420 Part Three real ners In this chapter, we discuss the meaning of lifestyle and the role it plays in developing mar- keting strategies. Lifestyle is, in many ways, an outward expression of one’s self-concept ‘That is, the way an individual chooses to live, given the constraints of income and ability. is heavily influenced by that person's current and desired self-concept. Therefore, we begin the chapter with an analysis ofthe self-concept. We then describe lifestyle, the ways Bifestyle is measured, and examples of how lifestyle is being used to develop marketing programs SELF-CONCEPT © Satrconcept is defined as she totality ofthe individual's thoughts and feelings having reference to himself or herself as an object. iis an individual's perception of and feelings toward him- or herself. In other words, your self-concept is composed of the attitudes you hold toward yourself, The self-concept can be divided into four basic parts as shown in Table 12-1: actual versus ideal, and private versus social. The actual-ideal distinction refers to the individual's perception of who Iam now (actual sefsconcept) and wiho I would lite 1 be (ideal self-concept) The pi- vate self refers to how Fam or would like to be to myself (private self-concept), and the social self i how I am seen by others or how I would lik tobe seen by others (social self-concept). SS |) Private sot How | acta 200 myset How | woul he to se0 mysof Social sit Howothers actly see me How would he ater to soe me Independent/Interdependent Self-Concepts The self-concept is important in all cultures. However, those aspects of the self that are ‘most valued and most influence consumption and other behaviors vary across cultures. Researchers have found it useful to categorize self-concepts into two types— independent and interdependent, also referred to as one's separateness and connectedness? ‘An independent construal of the self is based on the predominant Western cultural belief that individuals are inherently separate. The independent self-concept emphasizes personal goals, characteristics, achievements, and desires. Individuals with an indepen- dent self-concept tend to be individualistic, egocentric, autonomous, self-reliant, and self- contained. They define themselves in terms of what they have done, what they have, and their personal characteristics.” An interdependent construal of the self is based more on the common Asian cultural belief in the fundamental connectedness of human beings. The interdependent self-concept emphasizes family, cultural, professional, and social relationships. Individuals with an interdependent self-concept tend to be obedient, sociocentric, holistic, connected, and rela- tion oriented. They define themselves in terms of social roles, family relationships, and commonalities with other members of their groups. Independent and interdependent self-concepts are not discrete categories; rather, they are constructs used to describe the opposite ends of a continuum along which most cultures lie, However, as we emphasized in Chapter 2, most cultures are heterogeneous. Therefore, within a given culture, subcultures and other groups will vary on this dimension, as will individuals.* For example, women across cultures tend to have more of an interdependent self-concept than do men.?CChaptor Twelve Sa-Concapt na Lise ‘Variation in the degree to which an individual or culture is characterized by an independent versus an interdependent self- ‘concept has been found to influence message preferences, consumption of luxury goods, se ge rece BN NN scr B RBS autonomy tend to be effective with c cers with independent self-concepts, whereas ads emphasizing group membership work better with consumers with interdependent self-concepts.° The ad in Illustration 12-1 should be effective with individuals whose independent self-concept is dominant However, it is also important to note that ads themselves can cue self-concepts and make them more salient at least for some consumers. In a study of Gen X Chi- nese consumers, individualistic ads made the independent self-concept more salient, while collectivist ads made the interdepe dent se}f-concept more salient. This makes sense if you view these consumers as younger and bicultural in that they are navigating between traditional and emerging value sets. Ads, therefore, can influence the weight placed on a given value set. Possessions and the Extended Self Some products acquire substantial meaning to an individual or are used to signal particu- larly important aspects of that person’s self to others. Belk developed a theory called the extended self to explain this.® The extended self consists of she self plus possessions; that is, people tend to define themselves in part by their possessions. Thus, some possessions are not just a manifestation of a person’s self-concept; they are an integral part of that per- son's self-identity. People are, to some extent, what they possess. If one were to lose key possessions, he or she would be a somewhat different individual.” While these key possessions might be major items, such as one's home or automobile, they are equally likely to be smaller items with unique meanings, such as a souvenir, a photograph, a pet, or a favorite cooking pan, Such objects have meaning to the individual beyond their market value. Consider these statements from constumers who lost their pos: sessions in natural disasters and who had ample insurance to replace them: ‘Yea, we got beter stuf, bu it doesn't mean anything 10 us, It's just stuff ‘You can’t put back or replace what you had, It was too personal—it was eustomized.!° Products become part of one’s extended self for a variety of reasons, Souvenirs often become part of the extended self as representations of memories and feelings: ‘You can't eally tell what Paris is lke... you know, a lot oft is just feelings; feelings you can’t put into words, or [that] pitures cannot capture... They [a hat and blouse] are just reminders. {had a really wonderful trip and really sor of discovered myself; you know, I leammed tobe inde~ pendent on my own. I really didn’t have the money o buy this {necklace and boomerang charm), but I decided I wanted something really permanent ... The boomerang is a symbol of going back there sometime," when heir appeal mate he dominant type tt-concept held ad will be effec ive with the indesoo Part Three Inert vensae Gifts often take on important meanings as representations of relationships: ‘That gift was my grandfather's ring... Even now when [look ati, [think about its pas with him and the jourmeys it took around the world in the Navy back in World War IL ‘The key chain is special because every so often, when I think about who gave it to me, it brings back old thoughts and feelings. Its a symbol of fiendship between us and it keeps usin touch. ? Some products become embedded with meaning, memories, and value as they are used ‘ver time, as with an old baseball glove. At other times, a single peak experience with a product such as a mountain bike can propel the product into the extended self. A peak experience is an experience that surpasses the usual level of intensity, meaningfulness, cand richness and produces feelings of joy and self-fufillment."* Finally, products that are ‘acquired or used to help consumers with major life transitions (e.., leaving home, first Job, marriage) are also likely to be or become part of the extended self." ‘As Consumer Insight 12-1 makes clear, extended self can also relate to nonproduct enti- ties such as activities (golfing), other people (my bes friend), TV shows (Star Trek), and sports teams (Green Bay Packers) ‘A scale has been developed to measure the extent to which an item has been incorpo- tated into the extended self. It is a Likert scale (see Appendix A) in which consumers express levels of agreement (from strongly agree to strongly disagree on a seven-point scale) to the following statements: My ____helps me achieve the identity I want to have. helps me narrow the gap between what I am and what I try to be. is central to my identity, s part of who Tam, is stolen from me I will feel as if my identity has been snatched from me. I derive some of my identity from my Owning a product affects a person even if it does not become an important part of the person's extended self. The mere ownership effect, or the endowment effect, is the tendency of an owner to evaluate an object more favorably than a nonowner. This occurs almost immediately upon acquiring an object and increases with time of ownership. Thus, people tend to value an object more after acquiring it than before, People also tend to value objects they own more highly than they value similar objects owned by others.'° ‘The extent to which brands become part of the extended self appears to be affected by individual differences in brand engagement. Brand engagement refers to the extent 10 which an individual includes important brands as part of his or her self-concept. Sample items used to measure brand engagement include “I have a special bond with the brands that I like,” “I often feel a personal connection between my brands and me,” and “Part of me is defined by important brands in my life.""” Research shows that the strongest predictor of brand engagement is materialism. It also shows that consumers with higher brand engagement like products better when the brand logo is prominently displayed on the product, Which segment from the opener do you feel is highest in brand engagement and materialism? What design aspects relating to logo would be important to this group? Explain. ‘The concept of the extended self and the mere ownership effect have numerous impli- cations for marketing strategy. One is that communications that cause potential consumers to visualize product ownership may result in enhanced product evaluations. Product sam- pling or other trial programs may have similar resultsPart Tiree nem ntuances Source: NK. Mao, “A Scale 1 Mesure SeiConceps, Peron Cocees. and Prt Cone" of Marketing ‘esearch past the American Marketing Asian rept wi prise Nove 18) p. 462 Measuring Self-Concept Using the self-concept in marketing requires that it be measurable. The most common ‘measurement approach is the semantic differential (see Appendix A). Malhotra has devel- ‘oped a set of 15 pairs of adjectives, shown in Table 12-2. These have proven effective in describing the ideal, actual, and social self-concepts of individuals as well as the images of automobiles and celebrities. Using this scale, determine your actual and desired private and social self-concepts. ‘This instrument can be used to ensure a match between the self-concept (actual or ideal) of a target market, the image of a brand, and the characteristics of an advertising spokesperson. For example, in its decision to sign Serena Williams to a multiyear endorse- ‘ment contract. Nike undoubtedly saw a match between the desired self-concept of young ‘women, the desired image for Nike's women’s athletic apparel line, and the image of Serena Williams."° Using Self-Concept to Position Products People’s attempts to obtain their ideal self-concept, or maintain their actual self-concept, often involve the purchase and consumption of products, services, and media.” This pro- cess is described in Figure 12-1. While this figure implies a rather conscious and deliber- ate process, many times that is not the case. For example, a person may drink diet colas because his desired self-concept includes a trim figure, but he is unlikely to think about the purchase in these terms. However, as the following statement illustrates, sometimes people ddo think in these terms: ‘And I feel if you present yourself inthe right way, people will start to notice. But ths leads back to image and self-worth, which can be achieved through having the right clothes and a good haircut... having a good portrait of yourself on the outside can eventually lead to an emotionally stable inside." All this suggests that marketers should strive to develop product images that are consistent with the self-concepts of their target markets.” While everyone's self-conceptChapter Twelve SaiConcap ana Liao 25 Le Cee Behavior Reinforces self-concept is unique, there is also significant overlap across individuals and groups, which is one basis for market segmentation. For example, many consumers see themselves as environ- ‘mentalists. Companies and products that create an image of being concerned about or good for the environment are likely to be supported by these consumers. Consumers maintain and enhance their self-concepts not only by what they consume, but By what they avoid.** Some consumers make a point of avoiding certain Product cat- egories, such as red meat, or certain brands, such as Nike, as part of maintaining “who they are.” In general, consumers prefer brands that match their self-concepts. However, it is important to realize that the degree to which such “self-image congruity” influences brand preference and choice depends on a number of product, situational, and individual factors, First, self-image congruity is likely to matter more for products such as perfume where value-expressive symbolism is eritical than for more utilitarian products such as @ garage door opener. Second, self-image congruity (especially ideal social self) is likely to matter more when the situation involves public or conspicuous consumption (e.g., hav- ing a beer with friends at a bar) than when consumption is private (e.g., having a beer at home). Finally, self-image congruity is likely to matter more for consumers who place heavy \weighton the opinions and feelings of others (called high self-monitors ) than for consumers ‘who do not (called low self:monitors), particularly in public situations where consumption behaviors can be observed by others.”* Look at Illustration 12-2 and the various aspects of self-concept listed in Table 12-2. Which aspect(s) of self-concept does this ad appeal to? Marketing Ethics and the Self-Concept The self-concept has many dimensions. Marketers have been criticized for focusing too ‘much attention on the importance of being beautiful, with beautiful being defined as young and slim with a fairly narrow range of facial features. Virtually all societies appear to define and desire beauty, but the intense exposure to products and advertisements focused ‘on beauty in America today is unique. Critics argue that this concern leads individuals to develop self-concepis that are heavily dependent on their physical appearance rather than other equally or more important attributes,«25 Par Thee Intra ntuerose ‘Ads that position products to match baa the self-concept of the target market are generally successful ‘Such ads can appeal ey tothe consumer's ree ‘actual or ideal, ri- vate or social sat 7 ADVIL Consider the following statements from two young women: [never fet that [looked right. Like I can see outfits that I'd love to wear, but I know that I could ‘ever wear them. I probably could wear them and get away with it, bt I'd be so self-conscious walking around that 'd be like, “oh, my God." Like I always try to look thinner and I guess everybody does. {Lam prety content with my hair because I have good hair I have good eyesight (laughs) so T «don't have to wear glasses or anything that would make my face look different from what itis. In terms of bad points, well thee is alot. got alot of my father’s feature, I wish [had more of my ‘mother's. My hands ae prety square. Ihave a kind of big butt. Then, I dont have that great oF stomach, ‘These young women have self-concepts that are partly negative as a result of their perceptions of their beauty relative to the standard portrayed in the media. Critics of advertising claim that most individuals, but particularly young women, acquire negative components to their self-concepts because very few can achieve the standards of beauty presented in advertising. Recent research indicates that similar negative self-evaluations occur in males as a result of idealized images of both physical attractiveness and financial success.”” The ethical question is complex. No one ad or company has this type of impact. It is the cumulative effect of many ads across many companies reinforced by the content of the ‘mass media that presumably causes some to be overly focused on their physical beauty. ‘And, as stated earer, concer with beauty existed long before advertising.