Forensic Sci Med Pathol
DOI 10.1007/s12024-012-9391-5
FORENSIC FORUM
The occurrence of cadaveric spasm is a myth
Paul J. Bedford • Michael Tsokos
Accepted: 1 November 2012
Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012
Introduction
Cadaveric spasm relates to the concept of the instantaneous
appearance of rigidity in a deceased body. Articles refer-
ring to this phenomenon are widespread in the literature
with an emphasis on the grasping or gripping of objects
especially relating to gunshot suicide deaths. Other exam-
ples of the presence of objects in the hand are discussed
with a background of drowning, sharp force injuries,
electrocution and injectable drug overdose. Famous
forensic cases such as the Brides in the Bath murders have
relevance as one of the victims apparently retained soap in
their hand. Other stories of unusual positions of the body,
suggestive of instantaneous rigor, are encountered in war
and in the bodies of victims of the Mt Vesuvius eruption in
AD79. Some more recent cases where objects have been
identified in the hand of the deceased will be shown and
discussed.
Background
Rigor mortis is the process whereby muscles stiffen after
death [1]. It is preceded by a total primary relaxation of the
musculature immediately after death. The earliest changes
P. J. Bedford (&)
Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, Monash University,
57-83 Kavanagh St, Southbank, VIC 3006, Australia
e-mail: paul.bedford@vifm.org
M. Tsokos
Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, University
Medical Centre Charité, University of Berlin, Turmstr. 21,
Building N, 10559 Berlin, Germany
e-mail: michael.tsokos@charite.de
occur from approximately 20 min after death, these
appearing in the muscles of the eyelids and the jaw then
progressing further down the body to involve larger muscle
groups resulting in stiffening of elbow and knee joints
approximately 2–6 h after death.
The rate of onset is variable and can be affected by
factors including ambient temperature, fever, forceful
physical exertion, young age and electrocution. Rigor
mortis develops in all muscles at the same time and at the
same speed [2].
The pathophysiology is believed to involve the depletion
of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in muscles [3], with actin
and myosin complexes entering into a non-moveable state
until, under the influence of autolysis and putrefaction,
protein disintegration of the myofibrils leads to loosening
of rigor mortis (secondary relaxation).
On the other hand, there is no scientific basis to support
the concept of cadaveric spasm.
Objects in the hand
Gunshot wounds in suicide and grasping/gripping
of weapons
Large studies conducted by Garavaglia, Stone and Krauland
highlight that in many well documented reviews of gunshot
suicides the weapon is found to be still in the grasp of the
victim. This was defined in Garavaglia’s series of 498 deaths
as having a finger on the trigger or loosely gripping the barrel
or grip of the gun. Her findings were that 24 % of cases were
still gripping or grasping the weapon [4]. The deceased was
more likely to have a positive finding if they were in a sitting
or lying position. In the series of 212 cases from Stone [5] this
finding was present in 20 % of cases. Krauland [6] reviewed
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71 cases also finding a significant incidence of the gun being
in the hand of the deceased.
Given this scientific background of the not uncommon
finding of a gun being found loosely gripped in the hand or
touching the trigger, we then note the progression to the
use of the term ‘‘cadaveric spasm’’ in gunshot deaths.
Bowen [7] wrote: ‘‘Instantaneous rigor may help to confirm
that a firearm wound was self inflicted when it causes the
weapon to remain firmly grasped in the hand’’. Watson [8],
in reviewing the book The Pathology of Trauma edited by
Mason (1993), noted ‘‘one is introduced to the tricks of the
trade, e.g. ‘cadaveric spasm’ being virtually diagnostic of
suicide’’. Figure 1 displays a case of gunshot suicide
(suicide letter present and no suspicious circumstances)
with the weapon still being loosely held in the hand. Note
the position is suitable for this end result with the body
situated in a lying position on the bed.
Sangvichien [9] proposed an interesting link to explain
the presence of guns in the hands of two deceased victims.
Both had extensive damage to a cerebral hemisphere, with
the concept being that this damage resulted in an inability
of the brain to release the weapon and hence the presence
of ‘‘cadaveric spasm.’’
Suicide gun related deaths must always be carefully
investigated allowing for the presence of staged scenes
where there has been a homicide. The finding of a tightly
gripped gun would raise suspicion of manipulation of the
scene. Gun shot residue investigations would clearly be of
value.
Drowning
The quintessential commentary regarding ‘‘cadaveric
spasm’’ is to be found in cases of drowning, where there is
often the comment that the deceased has been found
‘‘clutching at straws’’ making a last ditch effort at survival
Fig. 1 Gunshot victim still retaining a loose hold of the weapon
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Forensic Sci Med Pathol
and grabbing grass and other debris just before succumb-
ing. Our case (Fig. 2) shows a classical picture of debris
being retained in the hand in a case of drowning. Lawler
[10] commented that ‘‘cadaveric spasm’’ was well recog-
nized in drowning. Surgeon Commander Crossfill [11], an
English naval doctor, was a little more skeptical, noting
that he had himself never seen a persisting grasp, although
noting an anecdotal story of a man found still grasping a
gold watch in his hand following his drowning death in a
sunken ship. In his review of drowning he also made ref-
erence to the Brides in the Bath deaths in England where it
was reported that one of the brides was still holding on to
soap. This did not appear to be physiologically supportable.
The Brides in the Bath murders (early twentieth century
England) resulted in the conviction of George Joseph
Smith for the murder of 3 of his wives. Each of these
women had been found dead in a bath with little in the way
of injuries. Over a long period of time Mr Smith had
married several women, often changing his own name.
A Mr Crossley, landlord of one of the dead wives, noted
that it was unusual for two women to have died suddenly in
a bath and forwarded two newspaper articles to the police.
A police investigation followed which identified that these
two women had indeed been married to the same man and
had left considerable amounts of money to him upon their
deaths. In the third death Mr Smith had told the local
doctor that his wife was having seizures, but before she had
been able to attend the doctor she had died in the bath. A
third case was then identified and George Smith was
brought to trial. Important in a medicolegal sense, this trial
introduced the concept of the conditions for similar fact
evidence.
It was believed that Mr Smith had suddenly grabbed and
raised both legs of the victims thus immersing their heads.
The famous (but recently discredited) British forensic
pathologist Sir Bernard Spilsbury was involved in the trial
Fig. 2 A drowning victim with debris/grass material
Forensic Sci Med Pathol
and investigation relating to Mr Smith [12–14]. It is
believed that he and the officer investigating the case
enlisted the support of several young women, all of whom
were competent swimmers. They were placed in baths and
their legs suddenly raised in the air. Some of the women
struggled, however one (perhaps a little less prepared)
quickly became unconscious and required resuscitation.
Returning to the concept of ‘‘cadaveric spasm’’ Sir
Bernard Spilsbury commented on the finding of soap being
retained in the hand of one of the victims and that this was
the result of spasm following intense physical exertion.
It is hard to believe that given the potential for a struggle
and the difficulty of hanging on to slippery soap that Mr
Smith had not engineered scene changes for his own ben-
efit, in keeping with a sudden dramatic death.
Sharp force deaths
Continuing the theme of objects being grasped in the hand
following suicidal deaths Karger [15] reported a study of
65 sharp force suicidal deaths where there were two cases
in which the weapon was still being gripped. We present a
similar type of case (Fig. 3) where the knife is still being
grasped in the hand.
In DiMaio’s text there is a picture of a man grasping a
razor, said to be an example of ‘‘cadaveric spasm’’. The
man was alleged by his wife to have been attacking her
with the razor however before she could be injured she shot
him [16]. This is an interesting case with the skeptical
viewpoint being, noting that the razor is perfectly vertical,
that to protect herself from homicide related charges she
‘‘staged’’ the scene.
Fig. 3 A suicidal stabbing victim who still has a loose grip of the
knife
Other objects in the hand
We present a picture (Fig. 4) where a syringe and needle
are retained in the hand of the deceased. It can be clearly
seen that the victim shows anterior lividity and that the
needle and syringe have been retained in the hand while the
hand is compressed by the body.
Murty [17] presented cases, one of which included the
grasping in the hand of a Malaysian one ringgit note. The
background was of sex related indiscretions and then a
homicidal death with extensive blunt force injury. One
might suggest that the retention in the hand of a low cur-
rency note may have been the perpetrator’s evaluation of
the value of the victim.
Electrocution related deaths can have the hand grasping
electrical cord in a typical grasp reflex response to the
electrical stimulus. In countries where there is no safety cut
off mechanism the stimulation may be prolonged well after
death resulting in a tight grip of material such as an elec-
trical cord (see Fig. 5).
Anthropology and war
Nearly 2000 years ago in AD79 Mt Vesuvius erupted
resulting in the deaths of many people in the cities of
Pompeii and Herculaneum. Anthropologists have com-
mented on the ‘‘life like’’ positions of many of the dead
bodies from this disaster [18]. Indeed this has been labeled
Fig. 4 A syringe is still loosely held in the hand
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Fig. 5 An electrocution death in a bath with the electrical cord Fig. 6 Self strangulation by electrical cord
retained in the hand

as ‘‘cadaveric spasm’’ due to retaining their position in

sudden death. Many thought that death was a result of the
effects of the ash plume, however recent investigations
confirm that many died a sudden death due to extremely
high temperatures, around 500 °C, during the lava or
pyroclastic flows [19]. Some of the life like positions also
have pugilistic features, well recognized by forensic
pathologists in fire victims [20].
Other instances of ‘‘cadaveric spasm’’ are noted in
bodies that have been found in the prone position [21]. This
has been interpreted as an unusual position and possibly
related to being buried alive. Prone body positions are also
postulated as a marker of disrespect in their community.
In summary there is nothing to suggest that bodies were
buried alive or that bodies from the volcano disaster were
instantaneously fixed in position due to ‘‘cadaveric spasm’’.
Reports of soldiers in World War 1, the American Civil
War and the German–French wars of the 1870s include
commentary that their bodies were occasionally fixed in
unusual positions and therefore were examples of
‘‘cadaveric spasm’’. Mueller noted that he had questioned
many doctors from World War 1 and that no true cases Fig. 7 Closer view of the hand retaining the cord and resting on the
were forthcoming. Tsokos [1] commented that unusual chest wall
positions were more likely to have resulted from blast
waves, scavenging of bodies and other manipulations of the
scene. One might even suggest the possibility of a body connected to his left hand which is seen in a position above
being posed to look like a living soldier with gun aimed, to the left chest, thus not responding appropriately to gravity,
confuse the enemy. and deemed to be an example of ‘‘cadaveric spasm’’ or
more literally translated from the German cataleptic
Self strangulation rigidity.
It is also noted in this case that there is a gag in the
In an article by Weimann [22], he discusses an interesting mouth. Given the lack of a clear mechanism of self
series of self strangulations or throttlings. He presents one strangulation and the presence of a gag, this case is more
case from Fränkel in 1926 where a 67 year old man was likely to represent a potential homicide with scene
found with a rope looped once around the neck and then manipulation.

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Figures 6 and 7 are of a case where death was caused by
self strangulation. The initial picture is vaguely suggestive
of the arm being in the air, however this is dispelled in the
latter picture and by other scene photos not presented in the
article. Although there are extremely unusual aspects to
this case, it was deemed to be a suicide due to the lack of a
struggle at the scene in a locked apartment and with the
background of amphetamine usage.
Pfäffli [23] wrote a review article on cases of immediate
onset spasm in the German literature from 1922 onwards.
He proposed that cases needed to have a number of features
to be labeled as cataleptic rigidity including good docu-
mentation of other post mortem changes (in particular
lividity), as well as an undisturbed scene and the absence of
a third party. He concluded that in none of the 15 cases
reviewed (including the case mentioned above by
Weimann) was there sufficient evidence.
Conclusion
A history of the use of the term ‘‘cadaveric spasm’’ has been
given. This has encompassed a number of areas and fields
where there has been a belief that there has been instanta-
neous rigidity upon death. It has been shown that in gunshot
and sharp force related suicides it is not uncommon to have
the weapon loosely grasped in the hand. In drownings the
presence of grass and debris in the hands is more likely to be
as a result of local conditions and the frequent finding of
drowned bodies among debris on the shore or at the scene of
death. Life like body positions in Pompeii relate to sudden
death from intense heat. Electrocution deaths (where there is
no safety switch cut off) can result in the continued grasping
of the electrical cord. Other scenes such as that of the holding
of soap in the Brides in the Bath murders and the holding of a
vertical razor are more likely to be due to manipulation of the
scene. The presence of syringes held in the hand are typically
seen in cases where there has been a retention of the syringe
in a hand that is underneath the body. There is no recognized
pathophysiological basis for the process of ‘‘cadaveric
spasm’’. It is interesting to note that with the increased
reporting of excitable delirium, where there is well docu-
mented violent physical activity (an often quoted precipitant
for instantaneous rigor) we have not been able to find any
reference to the phenomenon of ‘‘cadaveric spasm’’ [24].
The German literature has denied the veracity of the concept
of ‘‘cadaveric spasm’’ for a long period and maybe it is time
for the English speaking world of death investigators to
similarly refrain from using the term.
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