UNIT: 2: Introduction to Modeling

Mechanical Modeling; Mechanical elements;

Continuous system elements

UNIT: 3: Single Degree of Freedom System

Undamped free vibration; Damped free vibration: Viscous
damping; Columb damping; Hysterisis damping (optional)

Vibration Analysis

A vibratory system = Dynamic = Excitation (inputs) and

responses (outputs) are time dependent T
Very complex
Mathematical modeling, Derivation of the governing equations,
Solution of the equations, and Interpretation of the results.

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Step 1: Mathematical Modeling:
Deriving the mathematical (or analytical) equations governing
the system’s behaviour
Represent all the important features of the system
May be linear or nonlinear
Procedure of refinement

Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations:

Free-body diagrams of all the masses involved.
All applied forces, the reactive forces, and the inertia forces
The equations of motion = Set of ordinary differential equations
for a discrete system and partial differential equations for a
continuous system.
Homogeneous (in the case of free vibrations) or non-
homogeneous (in the case of forced vibrations)

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Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations:
Laplace transform methods, matrix methods, and numerical
methods.

Step 4: Interpretation of the Results:

Solution of the governing equations gives the displacements,
velocities, and accelerations of the various masses of the system.

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Mathematical Modeling: Example

Motorcycle with a rider:

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Basic components of a Mechanical Vibration System

Inertia, Stiffness, Damping, and a source of work or energy.

Dissipate energy
Potential
Kinetic energy
energy Energy to the System

Inertia element = Anything that has mass or stores kinetic energy

Stiffness = Spring element = Store potential energy
Viscous Damping = Energy dissipated due to the viscous
damping force
Source of energy/work = Initial energy present in the system, or
an external force or an imposed motion

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 Springs

A spring is a flexible mechanical link between two particles in a

mechanical system
Inertia of the spring = Small =Neglected
The length of a spring when it is not subject to external forces is
called its unstretched length.

Since the spring is made of a flexible material, the force F that must
be applied to the spring to change its length by x is some continuous
function of x
F = f (x)

Since f (x) is infinitely differentiable at x = 0, it can be expanded by

a Taylor series about x = 0
F = k0 + k1 x + k2 x 2 + k3 x 3 + k4 x 4 + ......

When, x = 0, F= 0, thus k0 = 0
When, x = +ve; Spring in tension and -ve = Compression
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 Springs

For springs, f is an odd function of x; f (−x) = − f (x)

F = k1 x + k3 x 3 + k5 x 5 + .......

All springs are inherently nonlinear. However in many situations x

is small enough that the nonlinear terms of the above Equation are
small compared with k1x.
A linear spring obeys a force-displacement law of F = kx
A spring is said to be linear if the elongation or reduction in
length x is related to the applied force F;

where k is called the spring stiffness or spring constant and

has dimensions of force per length.

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 Springs
The spring constant k is always positive and denotes the force
(positive or negative) required to cause a unit deflection (elongation
or reduction in length) in the spring.

The spring stiffness is the

derivative of the force
displacement relation at x = 0.

Deformation of a Spring
df
Thus, for linear spring, k =
dx x=0
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 Springs

The work done by a force

x2
x12 x22
U1→2 = ∫ (−kx)dx = k 2 −k 2
x1

If the work of a force is independent of the path taken from 1 to 2,

the force is called conservative.
Examples: Spring forces, gravity forces, and normal forces.
Since the work depends upon the initial and final position of the
point of application of the spring force and not the path of the
system, the spring force is conservative

Potential energy function can be defined for a spring

U = 1 2 kx 2

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 Springs
Nonlinear Springs
Most springs used in practical systems exhibit a nonlinear force-
deflection relation.
F = ax + bx 3 ; a>0
a = Constant associated with linear part
b = Constant associated with non linear part
If b=0; Linear Spring
b>0; Hard spring
b<0; Soft spring

Linear and Nonlinear Spring

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 Springs
Linearization of a Nonlinear Spring
Most springs used in practical systems exhibit a nonlinear force-
deflection relation.

F + ΔF = F(x * + Δx)
dF 1 d 2F
= F(x ) +
*
(Δx) + (Δx)2 + ......
dx x* 2! dx 2 x*

For small values of Δx

Nonlinearity beyond proportionality
limit. dF
F + ΔF = F(x ) +
*
(Δx)
dx x*
Since Δx
F = F(x * )
ΔF = kΔx
where k is the linearized spring constant
df
k=
dx x*
Linearization process.
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 Springs
Systems, involving two or more springs, may exhibit a nonlinear
force displacement relationship although the individual springs are
linear.

2
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 Springs
Torsional spring:
Relationship between an applied moment M and the angular
displacement θ

M = ktθ
Torsional Stiffness

Potential energy function for a torsional spring:

U = 1 2 ktθ 2

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 Springs

Helical Coil Spring:

Consider a helical coil spring when subject to an axial load F.

A spring is subject to a force F along
its axis. A section cut of the spring
reveals its cross section has a shear
force F and a torque Fr where r is the
coil radius.

Assuming elastic behavior, the shear stress due to the resisting

torque varies linearly with distance from the center of the rod to a
maximum of
FrD 16Fr
τ max = =
2J π D3
Total change in length of the spring due to an applied force F
64Fr 3 N
x=
GD 4
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 Springs

GD 4
Linear stiffness of a Helical coil spring k=
64Nr 3

Examples
A tightly wound spring is made from a 20-mm-diameter bar of 0.2% C-
hardened steel (G = 80 x 109 N/m2 ) The coil diameter is 20 cm. The spring
has 30 coils. What is the largest force that can be applied such that the
elastic strength in shear of 220 x 106 N/m2 is not exceeded? What is the
change in length of the spring when this force is applied?

FrD 16Fr Fmax = 3.45 ×10 3 N

τ max = =
2J π D3
64Fr 3 N k = 6.67 ×10 3 N m
x=
GD 4 Fmax
Δ= = 0.518 m
GD 4 k
k=
64Nr 3

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