration at the wellbore and evaporation at
an exceptionally low plastic viscosity-yield the formation caused by fast-flowing mud surface; solids will be added and taken
point ratio. Conventional muds with high and cuttings, controlling washouts.15 away by the drilling process and the solids-
gel strength usually require high energy to MMH is a special fluid sensitive to many control equipment; chemicals will be lost as
initiate circulation, generating pressure traditional mud additives and some drilling
surges in the annulus once flow has been contaminants. It therefore benefits from the 14. Fraser L and Enriquez F: “Mixed Metal Hydroxide
Fluids Research Widens Applications,” Petroleum
established. Although MMH has great gel careful management that is vital for all types Engineer International 63 (June 1992): 43-45.
strength at rest, the structure is easily bro- of drilling fluid. Fraser LJ and Haydel S: “Mixed Metal Hydroxide
ken. So it can be transformed into a low-vis- Mud Application in Horizontal Wells—Case Studies
Under Diverse Drilling Conditions,” presented at the
cosity fluid that does not induce significant Mud Management—Keeping the Fluid
5th International Conference on Horizontal Well
friction losses during circulation and gives in Shape Technology, Houston, Texas, USA, November 9-11,
good hole cleaning at low pump rates even Selecting a reliable chemical formulation for 1993.
in high-angle wells ( previous page ). Yet the drilling fluid so that it exhibits the 15. Fraser LJ: “Unique Characteristics of Mixed Metal
Hydroxide Fluids Provide Gauge Hole in Diverse
within microseconds of the pumps being required properties is one part of the job. Types of Formation,” paper SPE 22379, presented at
turned off, high gel strength develops, pre- Maintaining these properties during drilling the SPE International Meeting on Petroleum Engi-
neering, Beijing, China, March 24-27, 1992.
venting solids from settling. is another.
Lavoix F and Lewis M: “Mixed Metal Hydroxide
There are some indications that MMH Circulation of drilling fluid may be con- Drilling Fluid Minimizes Well Bore Washouts,” Oil
also provides chemical shale inhibition. sidered a chemical process with the well- & Gas Journal 90 (September 28, 1992): 87-90.
Preventing Filtrate Access nanometers—fluid loss control is likely to be best concentration to remain effective as the filtrate
Creation of a semipermeable membrane—If an achieved either by chemical reactions that greatly travels through the shale.
effective membrane can be produced on the sur- reduce, or even eliminate, permeability or by Although potassium ions reduce clay swelling,
face of the shale by adding suitable surfactants to molecules small enough to block pore throats. they rarely eliminate it. Recently, there have
WBM, then water ingress could be controlled Increasing the viscosity of the filtrate— been attempts to find more effective cations—for
using chemical activity as in OBM. This effect By increasing the viscosity of the filtrate (using for example, aluminium complexes or low molecular
was obtained, to some degree, with the direct- example, silicates or glycols) the rate of ingress weight, cationic polymers.
emulsion WBM used occasionally in the 1980s. is reduced. However, this slowing may not be Use of cementing agents—An alternative
The challenge is to identify effective surface sufficient to control wellbore stability and the approach may be to use mud additives that react
active molecules that are environmentally mud may have an infeasibly high plastic viscosity. with the clay minerals and/or pore fluids present
acceptable, do not unduly affect other mud prop- in shales to produce cements that strengthen the
erties and, ideally, show low depletion rates. Minimizing Subsequent Swelling rock and prevent failure. In field trials, silicate
Provision of fluid-loss control—Conventional If invasion of a WBM filtrate cannot be avoided, and phosphate salts have demonstrated the
fluid-loss control polymers produce mud filter appropriate design of the filtrate chemistry may be potential to cement the formation, although some
cakes that are typically one or two orders of mag- used to minimize the swelling response of the drilling difficulties unrelated to welIbore stability
nitude higher in permeability than shales. Even if shale. However, even if swelling is effectively have been reported—for example, hole cleaning.
fractures are present, such polymers may be inhibited, filtrate invasion of the shale will
effective at plugging these relatively large holes, increase the pore pressure and add to possible 1. Bailey L, Reid PI and Sherwood JD: “Mechanisms and
Solutions for Chemical Inhibition of Shale Swelling and
but filter cakes are otherwise unlikely to form on mechanical failure of the rock. Failure,” presented at the Royal Society of Chemistry 5th
shale. If they did, the shale—the less permeable Control of ionic strength—The salinity of the fil- International Symposium, Chemistry in the Oil Industry,
Ambleside, Cumbria, UK, April 12-14, 1994.
of the two solid phases—would still control the trate should be at least as high as that of the pore
rate of fluid transport. Given the small dimen- fluid it replaces.
sions of pores in shales—on the order of Choice of inhibiting ion—Cations such as potas-
sium should be incorporated into the formulation.
These will replace ions such as sodium found in
most shales to produce less hydrated clays with
significantly reduced swelling potential. Any
inhibitors added to the mud should have sufficient
April 1994 39
they adhere to the borehole wall and to cut- Solids-control efficiency—the percentage tively. In this case, the fluid must be diluted
tings, and they will be added routinely at of drilled solids removed versus the total with fresh mud containing no drilled solids.
surface; formation fluids will contaminate amount drilled—is central to drilling effi- But desirable properties are not always
the mud, perhaps causing flocculation or ciency and is a function of the surface optimum ones. For instance, zero drilled
loss of viscosity, and oxygen may become equipment, drilling parameters and mud solids at the bit is desirable. However,
entrained. Temperature, pressure and possi- properties. For example, muds that have a achieving zero drilled solids would increase
ble bacterial action may also have signifi- lower tendency to hydrate or disperse mud costs dramatically.18 It is the job of
cant effects. drilled cuttings generally give higher solids- mud management to plot the optimum
Under these circumstances effective man- control efficiency. course. To do this successfully requires
agement is not trivial. Nevertheless, basic The significance of solids control is that accurate and regular input data.
process control techniques have been penetration rate is closely linked to the vol- Traditional field practice is to measure
applied rigside for some years to aid in the ume of solids in the fluid. The greater the mud density and viscosity (using a Marsh
selection and maintenance of the fluid for- amount of solids, the slower the rate of funnel) about every 30 minutes at both the
mulation and to optimize the solids-control drilling (below ). Mud solids are divided return line and the suction pit. Other prop-
equipment—such as shale shakers and cen- into two categories: high-gravity solids erties—such as rheology, mud solids, fluid
trifuges (next page).16 This approach is often (HGS) comprising the weighting agent, usu- loss, oil/water ratio (for OBM), pH, cation-
linked to incentive contracts, where savings ally barite; and low-gravity solids (LGS) exchange capacity, and titrations for chlo-
in mud costs are shared between contractor made up from clays, polymers and bridging ride and calcium—are measured once
and operator, and has led to remarkable materials deliberately put in the mud, plus every 8 or 12 hours (depending on drilling
savings in mud costs. drilled solids from dispersed cuttings and conditions) using 1-liter samples taken from
For example, with a systems approach to ground rock. the flowline or the active pit. These deter-
drilling fluid management for 16 wells off- The volume of HGS should be maxi- minations are then used as a basis for mud
shore Dubai, mud costs were cut in half and mized, so that the total volume of solids in treatment until the next set of measure-
reduced as a proportion of total drilling the mud is minimized, while still achieving ments is made.
costs from 6% to 3%. At the same time, the density required to control formation To gain better control over the mud sys-
hole condition remained the same or bet- pressures. Therefore, drilled solids must be tem, a more meaningful monitoring strategy
ter—this was assessed by looking at hole removed by the solids-control equipment. may be required. Simply increasing the fre-
diameter, time to run casing and mud usage However, some solids become dispersed as quency of traditional measuring techniques
per foot of well drilled.17 fine particles that cannot be removed effec- to at least five times a day and making sam-
Such an approach is based on three pling more representative of the whole mud
premises: 12 system has improved control and signifi-
• More frequent and more precise measure- cantly reduced the amount of chemicals
ments, for example five mud checks per used to drill a well.19 However, new types
day and the introduction of advanced of measurement are now available. Two
measurement techniques (more about new monitoring systems developed by
Drilling rate, ft/hr
8
these later) Dowell are the MSM mud solids monitor
• Efficient data management using mass and the FMP fluids monitoring package.
balance techniques—which track the Mud Solids Monitor—A common indica-
volumes of chemicals, hole and cut- tor describing the solids content in the mud
4
tings—and computerized data storage is the LGS-HGS volume ratio. This is tradi-
and acquisition tionally measured using the retort, a tech-
• Integration of the management of the nique that requires good operator skills,
solids control equipment with that of the takes at least 45 minutes and often has an
drilling fluids. 0
0 4 8 12 16
error margin of more than 15%.
Solids content volume, % The Dowell MSM system takes the place
of the retort. Without complicated sample
nMud solids versus rate of penetration. preparation, it offers a 10-minute test with
The greater the quantity of solids in the
mud, the slower the rate of drilling. an accuracy of more than 95%. The basic
measurement uses X-ray fluorescence (XRF).
A standard software package uses the bar-
ium fluorescence and backscattering inten-
sity from XRF spectra, together with the fluid
density to predict the concentrations of bar-
ium and water. From these primary outputs
the LGS concentration is also determined.
As an off-line measurement, XRF has the
40 Oilfield Review
Mud from hole Centrifuge 1
Down hole
Shale shaker
Mud pump
Mud
Barite
Solids to waste (HGS)
Degasser
New mud
Centrifuge 2
LGS discharge
nCleaning the mud. The cuttings-removal shale shaker or to fit a wider mesh screen posed of. However, if the liquid phase is
performance of solids-control equipment allowing more of the solids to remain in also valuable (such as in OBM, KCl-PHPA
depends on many factors, including the the fluid that must then be diluted with or glycol muds), both phases are worth
size of the mesh for the shale shaker new, clean mud. keeping. In this case, two centrifuges
screen, flow rate and density of the drilling Centrifuges may be used to control may be used. First, to remove the barite,
fluid, and the size of the cuttings. Deciding fines. For a low-density mud containing which may be reused. Then, the remain-
how to use the surface equipment also mostly drilled solids, the aim is to strip ing larger solids—assumed to be drilled
depends in part on the type of mud run. away as much of the solids as possible. solids—may be removed and disposed of
With the shale shakers, the aim is to However, if the mud is weighted, fines- and the liquid returned to the active sys-
choose a screen mesh size that sieves out control strategy depends on the liquid tem. Clearly, treating mud with the cen-
as much of the drilled solids as possible, phase. If the liquid phase is relatively trifuge is a lengthy process and cen-
leaving barite, which is finer, in the sys- cheap (for example, a seawater-lignosul- trifuges can typically handle only about
tem. However, the finer the screen, the fonate mud), the barite is the most valu- 15% of the active system.
lower the throughput of mud and the more able part of the fluid. In this case, the cen-
shale shaker capacity required. In this trifuge is used to remove all the barite
case, the choice is either to install an extra while the rest of the fluid may be dis-
16. The MUDSCOPE service was originally developed 18. Beasley RD and Dear SF: “A Process Engineering
by Sedco Forex, but has subsequently been offered Approach to Drilling Fluids Management,” paper
by Dowell IDF Fluid Services. SPE 19532, presented at the 64th SPE Annual Tech-
Geehan T, Dudleson WJ, Boyington WH, Gilmour A nical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio,
and McKee JDA: “Incentive Approach to Drill Fluids Texas, USA, October 8-11, 1989.
Management: An Experience in Central North Sea,” 19. Geehan T, Forbes DM and Moore DJ: “Control of
paper SPE18639, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Chemical Usage in Drilling Fluid Formulations to
Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, Febru- Minimize Discharge to the Environment,” paper SPE
ary 28-March 3, 1989. 23374, presented at the First International Confer-
17. Moore DJ, Forbes DM and Spring CR: “A Systems ence on Health, Safety and Environment, The
Approach to Drilling Fluids Management Improves Hague, The Netherlands, November 10-14, 1991.
Drilling Efficiency: A Case Study on the NN Platform
in the Arabian Gulf,” paper SPE 25646, presented at
the SPE Middle East Oil Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Bahrain, April 3-6, 1993.
April 1994 41
nFMP Fluid Moni-
toring Package sen-
sor skid and control
rack. This is the first
prototype skid
which was devel-
oped in France, is a
complete package
comprising a sensor
skid, feed pump,
control rack, work-
station with monitor
and printer, and the
software.
MSM measurements.
using the MSM package offshore Congo, 15
In this example the
inflows and outflows through the desander retort measurement
and desilter were monitored. From these 10 overestimates the
measurements, the amount of barite and barite content, while
LGS being dumped on an average day was the MSM measure-
5
ment indicates a rel-
calculated. The MSM package showed that atively larger
the desander and desilter were removing a 0 amount of drilled
lot of valuable barite and not enough of the 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 solids. If decisions
unwanted LGS. Depth, m had been based on
the retort measure-
Analysis of the MSM data showed that in Measurement by MSM ment, necessary
eliminating 11.5 tons [10,430 kg] of LGS per 25 remedial action for
LGS
day—the capacity of the desander and the mud would not
Barite have been carried
desilter—some 45 cubic meters [1590 ft3] of 20
mud were lost, requiring a maintenance out and drilling effi-
Volume, %
30
0 (GPM) 10 14 (PPG) 16 includes bench
tests carried out to
validate the FMP
measurements.
14:40
Take sample
10
Pressurized mud
14:50 balance 15.26 ppg
FMP 15.23 ppg
10 30 50 Start add 50 kg
PV Fann 35 barite
15:0
nComparing plastic viscosity (PV) data
gathered in the field from KCl mud using
the FMP skid with that generated the tra-
ditional way using a Fann 35 viscometer. 15:10
Barite addition
finished
Future Developments Take sample 2
Fann PV/YP 37/28
It is still early days for these techniques, but 15:20
such measurements, and others in develop- Pressurized mud
balance 15.91 ppg
ment, will furnish the information required
FMP 15.9 ppg
to help control a fully automated mud pro-
15:30
cessing plant.21
Joint industry field trials are already under
way to automate mud management. The
aim is to deliver a system with automated
solids-control equipment, automated addi- 16:10
tion of mud chemicals, continuous monitor- Bench pH 10.08
ing of key mud parameters, automated mud Bench temp. 22°C
Bench conductivity
system valve control and tank lineup, and 1.0 mS (25°C comp.)
central monitoring of integrated process 16:20
control. A demonstration system has been
Add 2 kg of NaCl
installed on the semisubmersible rig Sedco
712, working in the UK sector of the North 16:30
Sea, to allow full-scale evaluation.22
However, it is clear that the driving force
Take sample 3
for automated mud processing, and other
Bench conductivity
future developments, must be more cost- 16:40
8.9 mS (25°C comp.)
effective drilling, improved employee health Fann PV/YP 32/20
and environmental compliance, and Bench pH 9.697
enhanced well performance. —CF FMP 15.91 ppg
16:50
Pressurized mud
balance 15.91
Add 5 kg of NaCl
17:00
20. Houwen OH, Sanders MW, Anderson DR, Prouvost Hughes TL, Jones TGJ and Geehan T: “The Chemical Murch DK, White DB, Prouvost LP, Michel GL and
L, Gilmour A and White DB: “Measurement of Logging of Drilling Fluids,” paper SPE 23076, pre- Ford DH: “Integrated Automation for a Mud Sys-
Composition of Drilling Mud by X-Ray Fluores- sented at the Offshore Europe Conference, tem,” paper SPE 27447, presented at the SPE/IADC
cence,” paper SPE 25704, presented at the Aberdeen, Scotland, September 3-6, 1991. Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, USA, February
SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The Hughes TL, Jones TGJ, Tomkins PG, Gilmour A, 15-18, 1994.
Netherlands, February 23-25, 1993. Houwen OH and Sanders M: “Chemical Monitoring Minton RC and Bailey MG: “An assessment of Sur-
21. Hall C, Fletcher P, Hughes TL, Jones TGJ, Maitland of Mud Products on Drilled Cuttings,” paper SPE face Mud System Design Options for Minimising the
GC and Geehan T: “Mud Analysis and Control for 23361, presented at the First International Confer- Health, Safety and Environmental Impact Concerns
Drilling,” presented at the 4th European Community ence on Health, Safety and Environment, The Associated With Drilling Fluids,” paper SPE 23362,
Symposium on Oil and Gas in a Wider Europe, Hague, The Netherlands, November 10-14, 1991. presented at the First International Conference on
Berlin, Germany, November 3-5, 1992. 22. The demonstration project is being undertaken by Health, Safety and Environment, The Hague, The
Sedco Forex, Dowell, Thule Rigtech and Marine Netherlands, November 10-14, 1991.
Structure Consultants (M.S.C.) bv. It is partially
funded by The Commission of European Communi-
April 1994 ties Thermie project, Shell UK Exploration and Pro- 43
duction, Conoco (UK) Limited and BP International
Limited.
Pushing Out the Oil
with Conformance Control
The growing problem of water production and a stricter environmental enforcement on water disposal are
forcing oil companies to reconsider conformance control—the manipulation of a reservoir’s external fluid
drive to push out more oil and less water. The technical challenges range from polymer chemistry to
figure. On average,
Oil rate, BOPD
44 Oilfield Review
Primary, secondary recovery
Technique 106 Barrels of oil
drive to enter the matrix rock or fractures improve macroscopic sweep efficiency. more than five billion barrels and con-
untouched by the treatment and push out Most enhanced oil recovery (EOR) tech- tributes to raising final oil recovery from the
oil. In many cases, a declining production niques, for example, also strive to improve 43% obtained using primary and conven-
in the neighboring producer was dramati- microscopic displacement efficiency using a tional secondary recovery methods to 54%,
cally reversed, staying that way for several variety of surfactants and other chemicals to an increase of 11%. Unlike many of the IOR
years (previous page ). prize away hydrocarbon stuck to the rock techniques reviewed by the DTI, confor-
Overall, the 29 treatments yielded 3.7 surface. Conformance control is also less mance control technology was judged
million barrels more oil than if the treat- expensive than most EOR techniques mature enough to use immediately.
ments had never been done, at a total cost because the treatments are better targeted Conformance control during waterflood-
of just $0.34 per barrel. Considering the and logistically far smaller. ing covers any technique designed to
price of oil at the time ranged from $30 to Another factor also favors conformance reduce water production and redistribute
$24, Marathon had got themselves some control. By redistributing a waterdrive so it waterdrive, either near the wellbore or deep
very inexpensive production and a clear sweeps the reservoir evenly, water cut is in the reservoir. Near the wellbore, these
signal that the age of conformance control often dramatically reduced. For many techniques include unsophisticated expedi-
had begun. mature reservoirs, treatment and disposal of ents such as setting a bridge plug to isolate
produced water dominate production costs, part of a well, dumping sand or cement in a
What is Conformance Control? so less water is good. Environmental regula- well to shut off the bottom perforations, and
In the context of a reservoir produced with tions also push oil companies to reduce cement squeezing to correct channeling and
some kind of external fluid drive, confor- water production. In the North Sea, residual fill near-well fractures. Deep in the reservoir,
mance describes the extent to which the oil in produced water dumped into the water diversion needs chemical treatment.
drive uniformly sweeps the hydrocarbon ocean is restricted to 40 ppm, an upper limit Initially, straight injection of polymer was
toward the producing wells. A perfectly con- increasingly under pressure from the Euro- tried but proved uneconomical because of
forming drive provides a uniform sweep pean Community. In environmentally sensi- the large volumes required to alter reservoir
across the entire reservoir; an imperfectly tive areas such as the Amazon rain forest, behavior and because polymers tend to get
conforming drive leaves unswept pockets of water disposal is also a major issue. washed out. The current trend is gels,
hydrocarbon. Conformance control describes In a recent survey by the British Govern- which if correctly placed can do the job
any technique that brings the drive closer to ment Department of Trade and Industry
the perfectly conforming condition—in other (DTI) that reviewed the full spectrum of 1. Sydansk RD and Moore PE: “Production Responses in
words, any technique that somehow encour- improved oil recovery (IOR) techniques and Wyoming’s Big Horn Basin Resulting From Applica-
tion of Acrylamide-Polymer/Cr(III)-Carboxylate Gels,”
ages the drive mechanism to mobilize rather their potential for the UK North Sea, confor- paper SPE 21894, 1990, unsolicited.
than avoid those hard-to-move pockets of mance control accounted for a possible fur- 2. Coleman B: “DTI’s IOR Strategy” in Best Practices for
unswept oil and gas. ther 500 million barrels of oil (above ).2 This Improved Oil Recovery. London, England: IBC Tech-
nical Services Ltd, 1993.
In the pantheon of techniques to improve constitutes 10% of the total IOR potential of
oil recovery, conformance control is rela-
tively unambitious, its goal being simply to
April 1994 45
more efficiently with much smaller vol- Problem Solution
umes. In the future, potentially less expen- nMultiple causes
sive foams including foamed gel may be of early water pro-
tried. Ultimately, reducing water production duction during a
may require a new well. The choice of Oil Oil waterdrive. Top: a
technique or combination of techniques watered-out zone
separated from an
depends crucially on the reservoir and its oil zone by an
production history. impermeable shale
Shale
Take, for example, the case of two pro- barrier—the solu-
ducing zones separated by an impermeable tion is to cement in
bottom zone. Mid-
shale, in which the bottom zone has dle: same as above
watered out (right ). The first solution is to Water Water but the shale bar-
cement in the bottom zone. Suppose, rier does not reach
Cement the production
though, that the shale barrier does not
extend to the producing well. Then success well—cementing
Gelling solution does not work, so
with the cement plug becomes short-lived the solution is to
and water soon starts coning toward the top inject gel into the
interval. The only recourse now is to inject lower zone while
a permeability blocker—some kind of Protective balancing the
Oil Oil pressure upper zone pressure
gelling system—deep into the lower zone. with inert fluid.
fluid
The trick is not letting the gelling system Bottom: watered-out
invade the upper zone. This can be high-permeability
achieved by pumping through coiled tubing zone sandwiched
Shale between two oil
to the top of the watered-out zone while Gel
zones—the solution
simultaneously pumping an inert fluid, fluid
is to isolate the zone
water or diesel fuel through the annulus into and inject gel.
Water Water
the upper zone to prevent upward migration (Adapted from Mor-
of the gelling system. gan, reference 3.)
Deep gelling systems are also the answer Gelling solution
for a high-permeability but watered-out for-
mation sandwiched between two lower per-
meability formations—the classic break-
through scenario. A casing patch or cement Oil
Oil
squeeze may halt water production momen-
tarily, but long-term shutoff requires a
deeper block. The fractured reservoir is a Gel
variant of this scenario. If natural fractures Water
Water
are interconnected, they can provide a
ready conduit for water breakthrough, leav-
ing oil in the matrix trapped and unpro- Oil Oil
ducible. The solution is to inject and fill the
fractures with a gelling system, that once
gelled, forces injection water into the matrix
to drive the oil out. that the chemistry is robust enough to go Gelling System Chemistry
The possibilities are endless, and there are where it is intended, deep in the reservoir, Phillips pioneered the first polymer gels for
as many solutions to blocking water produc- and that it is formulated correctly to actually conformance control in the 1970s. Since
tion as there are reservoirs to block.3 The gel. The combination of these challenges is then, research into gelling systems has been
challenges for the reservoir engineer con- daunting and explains conformance con- maintained at an intense level.4 Polymer gel
templating conformance control are know- trol’s checkered history. If the technique is systems start as a flowing mixture of two
ing why, where and how water is produced, more widely accepted today, it is only components—high-molecular weight poly-
and which water blocking technique to use. because these challenges are now recog- mer and another chemical called a cross-
In the case of using a gelling system, there nized, not because they are resolved. linker. At some trigger, each cross-linking
are the additional challenges of being sure We’ll next look at the chemistry of gelling molecule, tiny compared with the polymer
systems, the predominant method of block- molecule, starts attaching itself to two
ing permeability and redistributing water- polymer molecules chemically linking them
drive, and then illustrate the care successful together (next page, left ). The result is a three-
proponents of the technique must exercise dimensional tangle of interconnected poly-
in choosing and implementing treatments. mer molecules that ceases behaving like a
fluid and can eventually constitute a rigid,
immobile gel.
The trick in designing these systems is
finding chemicals that are insensitive to the
46 Oilfield Review
Pre-gel widely varying conditions of the subsurface, mer is called partially hydrolyzed polyacry-
such as temperature, the ionic composition lamide (PHPA) and with its negatively
of the connate water, its pH, the presence of charged carboxylate groups becomes sus-
either carbon dioxide [CO 2] or hydrogen ceptible to ionic cross-linking.
sulfide [H2S], and the absorptivity of the Efficient cross-linkers are trivalent metal
rock grains, to name a few. The polymer ions such as aluminum, Al3+, and chromium,
may be naturally occurring or manufactured Cr3+. These can be packaged either as sim-
synthetically. The cross-linker may be metal ple inorganic ions in solution or within solu-
ions or metallic complexes that bond ioni- ble chemical complexes in which the triva-
cally to the polymer, or organic molecules lent ion is associated with small inorganic or
that bond covalently. organic groups called ligands. Some of the
There have been innumerable systems first polymer-gel systems from the early
developed since the 1970s, too many to 1970s used aluminum in the form of alu-
describe, so we will concentrate on the evo- minum sulfate. Whatever the choice, the
lution of a particularly promising system that trivalent metal ion readily links carboxylate
uses the synthetic polymer called polyacry-
Cross-linking Begins lamide (PA).5 This readily available polymer
comprises a carbon-carbon backbone hung 3. Morgan J: ”State-of-the-Art of Water Shut-off Well Treat-
ments“ in Best Practices for Improved Oil Recovery.
with amide groups, possibly tens of thou- London, England: IBC Technical Services Ltd, 1993.
sands of them to provide molecular weights Seright RS and Liang J: “A Survey of Field Applications
in the millions (below ). In its pure state, the of Gel Treatments for Water Shutoff,” paper SPE
polymer is electrically neutral, seeming to 26991, presented at the 1994 SPE Permian Basin Oil
& Gas Recovery Conference, Midland, Texas, USA,
preclude any cross-linking through ionic March 16-18, 1994.
bonding. However, when mixed with a little 4. Needham RB, Threlkeld CB and Gall JW: “Control
alkaline solution, such as sodium hydroxide, of Water Mobility Using Polymers and Multivalent
Cations,” paper SPE 4747, presented at the SPE
or when subjected to elevated temperature, Improved Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, Oklahoma,
some of the amide groups convert to car- USA, April 22-24, 1974.
boxylate groups. Each of these carries a neg- 5. For a general review:
ative charge. The proportion of amide Sorbie KS: Polymer-Improved Oil Recovery. Glasgow,
Scotland: Blackie, 1992.
groups that convert to carboxylate is called
Woods CL: Review of Polymers and Gels for IOR
the degree of hydrolysis (DH) and typically Applications in the North Sea. London, England:
varies from 0 to 60%. In this form, the poly- HMSO Publications Centre, 1991.
Gel Formed
Amide Monomer Polyacrylamide (PA) nChemical struc-
tures of the amide
H H H H H H
monomer, poly-
acrylamide poly-
C C .... C C C C mer (PA) and par-
tially hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide
H C C H C H
polymer (PHPA)
with its negatively
NH2 O NH2 O NH2 O charged carboxy-
late groups.
H H H H H H
C H C H C H
NH2 O – O NH2 O
O
+
Na
April 1994 47
H H H H system therefore worked only very near the Low pH
H
wellbore and suffered from total lack of
.... C C C C . . . . PHPA control—gelling time was entirely at the . . . .C C C . . . . PHPA
mercy of the reservoir environment.
C H C H Toward the 1980s, Cr3+ rather than Al3+
C
–
was tried as the cross-linker, not because it
NH2 O O O provided better cross-linking, but because it –
O O
promised better gelation control. The tech-
H2O M H2O Cross-linker nique to achieve this, though, was not to
H2O Ac H2O
use Cr3+ directly but rather Cr6+. This ion is
NH2 O O
– O inert with respect to cross-linking but can be Cr Ac Cr
reduced to Cr3+ using a variety of reducing O Chromium acetate
C H C H agents that could be injected with the treat- Ac Ac
ment fluids. In theory, this would allow the Ac Ac
.... . . . . PHPA Cr
C C C C system to be injected deep into the forma-
tion before gelling. – O
O
In practice, however, there were three H2O
H H H H C
problems. It was difficult to provide suffi-
ciently long gelation times at high tempera-
nChemical linking of partially hydrolyzed ture; the whole system was sensitive to ....C C C . . . . PHPA
polyacrylamide polymer (PHPA) molecules
with trivalent metal ions, indicated generi- H2S—itself a reducing agent; and, worst,
H
cally as M 3+. Cr6+ was recognized as toxic and even car-
cinogenic. These problems appeared to be
groups on different polymer molecules, or resolved in the mid 1980s when an environ- High pH
H
possibly on the same molecule (above ). Rel- mentally friendly, controllable chromium
atively few cross links are needed to ensure system was developed at the Marathon
that the polymer-cross-linker mixture gels. Petroleum Technology Center in Littleton, .... C C C .... PHPA
The chemical environment deep in an oil Colorado, USA.6
reservoir, however, often conspires to wreck Scientists there had the idea of packaging C
this idealized picture. In the case of alu- Cr 3+ as the metal-carboxylate complex, –
minum sulfate, cross-linking is very much chromium acetate. The acetate group has a O O
pH dependent. While the mixture remains structure very similar to the carboxylate
acidic, no gel forms so the treatment fluids groups on PHPA polymer (right ). Thus, the H2O Ac Ac Ac
can be safely injected into the reservoir. But Cr3+ ion is attracted to both the acetate lig-
Chromium
when the fluids hit the reservoir, pH rises and within the complex and the carboxylate Cr OH Cr OH Cr
acetate
rapidly and gelling occurs immediately. The groups on the PHPA polymer. This slows the
Ac OH Ac H2O
– O
O
C
.... C ....
PHPA C C
Ac is H C H
nMarathon’s MARCIT gel in three final states depending on concentration, from left: nChemical structure of chromium acetate
tonguing gel, intermediate strength gel and rigid gel. (Courtesy of Marathon Oil Company.) complexes as a function of pH and its
linking with PHPA. (Adapted from Tackett JE:
“Characterization of Chromium (III) Acetate in
Aqueous Solution,” Applied Spectroscopy 43
(1989): 490-499.)
48 Oilfield Review
cross-linking process and ultimately gives Pre-gel
the chemist effective control over gel time.
Substantial laboratory testing showed that H H H H
April 1994 49
molecule bonds to just one polymer car- attachment to the polymer before injection,
boxylate site. In the second stage, which rendering the two components inseparable.
occurs only above 50°C [122°F], the alu- Pore throat The second issue is polymer elasticity.
minum citrate complex can attach to a sec- Polymers being long, complex molecules
ond carboxylate group thereby cross-linking exhibit a degree of elasticity that makes how
two polymer molecules and contributing to they move somewhat dependent on their
produce a gel network. Because the cross- surroundings. For example, the viscosity
link itself contains carboxylate groups and observed in a free polymer solution will not
these have an affinity for water molecules, necessarily be mirrored when the same
the formed gel may flow in a beaker, yet polymer is trying to squeeze through a pore
provide an adequate permeability block in Pore throat (left ). In general, polymer elasticity
porous rock. inhibits the progress of treatment fluid
BP and ARCO’s strategy is to pump the through porous medium. Third, there is the
system into the reservoir through injection nSchematic of polymer molecule elongat- question of pore throats actually becoming
wells, where the cooler temperature of the ing within pore throat. As the molecule blocked by microclusters containing several
elongates, its effective hydrodynamic vol-
injection water will promote only the first- ume and therefore also its viscosity polymer molecules—these may develop
stage reaction, resulting in a pumpable fluid increase, impeding injection. prior to bulk gelling.9 All three issues are
of low viscosity. Then, as the fluid perme- being researched and to an extent represent
ates deep into high-permeability sections of of a three-year Department of Energy project the key to leaping from laboratory evidence
the reservoir and experiences higher tem- at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and to certainty on what happens in the field.
peratures, the second-stage will kick in and Technology in Socorro, New Mexico, USA.8
enough of a gel will form to divert water- At the pore scale, there are three main Inorganic Gelling Systems
drive to less permeable zones. In prepara- issues. First, some of both the polymer and An alternative gelling system that guarantees
tion for field tests, BP conducted an exten- cross-linker will get adsorbed onto the pore injectability into matrix rock uses simple
sive computer simulation of the temperature walls during injection. In itself, fluid reten- inorganic chemicals that have flowing prop-
distribution and likely flow patterns of the tion is not a problem as long as most of the erties nearly identical to those of water.
polymer-gel system within the reservoir, and treatment fluid reaches its destination deep Inorganic gels were discovered in the 1920s
also laboratory studies of the system in the reservoir. More serious is if the absorp- and are used to this day for plugging lost cir-
injectability through 190-ft [58-m] long tivity rates of the two components are differ- culation, zone squeezing and consolidating
slimtubes packed with sand (below ). It is ent. Then, the volumetric ratio of polymer to weak formations. Their failing for confor-
too early to tell whether their ambitious cross-linker will change as the treatment mance control has been a very rapid gela-
plan is working in the field. invades the formation, possibly compromis- tion time, but recent innovations using alu-
The problem of injecting polymer gel sys- ing control of gelling time. BP’s aluminum minum rather than silicon have resolved this
tems through the narrow pore spaces of citrate system may overcome this hazard problem. An example is the DGS Delayed
matrix is multifaceted and has been a focus because the cross-linker makes its first Gelation System developed by the Schlum-
berger pumping company, Dowell.10
200 The DGS system comprises partially
42 days hydrolyzed aluminum chloride that precipi-
180
tates to a gel when an activator responds to
160 temperature and raises the system pH above
140 a certain value (next page ). A gel material-
Resistance factor
50 Oilfield Review
6.0 80
5.5
40
Viscosity, cp
pH
5.0
20
4.5
4.0 0
0 4 8 12 16
Time, hr
nDevelopment of Dowell DGS gel as the system pH increases, with postulated gel structure showing aluminum
atoms in blue and oxygen atoms in red. Hydrogen will be loosely associated with the exterior, singly bonded
oxygen atoms.
Modification Using DGS Gelling System,” divalent cations such as Ca2+, which are rel- 8. Seright RS and Martin FD: Fluid Diversion and
next page ). atively ubiquitous in formation waters. Ca2+ Sweep Improvement with Chemical Gels in Oil
Besides their inherent ability to deeply ions associate with the carboxylate groups Recovery Processes, Annual Report for the Period
May 1, 1989 - April 30, 1990. Bartlesville, Okla-
permeate matrix rock, inorganic gels have in PHPA causing free polymer to precipitate. homa, USA: U.S. Department of Energy, 1991:
another advantage over their polymer-based This becomes more of a problem as the DOE/BC/14447-8.
cousins. If the treatment fluid gets incor- degree of hydrolysis of the polymer Seright RS and Martin FD: Fluid Diversion and
Sweep Improvement with Chemical Gels in Oil
rectly placed causing a deterioration in increases, and DH can increase with Recovery Processes, Second Annual Report for the
reservoir performance, inorganic gel can be increasing temperature. Research initiated at Period May 1, 1990 - April 30, 1991. Bartlesville,
removed with acid. Of course, the acid has Phillips Petroleum Co. and pursued further Oklahoma, USA: U.S. Department of Energy, 1991:
DOE/BC/14447-10.
to be able to reach the gel to be able to at Eniricerche SpA, Italy’s national research
Seright RS and Martin FD: Fluid Diversion and
remove it. Polymer gels, on the other hand, center for the oil industry situated near Sweep Improvement with Chemical Gels in Oil
cannot be dismantled easily and are there- Milan, has identified other polymer types Recovery Processes, Final Report and Third Annual
Report for the Period May 1, 1991 - April 30, 1992.
fore usually in place for the duration. that may offer better protection from ionic Bartlesville, Oklahoma, USA: U.S. Department of
If deep penetration in matrix is one key attack yet still be susceptible to ionic cross- Energy, 1992: DOE/BC/14447-15.
factor in the conformance control debate, 9. Todd BJ, Willhite GP and Green DW: “A Mathemati-
another concern is contamination of the cal Model of In-Situ Gelation of Polacrylamide by a
Redox Process,” SPE Reservoir Engineering 8 (Febru-
gelling system through contact with ions in ary 1993): 51-58.
the formation water. As noted, the DGS sys- 10. Chan KS: “Reservoir Water Control Treatments Using
tem may be adversely affected by divalent a Non-Polymer Gelling System,” paper OSEA
88134, presented at the 7th Offshore South East Asia
anions. PHPA, on the other hand, both Conference, Singapore, February 2-5, 1988.
before and after gelling may be affected by
April 1994 51
Profile Modification Using DGS Gelling System
The following two conformance control case studies describe a producer that is watered-out from coning (Venezuela) and water
injectors that have poor injection profiles (Australia).
DGS system in two wells, the FLOPERM system 3 wells, WAPET placed a plug below the third layer
4
in one well, and both systems in a fourth well and injected about 400 barrels of DGS system
5
with each system restricted to a different produc- 6
over three to four days, anticipating that the
ing zone. 7 treatment fluid would invade at least 20 ft [6 m]
The most successful treatment was in one of 8 into the reservoir matrix. After allowing the gel
9
the two wells receiving the DGS system only. The enough time to set, they then reperforated the
0 20 40 60 80 100
treatment was designed to block water coning at lower zones and began reinjecting water. As
Flow into each layer, %
the bottom of an oil producer in a zone 6 ft [2 m] might be expected, injection rates were less than
thick. The reservoir was an 80-md limestone at Pre-treatment before—74 versus 150 BWPD in K13 and 105 ver-
9145 ft [2787 m]. Downhole static temperature Post-treatment sus 120 BWPD in K35—due to the plugging
was 140°C [284°F], high for most commercially action of the gel. But the injection was better
available gelling systems. nInjection profiles in wells K13 and K35 before and distributed, as shown by tracer surveys (left). The
after pumping DGS gelling system into the lower five
During a period of 10 hours, 300 barrels of layers. Conformance is not perfect after the treat- top layers still take their fair share, but now the
DGS treatment fluid were pumped through tubing ment, but at least the lower layers are now taking bottom layers also take some water. Correspond-
some of the injected water. (Courtesy of WAPET.)
and packer into the watered-out zone at 0.5 ingly, water cut in adjacent producers dropped by
bbl/min. Simultaneously, diesel fuel was pumped more than 50%.
down the annulus above the packer into the over-
lying oil zone to prevent the treatment fluid from 1. Chang PW, Goldman IM and Stingley KJ: “Laboratory
Studies and Field Evaluation of a New Gelant for High-
entering the oil zone. The treatment fluid was
Temperature Profile Modification,” paper SPE 14235, pre-
then displaced with 78 barrels of water and sented at the 60th SPE Annual Technical Conference and
allowed to gel for a week. Exhibition, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, September 22-25,
1985.
When the well was put back on production, oil
production increased more than 2.5 times and
water cut had dropped 25%. Eleven months later,
36,000 additional barrels of oil had been pro-
duced and water cut was still 15% less than
before the treatment.
52 Oilfield Review
linking.11 One solution is to use synthetic H H H H H H
polymers in which some amide groups are
replaced by a more inert chemistry that can- .... C C C C ....
C C
not hydrolyze to carboxylate and therefore
remain vulnerable to wandering divalent H H H
cations (right ). N C C
H
Part of the Eniricerche effort is directed NH2 O –
O
C C O
toward improving the temperature rating of H H
2+
April 22-24, 1992.
H C H Ca Malonate wells—which according to numerous case 13. Seright RS: “Placement of Gels to Modify Injection
studies seem to give better results than pro-
..
April 1994 53
the reservoir environment and how gelling Case Study 4000 BOPD from 12,000 BOPD in 1988, a
constituents react with each other. As The Wertz field was a model implementa- steeper than expected decline during ter-
reported earlier, BP Exploration performed tion of a CO2 tertiary flood, and, as a result, tiary flooding.
such a computer simulation in its planning field performance had been copiously docu- After trying several other techniques to
for treating the Kuparuk field with a PHPA- mented. Not only were individual producers halt the decline, Amoco turned to confor-
aluminum citrate system. Another fluid- and injectors monitored daily, but flow rates mance control, eventually completing 12
flow/chemical simulator, called SCORPIO, of the three phases present—oil, water and treatments using Marathon’s polymer gel
is offered by AEA Petroleum Services, which CO2—were also measured. These measure- technology. Ten treatments were in injectors
is based in Dorchester, England.14 This sim- ments were made in special substations, and two in producers. Some treatments
ulator is currently being used to investigate one substation for every dozen wells or so, were aimed at blocking matrix porosity and
the feasibility of polymer-gel conformance each with elaborate and automatic appara- some aimed to place gel in reservoir frac-
control in several North Sea fields.15 tuses for sampling each well’s flow in or out tures. We’ll highlight one example of each,
The prudent operator, of course, will tem- and the flow’s breakdown into three phases. illustrating with injector treatments since
per sophisticated modeling with a good The Wertz producing formation is a 470-ft these were the more successful. In some
dose of common sense. In addition, it does [143-m] thick aeolian sandstone at an aver- cases, the treatments extended the life of a
not hurt to have enough injection and pro- age depth of 6200 ft [1890 m], with 240 ft pattern by two years. Overall, Amoco esti-
duction data available to fully comprehend [73 m] of net pay having 10% porosity and mates that for a total cost of $936,000, the
how the reservoir will react if prodded. Sur- 13-md permeability. The formation is treatments have yielded an increase in pro-
prisingly, reservoir production data can be believed to have some fractures and is oil ducible reserves of 735,000 barrels—that is
sparse and poorly documented. Frequently, wet. Sixty-five wells over 1600 acres are $1.27 per barrel.
production data are known for groups of used for production and many more than A crucial preliminary step in all these
wells tied to a common pipeline and not for that have been drilled for injection—alter- treatments was candidate selection—the
individual wells. However, this was not the nating water and CO2 injection, commonly compilation and review of data to deter-
case in the Wertz field in Wyoming, USA for referred to as water-alternating-gas (WAG) mine a well’s suitability for treatment (next
which Amoco Production Co. began con- injection. By mid-1991, the field’s fate liter- page ). Although any field information could
templating a series of conformance control ally hung in the balance. The field’s total be relevant, five data types were deemed
treatments in mid-1991 (below ).16 production had dropped precipitously to particularly important. They were:
#142
#120
#125
#127
#84
54 Oilfield Review
• Pattern reserves. If the pattern reserve
data indicated that secondary and tertiary
Evaluate
flooding had pushed out most of the oil, mature field
there was no reason to try further produc-
No
tion enhancement with conformance
control. Yes
Focus on No Yes
• Historical fluid-injection conformance. If Review injection Focus on
data wells? production
an injection well historically showed a wells?
poor injection profile, the corresponding
pattern was obviously a candidate for Pattern
High priority
conformance improvement. In the Wertz reserve
field, Amoco used radioactive tracer sur- No
veys to log injection profiles. No
Injection
• Three-phase offset production data. If pro- conformance
Yes
ducing wells in a pattern showed a cyclic Favorable Favorable
indications? economics?
water and CO2 production that correlated Offset
with cycles in the nearby injection well, production
then it was likely this communication was Yes
through an unusually high-permeability H2O/CO2
channel. The pattern therefore required Cycling times
Intermediate priority
conformance control.
Conformance
• Breakthrough time during the cyclic cor- method
relation—essentially the time for water or Well
history
CO2 to travel between injector and neigh- In-situ foam
Sandback
boring producer. This helped estimate the surfactant
size of treatments designed to fill the frac-
ture space between the wells. Reservoir
Matrix cement
In-situ
• Well history information—specifically the kH polymer gel
history of all previous attempts to improve
Selection of
conformance in the well, and why they Pressure injection Resins
did or did not work. This information pre- data equipment
vented unnecessary workover expense.
The first well treated was #84, an injection Geol. Zone Other
X section isolation
well on the west flank of the field that fed
producers #125 and #127. This well seemed
Combination
to satisfy the five criteria. An estimated Cement of above
Low priority
14. Scott T, Sharpe SR, Sorbie KS, Clifford PJ, Roberts LJ, Implementation
Foulser RWS and Oakes JA: “A General Purpose
Chemical Flood Simulator,” paper SPE 16029, pre-
sented at the 9th SPE Symposium on Reservoir Simu-
lation, San Antonio, Texas, USA, February 1-4, 1987. Postappraisal
evaluation
15. Hughes DS, Woods CL, Crofts HJ and Dixon RT:
“Numerical Simulation of Single-Well Polymer Gel
Treatments in Heterogeneous Formations,” paper
SPE/DOE 20242, presented at the SPE/DOE Seventh
Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery, Tulsa, Okla- nAmoco’s process logic for picking conformance control candidates in the Wertz field.
homa, USA, April 22-25, 1990. (Adapted from Borling, reference 16.)
16. Borling DC: “Injection Conformance Control Case
Histories Using Gels at the Wertz Field CO2 Tertiary
Flood in Wyoming, U.S.A.,” paper SPE/DOE 27825,
presented at the SPE/DOE Improved Oil Recovery
Symposium, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, April 17-20,
1994.
April 1994 55
Water
1 month pre-treatment 1 month post-treatment 7 months post-treatment 12 months post-treatment
nInjection profiles
Depth, ft
for water and CO2
in well #84 before
and at various
times after the gel
treatment, which
was confined to the
high-permeability
6400
zone at the bottom
of the well. The
treatment dramati-
cally improved
injection confor-
mance. (Courtesy of
Amoco Production Co.)
6500
Sand
6600
CO2
1 month pre-treatment 3 months post-treatment 10 months post-treatment 12 months post-treatment
6400
6500
6600
56 Oilfield Review
Well #127 Well #125
1000
Gel treatment Gel treatment
Oil rate, BOPD
Water/oil ratio
100
10
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N DJ J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J
1991 1992 1993 1994 1991 1992 1993 1994
nImproved oil rate and WOR in production wells #125 and #127 for the 30 months following the gel treatment in well #84. The hia-
tuses in early 1992 and mid-1993 in well #127 were caused by surface facilities downtime. (Courtesy of Amoco Production Co.)
zone and also of the behind-pipe channel. injection profiles thereafter indicated con- rate as soon as #120 started injecting. Other
Amoco opted for Marathon’s low molecu- formance to be practically uniform through- factors favoring a gel treatment for #120
lar-weight polymer-gel technology, and in out that zone—a textbook example of injec- included an estimated 209,000 barrels of
addition, mechanically isolated the target tion conformance. missed reserves, poor injection confor-
interval to avoid losing treatment fluid to the Meanwhile in producing well #125, mance with nearly 90% of the water enter-
upper zone, a necessary contingency that which had been previously shut in because ing a suspected mid-pay fracture, and a well
consumed 55% of the total treatment cost. it produced only water, oil started appearing history showing that earlier treatments using
Altogether, 650 barrels of the PHPA- and production was up to 150 BOPD after in-situ surfactant foam had failed to improve
chromium acetate mixture were pumped at twelve months; the water/oil ratio (WOR) conformance.
4 barrels a minute, in a two-stage operation decreased to 40 (above ). Later, oil produc- The treatment in #120 was altogether of a
taking one day. tion began to slip and well #125 was shut different scope than the matrix treatment in
As with all their subsequent conformance in. Nevertheless, the conformance treatment #84. First, treatment volume totaled 10,000
control operations, round-the-clock precau- prolonged the life of this producing well by barrels and took seven days to pump, at the
tions were taken to avoid any environmen- 30 months, furnishing an additional 80,000 rate of one barrel per minute. This volume
tal contamination by the treatment fluid and barrels of oil. was estimated to be enough to completely
to ensure the treatment fluid was being In producing well #127, oil production fill the fractures between the two wells. Sec-
injected in the correct proportions. In addi- rose from 45 BOPD before the treatment to ond, no mechanical isolation was used
tion, fluid issuing from the production wells 150 BOPD after. During the same time, because the treatment fluid was expected to
was monitored to ensure that the treatment WOR dropped from 80 to nearly 20. The be able to enter only the targeted fractures.
fluid did not somehow bypass the matrix improvement lasted 30 months, five of After waiting a few days to let the system
and get produced. Finally, samples of the which were unfortunately interrupted by gel, well #120 was once again put on alter-
treatment fluid taken in the field confirmed facility breakdowns. Altogether, the well nating water and CO2 injection. As mea-
that a rigid gel formed after a few hours. produced an extra 30,000 barrels of pro- sured by tracer surveys, the conformance for
One month after the treatment, injection ducible reserves. both fluids was significantly improved (next
conformance in well #84 showed spectacu- The first treatment Amoco performed with page, top).
lar improvement with 57% of injected water large volumes of a high-molecular weight Production at #142 still responded to the
entering the upper zone (previous page ). polymer-gel system was in well #120. This water-CO2 cycling, indicating that the gel
Two months later, during a CO2 cycle, 79% well appeared to be in direct communica- had not completely filled the fracture system
of the CO2 was entering the upper zone. tion via fractures with neighboring producer and that therefore some communication
The situation was just as good after ten #142, as evidenced by a very rapid one- to remained, but oil rate improved, reaching
months, when Amoco decided to shut off three-day breakthrough time for CO2 injec- 275 BOPD more than it would have with-
the entire bottom zone with sand. This tion. Corroborating a rapid communication
forced all injection to the upper zone, and between the wells was the behavior of well
#142. It could produce oil when #120 was
shut in, but its performance would deterio-
April 1994 57
Water CO2
1 month pre-treatment 1 month post-treatment 7 months post-treatment 12 months post-treatment
nInjection profiles
Depth, ft
for water and CO2
in well #120 before
and after the gel
treatment, which
6600 was aimed at the
suspected fracture
zone in the middle
of the well. The
treatment dramati-
cally improved
injection confor-
mance in the upper
zone. (Courtesy of
6700 Amoco Production Co.)
6800
6900
Production Co.)
relied on unusually complete field docu-
mentation and a well thought-out, methodi-
cal approach for candidate selection. In a
small, well understood field, Amoco suc- 100
ceeded in making conformance control an
Oil rate, BOPD
58 Oilfield Review
Teamwork Renews an Old Field with
a Horizontal Well
An integrated services approach to drilling a horizontal well in Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela brought new life to
a watered-out, mature field. A crossdisciplinary cast of geoscientists from Maraven, S.A. and Schlumberger
overcame complex geology and landed a successful horizontal drainhole where previous attempts by other
GU
A
YA
C O
René Casco L O
NA
M B
Joey Husband I A
Gerardo Monsegui
Chris Taylor B
R
Caracas, Venezuela A
Z
I L
Bill Lesso
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
Tony Suárez
Los Morochas, Venezuela
Lagunillas
VLA- 8
nBlock 1 of Lake
Maracaibo in
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Ian
Bryant and Mike Kane, Schlumberger-Doll Research, Venezuela. The first
Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA; Eric Cook, Dowell, Tulsa, successful horizon-
C-7 tal drainhole was
10 km
a
of oil in place increases the likelihood of
East
A
A
TE T
O UL
Yet, horizontal drilling seemed the only
way to produce from Block 1. A vertical
well typically produced 150 barrels of oil
per day (BOPD). Most older wells had been
shut in as uneconomic, and the wells that
were on line typically produced no more
than 150 barrels of oil. Some recent wells
began producing water immediately, others
made water within two months. Early break-
through of water was inevitable because of
the reduced vertical height of pay, reduced
reservoir pressure and increased relative
permeability of water to oil.
Oil-water
contact
500
Well
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
85% in 1991.
Oil
Water
Oilfield Review
VLA-8 has produced 42 million barrels of 100
the estimated 118 million barrels of oil in eters
m
place. This production reduced reservoir 400 Inline
pressure from 3200 psi to 1800 psi at 6700
ft [2040 m] in some areas and raised the oil-
135
1500
N
water contact. Water coning has been a
problem from the beginning, with the aver-
age water cut in the field increasing from
20% in 1960 to 85% by 1991 (previous
page, top). The influx of water moves hydro-
carbons toward the top of traps, creating
isolated pockets of oil. Because of the
extensive production in the field, normally
desirable high permeability zones had
water, whereas low-permeability zones still
1900
contained oil.
The Attic is considered the last opportunity
340
for development in Block 1. Three-dimen-
sional seismic data, shot in 1990 and cover- Cros
sline
ing 235 square km [91 square miles], revealed 400
the structural complexity of the fold and fault mete
rs 400
systems that bound the reservoir, and also
stratigraphic features within the pay sands.
The steeply dipping flanks are difficult to 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800
image seismically because a mud layer at Time, msec
the bottom of Lake Maracaibo absorbs high-
frequency seismic energies.
100
Well-tie sections, time slices and 3D cube
displays from Schlumberger’s Charisma
workstation contributed to understanding
the structure (right ). Productive sands in the e
ers Inlin
Attic are in the C-6 and C-7 horizons, which met
400
have each been divided into three inter-
1200
vals—upper, middle and lower. In addition,
seismic attribute sections were generated on 128
the workstation and interpreted. Seismic
attributes, such as signal phase and polarity,
can reveal subtle characteristics of a seismic
2000
trace. In this case, instantaneous phase sec-
tions were particularly helpful in confirming
the continuity of the C-7 structure. But the
steep dip of the beds prevented determining
an exact location of the C-7 reservoir. 32
0
Cr
2. George D: “Lake Maracaibo to Undergo Major Revi- os
40 sli
talization, $9.6 Billion for Development During the 0 ne
Next Four years,” Offshore/Oilman 52, no. 9 (Septem- m
et
ber 1992): 25-29. er 36
s 0
3. Boreham D, Kingston J, Shaw P and van Zeelst J: “3D
Seismic Data Processing,” Oilfield Review 3, no. 1
(January 1991): 41-55.
Hansen T, Kingston J, Kjellesvik S, Lane G, l’Anson K, -128 -64 0 64 128
Naylor R and Walker C: “3-D Seismic Surveys,” Oil- Amplitude
field Review 1, no. 3 (October 1989): 54-61.
4. In Lake Maracaibo, Maraven names reservoirs after
the name of their discovery well. In this case, the well
VLA-8 discovered the reservoir VLA-8. Maraven num- nCharisma workstation displays of 3D seismic data on the C-7 sands of Block 1. The
bers wells sequentially. Wells in Block 1 have the pre- two-way time map (above) shows the elevated Attic area at the C-7 level. The color bar
fix VLA, those drilled in Block 2 have the prefix VLB, denotes the blue area as the highest structural position. The westward edge of the blue
etc. VLA-1035 occurs in Block 1 and is the 1035th area represents the contact with the Icotea fault. The structure strikes north-south and
well drilled by Maraven in Lake Maracaibo. shows a slight arch in the middle of the area. Structural dip is visible to the east and
stops abruptly at the back fault (green-red contact). These two faults delineate the prin-
cipal boundaries of the Attic block.
The amplitude map (below) shows the continuity at the C-7 level. The longest, light-
green amplitude event in the middle of the time slice corresponds to the C-7 channel
sand as interpreted by the sedimentologists from core analysis. The horizontal drain-
hole was located in this event.
April 1994 61
aProduction, million barrels
Vertical depth, ft 2.5
1.5
0.5
5400
5700
6000
6300
6600
6900
93
a
Horizontal
62
600
2 verticals
95
55° 6317 ft MD
1 vertical
96
1200
97
C-7 Upper
Year
55° 7256 ft TD
1800
98
C-7 Middle
99
C-7 Lower
2400
Horizontal displacement, ft
2000
3000
01
3600
02
nHorizontal versus
vertical recovery.
Reservoir modeling
indicated that a
horizontal well
would recover 2.1
million barrels of
oil compared to 0.8
and 1.5 million
barrels for vertical
wells. Furthermore,
the horizontal well
should recover 87%
of its lifetime
production during
the first four years.
nPlanned trajectory
for the pilot well
with three possible
drainhole locations.
Oilfield Review
July August September
Week
Task 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 Jul 13 Jul 20 Jul 27 Jul 5 Aug 10 Aug 17 Aug 24 Aug 31 Aug 7 Sept 14 Sept
Core analysis
Acquire offset/field data
Structural/stratigraphic analysis
Core mechanical properties analysis
Static reservoir modeling Flow predictions made, total
Dynamic reservoir modeling production 1.63-1.80 MMbbl over 12 years
Reservoir Schlumberger
Geology
engineering Project
specialist
specialist coordinator
Drilling Drilling
Petrophysics
operations technologies
specialist
specialist specialist
Directional Logging,
Cementing,
Seismic drilling, well testing
stimulation
Geco-Prakla MWD/LWD Schlumberger
Dowell
Anadrill Wireline & Testing
64 Oilfield Review
Washout MicroSFL Log ing the team to respond swiftly to new
0.2 (ohm-m) 200
developments.
Wireline Caliper The pilot-hole logs were used to construct
in. Laterolog Shallow a dipping, “layer-cake” resistivity model that
6 16
could simulate the LWD resistivity response
Wireline Gamma Ray CDR Shallow in a drainhole for any depth and deviation.
These simulated tool responses would guide
CDR Gamma Ray CDR Deep the LWD interpreter in advising the driller
TVD
MD
0 GAPI 150 0.2 (ohm-m) 2000 once real-time LWD logs were available.
6600 When simulated and measured resistivities
differ, the model is modified by adjusting
the dip of the bed with respect to the bore-
hole angle or the depth of the structure. This
process is repeated until the simulated and
measured resistivity measurements match,
indicating the correct model for the depth
and dip of the structure.
6375 As the horizontal section began, early cor-
relations between the simulated and real-
Moved Oil time LWD measurements indicated a steeper
dip than expected. To compensate, the team
C-7 target increased build angle from 6°/100 ft up to
16°/100 ft. Even so, the drainhole exited the
(continued on page 68)
nCDR time-lapse overlay. Superimposing the Laterolog shallow, CDR shallow and CDR
deep resistivity measurements (right track) taken during and after drilling allows moni-
toring of invasion. Changes in the resistivity measurements can be used to identify
fluid types. Oil is indicated by the lower Laterolog resistivity readings after invasion of
fresh mud has occurred. Water is indicated where the LWD resistivity measurements
are lower than the Laterolog shallow measurement.
April 1994 65
Moved Oil
Water
Oil
Oil
Permeability Bound Water
Enlargement
Net Pay
Mudcake
Permeability
Hole
Water Montmorillonite
Net Sand
Intrinsic Oil Illite
Permeability
Gamma Ray SW Fluid Analysis Combined Model
GAPI md
MD p.u.
1:200 ft 0 150 10000 .01 100 0 75 p.u. p.u.
100 0 100
nELAN results for the pilot well. The C-7 TVD MD
upper sand showed less effective porosity Coal
than the C-7 middle and lower sands
because of its higher clay content, but its
hydrocarbon saturations were the highest.
Resistivity measurements taken during
and after drilling allowed the invasion
profile to be established. 6599
6400
6699
6799
6500
66 Oilfield Review
Stable Borehole Pressure Moved Oil
Gradient Envelope
50° Water
6700
Safe drilling
window for 50°
6800
deviated well Safe drilling
window for
horizontal
drainhole
67
oil section at 6748 ft [2057 m], striking (next page, below). Alternating changes in location of the drainhole in the sand. This
water (below ). The driller jacked up the sand and shaliness as found from the pilot correlation of sedimentological facies
inclination to 100° to steer the wellbore up were assigned letters from “a” to “k”—“a, c, between pilot and drainhole proved to be a
toward the oil bottom. Once it was found, e,…” indicated sands, “b, d, f,…” indicated powerful geosteering technique. The drain-
the hole was plugged back. LWD logs from shales. As the wellbore progressed, correla- hole reached its planned displacement with
this drainhole provided the team with dip tions indicated that the drainhole had pene- 1112 ft [339 m] of net pay sand.
information crucial for revising the forma- trated sandy “a” through shaly “f.” Then the
tion model. The team accounted for the team decided to steer up to avoid hitting Completion and Production
effects of azimuthal changes and high trans- water. By subsequently drilling from “e” Several factors influenced the completion of
verse dips relative to the well path, caused back to “a” and briefly out the top of the VLA-1035. The overall strategy was to pro-
by the beds dipping up about 35° toward sand, they were able to confirm the exact duce through slotted liner, but this hinged
the fault. Any change in azimuth to the left on the ability to slide the slotted section to
would cause the drainhole to lose elevation total depth (TD). Also, the slotted section
2000 8050 ft TD
in the oil section. A turn to the right would drainhole 2 needed to be centralized to avoid extensive
Plan line
cause a gain in elevation. slot plugging. An openhole gas section
The revised strategy was to land the drain- below the 95/8-in. shoe found with the CDN
hole in the upper section of the target. Once log needed to be hydraulically sealed from
there, a 95° inclination would follow the oil production. In addition, low reservoir
dip until the CDR curve indicated the well 1500 pressure of 1200 psi required artificial lift
path exiting into overlying shale. The 7276 ft TD for production.
drainhole 1
azimuth would be closely controlled. Consequently, 7-in. casing with the lower
7493 ft
The new drainhole entered the top of the pilot TD section slotted for production, rather than
North, ft
sand at 6750 ft [2057 m] with an inclination liner, was set to surface (next page, top).
of 87.6°. Logs across the target sand from 1000 This would provide the pushing power to
the pilot were then used to navigate the reach total depth and guarantee gas isola-
drainhole, with gamma ray and resistivity tion. CemCADE cementing design and eval-
Up-dip
measurements from the LWD tool as indica- direction uation software analysis was used to deter-
tors. The top of the C-7 upper interval con- 35° mine pump rates, fluid volumes, surface
tains a series of thin sands and shales each 500 pressures and centralizer calculations for
with an identifiable gamma ray signature cementing. The 7-in. casing was run to the
bottom of the hole, and an inflatable exter-
nal casing packer was placed above the
slotted section to isolate the gas. A port col-
0 lar placed at the top of the horizontal slotted
5400 5400 ft 0 500 1000 section directed the cement first into the
kickoff point East, ft packer and then up the annulus between
the 7-in. casing and the openhole and 95/8-
True vertical depth, ft
68 Oilfield Review
aaa
aaa Gas lift
mandrels at
3838 ft and
5838 ft
Hydraulic
retrievable
a b c
packer
a
Port collar
c
External casing
packer (inflatable)
e
Shale
Sandy shale
Sand
Wellbore
Gamma ray
g
d
i
h
k
j
April 1994
13 3/8 in. at 2504 ft
31/2-in. tubing
e
9 5/8 in.
at 6062 ft
27/8 in.
f
7-in. slotted casing
centralized to 6750 ft
Centralizers
e
7-in. casing to
TD at 8050 ft
d
nCompletion design
for VLA-1035.
c
b
a
69