Principles of Flight CHAPTER 1 -THE BASICS.. DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS A Quick Revision PHYSICAL Laws. Newton's First Law Newton's Second Law. Newton's Third Law. (OTHER DEFINITIONS ‘THE ATMOSPHERE. DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS COMPONENTS OF THE AIRCRAFT CHAPTER 2 - THE DERIVATION OF LIFT... ‘THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY... 1 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM 1 AIRSPEED... 2 SPEED, WORK & POWER 3 ‘AIRFLOW, 4 LUFT sn re _ 4 Lift Co-effcient and Alpha. ' . a7, 8 9 1 2 Lift Co-effcient and Camber... Lift Co-effcient and Wing Planform Lift Co-effcient. Reynolds Number and Mach Number Centre of Pressure Movement, i (CHAPTER 3 - DRAG. ‘TH BOUNDARY LAYER... i The Boundary Layer on Curved Surfaces 2 Laminar Flow Airfoils. 3 Airflow Separation 3 ‘THE ELEMENTS OF DRAG 4 Profile Drag. 5 Form Drag a om ’ esa 6 6 6 7 9 Skin friction Interference Drag. Factors Affecting Profile Drag. Induced Drag The Eliptical Wing. . foie Winglews. : nD, Flops. aaa 10 A General Formula for Induced rae tml Ground Effect. Pee u Other elements of duced drag B TOTAL DRAG... cocina ee 7 F LifvDrag Ratio. 16 Polar Diagrams, i rn i 0 Low Drag Aireraft ae 18 Stall speed and minimum drag speed. os seed Wake Turbulence. CHAPTER 4- BALANCE OF FORCES IN LEVEL FLIGHT LeveL Fucur. ATTITUDE IN LEVEL FLIGHT, STICK FORCES IN LEVEL FLIGHT, PERFORMANCE IN LEVEL FLIGHT. Principles of Flight Issue 5 Contents.1CHAPTER 5- TAKEOFF AND CLIMB... ‘Tup Taxzorr. ‘Tue GROUND RUN, ‘Tue INITIAL CLiMa... ‘THE CLIMB Forces in the Climb Angle of climb. Rate of climb... Jet climb . Piston and turboprop climb. CHAPTER 6- FLYING FOR RANGE AND ENDURANCE... Jer Aincrarr.. Flying for Range. Altitude and Mach effects. The eruise climb The effect of temperature. The effect of wind. To climb or not to climb? Flying for Endurance. PROPELLER AIRCRAFT ron Flying for Range. Piston engines Turboprop engines. Summary. Plying for Endurance. ‘THe EFFECT OF WIND ON RANGE CHAPTER 7- DESCENT AND LANDING. ‘THe DESCENT... Forces in the Glide. Gliding for Range. E Giiding for Endurance... The Effect of Residual Power. The Effect of Aircraft Weight... The Effect of Drag and High-Lif Devices The Efe of Wind on Gling for Range APPROACH AND LANDING CHAPTER 8 - MANOEUVRE. Se BOVNRAAAR RUN TURNING... RATE AND RADIUS OF TURN Minimum Radius Turns Maximum Rate Turns ‘Maximun LoaD FACTOR UspFUL FACTS. HiGH LiFt DEVICES... Taurus AILERON IN TURNS, CHAPTER 9 ~ STALLING AND SPINNING.. ‘THE STALL... - BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATION. LIFT AND DRAG AT THE STALL... Stall Development Alleviating Tip Stal. ‘CONTROL AT THE STALL... STALL WARNING AND STALL AVOIDANCE Stail Warning. Stall Avoidance 4.2 Issue 5 8 z e a a z a =STALLING SPEED wom The Effect of Weight. The Effect of Height The Effect of CG Position The Effect of Power. Jet aircraft. Propeller aircraft. The Effect of Contamination. igi Laer Devices SwerT WINGS. STALL IDENTIFICATION Level Flight. Stalling inthe fnal turn Stalling in manoeuvre... STALL RECOVERY vn AUTOROTATION THE SPI é The Incipient Spin. The Incipient Spin Recovery. The Full Spin el The Standard Spin Recovery CHAPTER 10 - HIGH LIFT DEVICES INTRODUCTION. FLAPS Trailing Edge Flaps . Drag Complex Flaps... Leading edge flaps SLOTS AND SLATS. BOUNDARY LAYER. Vortex Generators oun Sucking. Blowing... CHAPTER 11 - FLYING CONTROLS. AIRCRAFT AXES. Coefficients of Moment. Primary and Secondary Bf Contras : Trailing Edge Control. Aerodynamic Forces Control Balancing Systems oun Trim and Balance Tabs: Controls locked? .. ConTrot FORCES: Gear Change and Datura Shift DISTORTION AND FLUTTER. Controt iv ROLL. Ailerons v. Spoilers Ailerons. Spoilers. 7 Control Effectiveness, Roll Response. ConrRou. in PrrcH Elevator The Variable Incidence Tall. Slab Tails. i PITCH RESPONSE. T Certification under JAR 25 and 23. Principles of Flight Issue 5 Contents.3ConTROL IN YAW, 20 Secondary Effects of Rudder. 21 Yaw RESPONSE CHAPTER 12 - STABILIT STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY on cual Static Stability. 1 Stability Diagrams, 2 Dynamie Stability. 3 AIRCRAFT STABILITY ms The Stability of « Dart 5 LONGITUDINAL STATIC STABILITY. 6 CP and CG Position 6 The Tailplane Contribution 1 Pitch Stability. 8 The Coe Diag vor a] Caleutating the Tail Moment. ou w Longitudinal Dikedral. ata eae pent Fuselages and Engine Nacelles B Stick Ficed or Stick Free at Ui lh Position of the CO 15 Trim svn Pete vv 16 Stability in Manoeuvre. 16 Stability and the Cuce Diagram... a 7 DIRECTIONAL STATIC STABILITY .. Weigh, Power and Configuration. Stick Force Stability : The Cree Diagram. LATERAL STATIC STABILITY Geating the Signs Right Wing Contribution... Geometric Dihedral, Sweepback. seen oo The Contato of ing postion on n the Fuselage 2B Minor Effects. a ae cea Summary, 7 The Cice Diagram.. 28 Roll and Yaw. 2d DYNAMIC STABILITY. 30 Longitudinal Dynamie stability. 30 Lateral Dynamic Stability 3 Dutch roit : asianant oi pia Spiral Instability 2 The Effect of CG. a co 32 Roll — Yaw Damping. : 2 Directional Dynamic Stability. a arg ‘SpaED STABILITY 33 CHAPTER 13 - HIGH SPEED FLIGHT nro ‘THE SPEED OF SOUND Mach Nronber no Maci Waves SHOCKWAVES... ‘TRANSONIC FLIGHT ‘TRANSONIC STABILITY Compressive Corners: Expansive Corners, The Wing in Transonic Flight... Upwash. Shockowaves.nn Cx and Co in Transonie Flight. Issue 5Transonic Lateral Stability Transonic Longitudinal Stability. Transonic Directional Stability. Mach Stall i: DESIGN FOR TRANSONIC FLIGHT i The Supercritical Wing. Thin Wings Swept Wings Area Ruling. Vortex Generators in Transonic Flight CHAPTER 14 ~ PROPELLERS... Forces Acting on the Propeller ‘The Effet of Forward Speed... NoaMAL RANGE OF OPERATION.. The Effect of Changing Power and Speed. ‘THE FULL OPRATING RANGE. : Feathering. Start-up and Taxy.. Reverse Thrust. T Alpha and Beta Control. Fine Pitch Locks and Stops Coarse Pitch Stops Negative Torque Sensing. CONTROL LEVERS so noen The Two Levers System Single Lever Systems. PROPELLER CONTROL EFFECTS Gyroseopie Effect Asymmetric Blade Effect. Propeller Slipsiream Effect Torque Effect. Takeoff Summary. PROPELLER DESIGN .warsenrnenne Propeller Efficiency. Power Absorptioto. Summary. SYNCHRONISING AND SYNCHROPHASING ‘Synchronising. P ‘Synehrophasing CHAPTER 15~ FLIGHT OPERATIONS ASYMMETRIC FLIGHT... Asymmetric Thrust Asymmetric Blade Effect (P-Factor) The Critical Engine Counter-Rotating Propellers. Drag. Effect of Engine Failure on the Drag Line. Effect of Engine Failure on Total drag Lift “Interaction of Forces after Engine Failure Sideslip in Asymmetric Flight. Eliminating Sideslip Living with Sideslip Minimum Control Speeds yMCG Factors Affecting VMCG. YMCA. Factors Affecting the Minimum Control Speed v0.0.0 Principles of Flight Issue 5 Contents.!Take-Off Safety Speet.un.onnsesn : . senso 16 Single Engine Safety Speed... svn Cece Landing. : "7 Fit Sill cei ore The Effect of Engine Failure on Air era Peformance 18 FLIGHT IN ICING CONDITIONS... asian Picea Wing Ieing Tailplane icing Rudder feng. ‘CONTAMINATION AND WEIGHT GROWTH... EMERGENCY DESCENT fe CHAPTER 16- DESIGN & NORMAL OPERATING LIMITS ... DEsion Linas. oi The Manoewre Envelope The Stall Limit - Crs. The g Limit Design Airspeeds. High Speed Limits... The Effect of Altitude. The Effect of Flap Extension The Gust Envelope. The Combined Envelope. NORMAL OPERATING Limits. Buffet Boundary Charts. 1.6 Issue 5 Principles of Flight‘There is a tong list of abbreviations at Annex A Ahectopascal (hPa) is the same ‘as a millibar (mb) Chapter 1 - The Basics Definitions and Abbreviations he definitions and abbreviations you will need are introduced as they arise in the main text, but a list is given for reference at the end of this section. Aerodynamics still handles a mix of imperial, metric and other units, but you will need to know the SI (Systeme International) units for some common factors: Mass: Kilogram (kg) Force: Newton (N) The force that accelerates 1kg at 1m/sec? Acceleration: Metres per second per second (m/sec? } Velocity: Metres per second (m/sec) ‘Temperature: Kelvin (K) Pressure: Pascal (Pa) A pressure of IN/m? Density: Kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m") Energy: Joule (J) LN moving 1m Power: Watt (W) A rate of energy use of 1J/sec Some of these will be unfamiliar, and not all are in general use. ‘The Kelvin does not need the prefix “degree” and is the same as the temperature in degrees Absolute (°C +273). The Pascal turns up in Meteorology, where the hectopascal (hPa), 100 Pascals, is the same as the millibar (mb). The Joule and the Watt are very small, and often appear as kilo- or Mega- units, KW or MJ for example. ‘There is always confusion between weight and mass. Weight is a force felt by the aircraft in normal gravity, an acceleration of 1g. In SI units 1g is 9.81m/sec?. Therefore in level flight an aircraft of 10,000kg mass would have a weight of 98,100N. Wing loading, for example, which is aircraft weight divided by wing area, would be given in N/m? in SI units, not kg/m?. It is, perfectly acceptable to use kilograms as weight but this is not the correct SI unit. One kilogram weight is equal to 9.81N. Principles of Flight Issue 5 44A Quick Revision The Examination may require you to handle simple conversions and equations. Example. — Given the following formula and the values below calculate C.in $ I units Lift = C.npV2S Lift = 60,000kg 588600N in SI units V = 200kt 103m/sec in SI units p = 1225gm/m> 1.225kg/m! in SI units S = 500m? 500m? in SI units Solution: This is the lift formula, fully explained in a later section. The aircraft speed is V, the air density, p, and the wing area, S. By cross-multiplying the formula becomes: ‘Spv’ c, = 2.588600 * "500 x 1.225 x 10609 CG, = 0.181 When you come to the examples in the text you will find C, quoted at radically different values. That is because the value of Cz depends on the units you are working in, and older data is in pounds, knots and square feet. Physical Laws ‘The motion of the atmosphere, the aircraft in flight, taking off or landing, all operate under the basic laws of mass, acceleration and energy set out by Isaac Newton. These are: Newton's First Law Newton’s First Law states that a body will continue in a state of rest or uniform motion unless acted on by an external force. In a stationary body it is mass that is a measure of its resistance to change. In a moving body it is its momentum, defined as mass times velocity, my, that resists change of motion. 1.2 Issue 5 Principles of Flight Roughly 10N for every kg and 2kt for every msec ‘These laws explain how an aircraft reacts to weight and lift and thrust and dragNewton’s Second Law Newton’s Second Law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force, and takes place in the direction in which the force acts. In simple terms this means that the same force applied to the same body will produce the same rate of change of velocity. Rate of change of velocity is acceleration or deceleration. Newton’s Third Law Newton’s Third Law states that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. In a jet engine, if the action is pushing air out of the jet pipe, the reaction is pushing the aircraft forward. Other Definitions Work done is the product of force times the distance moved in the direction of the force. Power is the rate of work done ‘The Energy of a Moving Body, its kinetic energy, is proportional to its mass times its velocity squared: Kinetic Energy = Zany? When dealing with airflow we substitute mass per unit volume, which is density, p (rho) in place of total mass and the equation becomes: tana Kinetic Energy = pv ‘This is the formula that gives the kinetic energy of moving air. Principles of Flight Issue 5 4.3The Atmosphere ‘The atmosphere through which the aircraft flies is a mix of gases, predominantly oxygen and nitrogen. The average distribution of temperature with height is shown in the familiar ISA graph, at figure 11-1-1 eat aaa . ose? weir | : HeicHT Er H # a } : : | | 905 ““Feyperarune DEG C° [MEAN SEALEVEL PRESSURE 10122549 DENSITY 1225 GMCUBIC METRE Figure 11-4-4 ‘The atmosphere, like any gas, obeys the Gas Laws. There are three. Boyle’s Law states that at a fixed temperature increasing pressure will decrease the volume and thus increase the density. Charles’s Law states that at a fixed pressure increasing the temperature will increase the volume and thus decrease the density. The Pressure Law states that at a fixed volume increasing temperature or pressure will increase the other factor. Combining these leads to the formula: Density = P + RT R is just a constant for the particular gas under study. These “Ideal” Gas laws apply for all normal work with gases, although real gasses do depart from the ideal at temperatures where the gas is near to condensation. This is below minus 150°C at sea level pressure for atmospheric gases. Issue 5 Principles of Flight We assume the atmosphere is a mix of ideal gasesAir density halves ‘at 20,000ft and halves again at 40,0008 At low level atmospheric pressure is high, and therefore so is density. At high altitude both are low. The fall in temperature as altitude increases only affects the rate at which pressure and density fall. Atmospheric density is important to many assessments of aircraft performance and you should know how Gensity varies with height. The ISA data are given below. Notice that density is roughly half the sea level value at 20,000ft, and one quarter the sea level value at 40,000it. Altitude | Temp | Pressure | Density (ft) ec) (mb) | (gm/m* 0 +15 1013 5000 +5.1 843 10,000 4.8, 696 15,000__|-14.7 S71 20,000 -24.6 465 25,000 | -34.5 376 30,000 | -44.4 301 35,000 | -54.3 238 40,000 | -56.5 187 45,000 | -56.5 147 50,000 | -56.5 116 Figure 14-1-2 In cold air masses the pressure at any true height will be lower than ISA, but at a given pressure level density will be higher. Engines work better in cold, high-density air, so performance will be better in cold air masses. The opposite is true in warm air masses. ‘The data in the table refer to dry air. Water vapour has a density of 760g/m$ at sea level ISA conditions, so air containing water vapour is less dense than dry air. Principles of Flight Issue 5 4.5Definitions and Abbreviations Angle of attack, the angle between the airfoil ot (alpha) chord line and the relative airflow B (beta) Sideslip angle w (psi) Yaw angle 6 (phi) ‘Angle of bank Flight path inclination — angle between (gamma) relative airflow and the horizontal eat Pitch angle — angle between the longitudinal eta) axis and the horizontal - y plus o (rho) Air density 4 (lambda) Wing sweep eae ‘An area where the airflow is moving from low Preeoure to high pressure gradient Anhedral ‘The downward angling of the wing, root to tip The ratio of the square of wing span to wing Aspect ratio area A layer of air next to the aircraft skin slower Boundary layer | than the free stream air The shaping of the airfoil to improve lift Named coefficient CAS: Calibrated Airspeed > Coefficient of drag. Sometimes Cx Cor Coefficient of induced drag. Sometimes Cx: Cor Coefficient of profile drag. Sometimes Cxe a Centre of gravity, the point through which the aircraft weight acts CG datum The CG position, zero load and zero fuel CG manoeuvre | The distance between the CG datum and the margin CG manoeuvre point ‘The CG position where the aircraft would be CG manoeuvre | eutrally statically longitudinally stable in eee steady looping manoeuvres CG neutral ‘The CG position where the aircraft is neutrally point longitudinally statically stable in level flight CG static The distance between the CG datum and the 1.6 Issue 5 Principles of Flightmargin CG neutral point Gana ‘The line joining the front of the airfoil to the back 7 Coefficient of lateral or rolling moment. Note ‘i confusion with lift coefficient c Lift Co-efficient. Sometimes given as Cz CiMax ‘The highest achievable C, Cw Coefficient of pitching moment Cues Coefficient of pitching moment about the CG Cy Coefficient of yawing moment ie Centre of Pressure, the point through which act lift and drag Critical alpha, (Cesta) ‘The stall angle, the angle of attack where C, stops increasing cx Coefficient of drag in some textbooks cy Coefficient of lateral forces in some textbooks Ce Coefficient of lift in some textbooks Dihedral The upward angling of the wing, root to tip EAS Equivalent Airspeed Ee Engine shaft horsepower, the power delivered by the engine to the propeller FL Fatigue Index Fineness Ratio The ratio between an object’s length and width ‘An element of drag due to the form or shape Form drag of an object FSFT Full Scale Fatigue Test ro ‘The angle between the airfoil chord line and See the aircraft longitudinal axis Induced drag | Bx" Ara induced by the need to generate Ree ‘An element of drag due to interference in the eee airflow round wing/fuselage and other drag junctions ISA International Standard Atmosphere Leading edge —_| The point where the airflow comes to rest at Principles of Flight Issue 5stagnation point the wing leading edge Load factor (n} Lift in manoeuvre divided by lift in level flight, or weight. Longitudinal _| The difference between the wing and tail dihedral angles of incidence 7 ‘Mach number, TAS as a decimal fraction of the local speed of sound ‘Mean aerodynamic chord, calculated for ‘MAC complex wing planforms ‘Mopr Mach number for critical drag rise ‘The free stream Mach number at which any Mex local Mach number around the aircraft reaches M1.0 MCRPM ‘Maximum continuous RPM Mp Design diving Mach number Maximum Mach number demonstrated in Mor flight in certification ‘Mean camber line ‘The line joining points equidistant from the top and bottom surfaces of an airfoil Maximum Mach number for certification of Mee stability factors Muto Maximum operating Mach number M Limiting maximum Mach number. “Never ive ” exceed” M M Max normal operating mach number. Now oe superseded by Mito ‘The radius of the curve on the nose of an Nose radius airfoil ODM Operating Data Manual Q The dynamic pressure element, »pV2 7 Reynolds number, a non-dimensional scale factor for airflow calculations RAF Relative airflow, RAS Rectified Airspeed S/N Curve A graph of stress levels against number of applications Specific air range, miles flown in still air over SAR fuel used Separation The point where the boundary layer separates 44 Issue 5 iples of Flightpoint from the airfoil surface and streamline flow breaks down Service ceiling The altitude at which rate of climb has fallen to 100fpm (propeller) or S00fpm (jet) SFC Specific fuel consumption, fuel used over power or thrust produced. Skin friction, ‘An element of drag due to friction in the boundary layer ‘Stagnation The point where the airflow is brought to rest point and pressure equals total head pressure STOL Short takeoff and landing Tail volume Tail area multiplied by the tail moment arm Taper ratio ‘The ratio of the root chord to the tip chord TAS True Airspeed THP Thrust horsepower, the power delivered by a propeller Trailing edge _| The point where the airflow comes to rest at stagnation point the wing trailing edge Transition point ‘The point where the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent flow Extra drag caused by the tail forces needed to ae ae trim the aircraft : ‘The angle of attack where the aircraft is in ‘Trim point ; trim Vi ‘Takeoff decision speed V2 ‘Takeoff safety speed Vs ‘ll engines screen speed ‘All engines climb speed, scheduled takeoff. Va : This is not Vr Va Design manoeuvre speed Vo Design speed for maximum gust intensity Ve Design cruise speed Vo Design diving speed Vop Maximum IAS for deployment of drag devices Maximum IAS demonstrated in flight during al certification Ve ‘Maximum IAS, flap operation Principles of Flight Issue 5 1.9Maximum speed for certification of stability ee factors Vre Maximum IAS for flap extended Veo IAS for minimum drag in level flight Viner IAS for minimum power in level flight Vv, Maximum IAS for landing gear extended and rH locked down Vio Maximum IAS for landing gear travel Vior Lift-off speed Minimum speed to maintain lateral and Vac directional control with the critical engine out and full power on live engine(s) y, Minimum control speed, air, as above, tt airborne, takeoff and climb vy, Minimum control speed, ground, as above, on based the take-off run 7 Minimum control speed, landing, as above, bse approach and landing - Maximum speed for stopping within the brake bas energy limit Vito Maximum operating IAS Vow Minimum unstick speed Ve Limiting maximum IAS ~ “never exceed” speed \ Maximum normal operating [AS. Now a superseded by Vino Vr Rotate speed Vea IAS for penetration of rough air. Veer Landing reference speed. Was previously Var 7 ‘The minimum steady flight speed at which the EH aeroplane is controllable, the stall speed Vso Vs in the landing configuration (Vs nought) Vat Vo in a specified configuration (Vs one) ‘The one g stall speed, at which the aeroplane Voie can develop a lift force equal to its weight. ‘Typically 6% higher than Vs, (see Vse) Ver ‘The reference stall speed, the same as Veig Vero Reference stall speed, landing configuration 1.10 Issue 5 Principles of FlightDM - Reference stall speed in a specified inne configuration yy, ‘The speed at which the onset of the natural or feel artificial stall warning occurs Vx Best angle of climb IAS Vy Best rate of climb IAS Wash in Increase in incidence at the wing tip Washout Reduction in incidence at the wing tip Components of the Aircraft Figure 11-1-3 Principles of Flight Issue 5 414Intentionally Blanic 412 Issue 5 Principles of FlightThis Is the low ‘subsonic version of the equation of continuity Chapter 2 - The Derivation of Lift The Equation of Continuity mass flow is constant. If you think of air flowing in a tube of varying cross section, then going in, coming out, and at any point in the tube the mass of air passing every second is the same. The mass flow depends on the speed of the air, V, the density of the air, p, and the cross section of the tube, A, so: T he Equation of Continuity states that in a flow of air the AVp = Mass Flow = A constant In airflow below about MO.4, about 300kt TAS, the changes in density that occur are small, and can be ignored for simplicity. This then gives us: AV =A constant and this in turn means that if the airflow is constricted the speed increases, the effect we get in a venturi tube or over the top surface of a wing. Bernoulli’s Theorem Daniel Bernoulli took the theory a bit further to show that in an airflow the sum of all the different forms of energy present is a constant. Considering steady flow at speeds below M0.4, this means that: Pressure energy + Kinetic energy = A constant Using P for static pressure, and the kinetic energy formula «pV2, this becomes: P+ %pV? = A constant ‘The constant is total head pressure, or pitot pressure, so the formula is saying that static pressure plus dynamic pressure Principles of Flight Issue 5 24equals total head pressure, and that in an airflow if the speed goes up then the pressure goes down. ‘This is also the beginning of speed measurement using a pitot head, which records total head pressure. Subtract the static pressure, and you have a value from which you can calculate V, true airspeed, TAS, so long as you know the density of the air, Airspeed The term pV? is the dynamic pressure, and it is this that will determine values for lift and drag. It is abbreviated to “Q”, as in Q Feel systems that adjust to acrodynamic forces. ‘The ASI is fed with total head pressure and static pressure, and subtracts the one from the other to find dynamic pressure. ‘This is a function of V? and density. The ASI assumes that the density is the ISA mean sea level value, and makes allowance within the instrument so as to display V and not V2. The figure displayed on the ASI is then Indicated Airspeed, IAS, which corrected for any small instrument and static pressure error becomes Rectified Airspeed, RAS. Modern systems display Calibrated Airspeed, CAS. CAS starts off in the Air Data Computer (ADC) as IAS, but the ADC takes out all known and predictable errors, like instrument, static and configuration errors. CAS is equivalent to RAS for all practical purposes. At higher speeds, above about MO.4 or 300kt true speed the pressure changes in the airflow begin to compress the flow and significantly affect its density. To find the true value of the dynamic pressure from RAS/CAS you have to make a compressibility correction to account for this. When this correction is made to RAS/CAS you will have Equivalent Airspeed, EAS. EAS then defines all aerodynamic forces. Q is proportional to EAS?. Lift and drag are proportional to EAS? If other factors are constant you will get the same lift, drag and control forces at the same EAS wherever you fly, EAS is not displayed in the cockpit but at low speed and low altitude, because the compressibility correction is very small, RAS or CAS is effectively the same as EAS. If the small instrument and static pressure errors are also ignored then EAS and IAS are the same. However, at height, where compressibility becomes significant IAS is higher than EAS by the amount of the compressibility correction. We will continue to use EAS for precision when dealing with aerodynamic forces. 22 Issue 5 Principles of Flight At height EAS is slightly less than asEAS is the same as TAS only at ISA mean sea level TAS is twice EAS. ‘at 40,0008 Work is force times distance Notice that EAS is only TAS at ISA mean sea level density. In lower density airflow, at higher altitude for example, the TAS will be higher than EAS, and a density correction must be made. The relationship is the square root of the relative density, so at 40,000ft, where the density is one quarter of the sea level value, EAS = Y% x TAS as the V4 is % then, at 40,000ft, EAS - ‘%4TAS Only the density correction separates EAS and TAS. The compressibility correction from RAS/CAS is already done. TAS can be less than EAS if the density is higher than the ISA mean sea level value. This will be the case if near sea level the temperature is very low, or in the unlikely situation of flight below sea level. leet Pern RAS/CAS Compressibility EAS EAS Density TAS RASICAS | Compressibility & Density TAS TAS is the speed used in Reynolds Number calculations, which are dealt with later. Speed, Work & Power The difference between EAS and TAS is important when we consider power required. Work done is the force applied multiplied by the distance moved or Work done = Force x Distance The power required is the rate of work or Power required = Force x__Distance ‘Time Principles of Flight Issue 5 23Which is the same as Power required Force x Distance Time Power required = — Force x Speed ‘This means that, in aircraft terms, the power delivered is the thrust multiplied by the TAS. Notice that thrust and power are not the same thing. If an aircraft is not accelerating then thrust equals drag so one could also say that " Power required = Drag x TAS. The result of this is that, if you hold the same EAS in the same configuration in level flight the drag will always be the same, but the higher you go, the higher the TAS, and therefore the higher the power required to drive the aircraft through the air. This also affects the way speedbrakes work. They produce drag, which is proportional to EAS?, so a speedbrake selected at 40,000f would have the same retarding effect as one selected at the same EAS at sea level. The difference is that at 40,000ft the TAS is twice the EAS so it takes twice as long to slow the aircraft down. Airflow It is convenient to simplify airflow into three categories - streamline flow, vortex flow and disturbed flow. Streamline flow is smooth flow that remains the same in the short term, so you could draw a static picture of the flow. Disturbed flow is random, rapidly changing flow, swirling and moving all over the place. Vortex flow is a kind of halfway house between streamline flow and disturbed flow, where the general flow pattern is of a circulating vortex, but the detailed small scale flow is a bit unsteady. The flow round an aircraft is a mixture of all three. Lift Lift is generated by the change of pressure that follows from Bernoulli's theorem as the airflow speeds up over the airfoil surface. Many parts of the aircraft make a contribution but it is the wings that contribute most of the lift. A symmetrical airfoil in streamline flow is shown below. 2.4 Issue 5 Principles of Flight Powers thrust times TAS or, if not accelerating, drag times TAS. Even if drag remains constant the power required for level flight increases with altitudeLoading Edge ‘railing Edge ‘stagnation Point ‘Stagnation Po Low Pressure High Pressure: High Pressure Figure 14-2-1 ‘The equation of continuity says that where the streamlines are At a stagnation closer together the speed has increased. Bernoulli’s theorem point pressure says that therefore the pressure has reduced, but it is the equals totalhead same reduction above and below the airfoil, so overall no lift is pressure produced. Where the air is slowed down the pressure has increased, and there are two points where it is stationary, at the leading and trailing edge stagnation points. At the stagnation points the pressure will be total head pressure. Leading Edge Trailing Edge ‘stagnation Point ‘Stagnation Point ‘Angle of Attack Low Pressure High Pres High Pressure Figure 11-22 Principles of Flight Issue 5 25If we give the airfoil an angle of attack the situation changes (figure 11-2-2). The angle of attack, normally referred to as alpha (a), is the angle between the chord line and the relative airflow. The chord line is the line joining the front of the airfoil to the back. The relative airflow, RAF, is still horizontal but in dividing has split more or less level with the centre of the airfoil, so there is an upwash ahead of the airfoil and a downwash behind it. The leading edge stagnation point is now slightly below the front of the airfoil and as alpha increases it will move further down and back. The streamlines are more closely packed over the upper surface of the airfoil, so the speed is higher and the pressure lower, and the difference in pressure compared with the lower surface has generated a resultant force. Relative Airflow Figure 11-23 This force is the Total Reaction and there is an element parallel to the free stream airflow, RAF, which is drag, and an element at right angles to the RAF, which is lift. The point through which these forces act is the Centre of Pressure (CP). Drag is dealt with later, and we will now look in more detail at lift. The size of the lift forces depends on the dynamic pressure element, »pV?, the size of the wing - in fact the wing plan area, called S - and a combination of the wing plan shape, the shape of the airfoil section, alpha, Mach number (M) and Reynolds number (R). We can combine these last into one factor, the Lift Co-efficient, called C.. 2.6 Issue 5 Principles of Flight Aforce is, generated by the difference in the pressures, both negative, between the upper and lower airfoil surfacesLift is proportionat to the square of the speed We can then say: Lift = CL4%pV°S ‘This means that if you go faster or have a bigger wing, you will get more lift, but it also means that C; determines how much lift you get For low speeds we can ignore M and R, so C. will vary only with wing plan shape, called planform, airfoil section shape and alpha, and we need to know how. Lift Co-efficient and Alpha A symmetrical airfoil has no lift at zero alpha, but as alpha increases lift is developed. The relationship is roughly linear up to near the point where the streamline flow breaks down to turbulent flow, at 15° alpha for a conventional airfoil, which is the airfoil stall point. This point is called eritical alpha. After this lift falls off (figure 11-2-4), Coefficient of Lift (C.) Critical Alpha a ee 4° +12 +16° Alpha Figure 11-2-4 Principles of Flight Issue 5 27Lift Co-efficient and Camber Camber is the shaping of the airfoil to improve lift co-efficient. Acambered airfoil, with some factors defined, is at figure 11-2- 5. The mean camber line is the line joining points equidistant from the top and bottom surfaces. Alpha is still measured from the chord line. Maximuin Camber maximum Thickness Figure 11-25 Cambered airfoils produce lift at zero alpha, and give a higher maximum Ci (C.Max). However, the breakdown to turbulent flow comes at a lower alpha. Figure 1-2-6 shows a Ci curve for a typical general-purpose cambered airfoil, compared to that for a symmetrical airfoil. Cambered JO — \ Cooffcient of | Lin (G) Rerotol \ m \ 18 [- io i of Pee ‘Symmetrical | Aerotol | I i 41GB Angle of Attack Figure 11-26 For a moderately cambered airfoil the zero lift angle of attack is about -4° alpha 28 Issue 5 Principles of Flight Camborod wing sections give high lift at lower alphaReal wings have tip vortices, only an infinite wing does not Lift Co-efficient and Wing Planform Up to now we have looked at essentially two-dimensional sections of the airflow over a wing. A wing, however, is three- dimensional, and at the inboard end is fixed to the fuselage, while the outboard end is in the free-stream flow. In the real three-dimensional world, therefore, when the wing is generating lift the pressure difference between the top and bottom surfaces generates a flow around the tips and spanwise flow outwards on the bottom surface and inwards on the top surface. This will produce vortex flow at the trailing edge, and a single large vortex at the tips. Figure 11-2-7 In figure 11-2-7 the top surface flow moving spanwise toward the root is shown as light arrows and the bottom surface flow moving out to the tip as dark arrows. The effect of this flow, and the vortices, is to reduce lift at any given angle of attack ‘The closer the wing is to an infinite length, the less the tip effect, and the less the loss in lift, so long span wings of high aspect ratio have a better C;, than short low aspect ratio wings. Aspect ratio is the ratio of the wing span to wing chord, or better to take account of tapered, swept or complex wings, it is defined as the ratio of the square of wing span to wing arca. Apart from high aspect ratio, anything that reduces the tip effect - tapered wings, pointed tips, endplates and washout - will improve Ci. A way of defining wing taper is to give the taper ratio, the ratio of tip chord to root chord. Principles of Flight Issue 5 29Figure 11-2-8 shows how Ci varies with alpha for three different aspect ratio wings cu Aspect Ratio +15) Figure 11-2-8 ‘The effect is maximum when the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces is maximum - at high alpha - and is zero at zero lift alpha. The higher C,Max values for high aspect ratio wings occur at lower alpha. The complex airflow around swept wings will also affect C1. In this case increasing sweep angle reduces Ci, and the lower CiMax produced comes at a higher alpha - hence the nose high landing attitude of swept wing aircraft. The effect is a maximum at high alpha, and as we shall see later, this impacts on the lateral stability of swept wing aircraft near the stall. Figure 11-2-9 illustrates these points. 2.10 Issue 5 Principles of Flight root chord divided by tip chord h aspect ratio for high-lift wings. ‘Swept wings give less lift- and at high angles of attackCoefficient of Lift (C,) Straight Wing +15 Swept Wing +12 +16" Alpha Figure 1 Lift Co-efficient. Reynolds Number and Mach Number Reynolds number [R) is a non-dimensional number that describes the balance between the inertial forces in an airflow, that want to carry it straight on in streamline flow, and the viscous forces thai want to make it turbulent and disturbed. In calculating R you take in to account density, TAS, a size or Iength factor ‘and air viscosity. It is mainly used in scale modelling for wind tunnel tests, for the small size model will only give a representative result if R is the same as for the full size aircraft. Since the size factor is much smaller density has to be increased, by pressurising the wind tunnel. As far as Ci, is concerned an increased R will give a higher CiMax. Of all the factors involved in R, the main one that is variable in flight is TAS, so if everything else remains the same a higher TAS will give a higher R, and a higher C.Max, until increasing Mach number problems intervene to reduce C1. ‘The detailed effects of increasing Mach Number (M) on Ci are covered in the High Speed Flight section. In general terms Cy, increases with increasing M from about MO.4 upwards until shock waves begin to form at speeds around MO.9, when C; decreases again. Principles of Flight Issue 5 244Centre of Pressure Movement Lift, remember, acts through the CP. As alpha increases the pressure pattern around the airfoil changes, and the position of the CP will change. Figure 11-2-10 shows the pressure pattern of a general purpose cambered airfoil from zero lift alpha (-4°) through to 14° alpha, just below critical alpha. a e Figure 11-210 As the area of negative pressure above the wing intensifies and moves forward the CP, the point through which the lift acts, will also move forward. At critical alpha the flow breakdown and loss of lift will move the CP sharply back aft. Figure 11-2- 11 is a graph of the movement of the CP against alpha for a cambered wing section. 242 Issue 5 Principles of Flight Lift acts through the Centre of Pressure Positive pressures do not occur on the lower airfoil surface until alphas of 12°- 15°cP ona cambered airfoil moves. On a symmetrical airfoil it remains near 20% to 25% chord 2 { i cu 5 5 8 a : z| Centre of Pressure 2 le 10% 20% 30% 40% TE a CP is well aft at zero lift, moves forward to about 15% of chord, stays roughly there until critical alpha then moves aft. On a symmetrical section airfoil there is very little movement of the CP, which remains at about 20% to 25% chord throughout the working range. Note the aerodynamic centre (AC). When, later, we look at stability we will find it convenient to treat the CP as fixed over the working range of alpha. For cambered airfoils it is possible to make an approximation and consider that lift acts through a fixed point. To make this work you have to assume that the pitching moment due to wing lift is a combination of a fixed nose down component present at zero lift alpha and a varying component induced by changing lift values acting always at the AC. This is a difficult concept to illustrate, but if you look at the pressure distribution at zero lift alpha in figure 11-2-10 you sce that the pressure differences will be twisting the wing nose down, although in sum there is no lift. Principles of Flight Issue 5 2.43244 Intentionally blank Issue 5 Principles of Fi ht‘Turbulent BL is thick, draggy and high energy. Laminar BL is thin, slippery and low energy. Chapter 3 - Drag The Boundary Layer depth - layer of air next to the aircraft skin that is held back by friction with the surface and is slower than the free stream air. To understand drag, airflow near the stall and some effects at high M you must know how the boundary layer behaves. Té boundary layer is the very thin - a few millimetres ‘The boundary layer - defined as the layer where speed ranges from 99% of the free stream speed down to zero at the surface - exists in two forms, laminar and turbulent. In a laminar boundary layer the airflow in the boundary layer is smooth and the speed increases steadily from the surface to the free stream. ‘The Boundary Layer iatance trom ‘Surface (20mm) oleae aes aense ae Surface Velocity ‘Gragient Figure 11-3-1 In a turbulent boundary layer the flow is unsteady and there is mixing of high-speed air deep into the layer. The speed Principles of Flight Issue 5 34increases sharply as you leave the surface, and then more steadily at the top of the layer. This can be shown by the velocity vectors of the boundary layer parallel to the surface, as in figure 11-3-1 ‘The drawing is not to scale. The turbulent boundary layer is typically ten times as thick as the laminar layer. The point where the flow in the layer changes from laminar to turbulent is called the transition point. This is not the separation point. Even then, if the surface is very, very smooth a thin laminar sub-layer intervenes between the surface and the turbulent layer. Boundary layer drag depends on the rate at which the speed of the air changes just near the surface - the surface velocity gradient. You can see from figure 11-3-1 that the gradient is sharper in the turbulent layer, so the turbulent layer has more drag. However, if the surface is smooth enough to keep a laminar sub-layer in place the drag in the turbulent layer will be slightly less - but still higher than in the full laminar layer. You can see, too, from figure 11-3-1 that there is more high- speed air in the turbulent layer, so it has more kinetic energy. In summary, the boundary layer starts off laminar, but changes to a turbulent layer at the transition point. The laminar layer has less drag, but the turbulent layer has higher energy. ‘The Boundary Layer on Curved Surfaces On a smooth, flat surface the transition from a laminar to a turbulent boundary layer will occur at a point determined by R, the Reynolds number, and can be a long way across the surface. On a wing, two further effects intervene, surface roughness and the pressure changes over the wing. Any surface roughness that you can feel by running your hand over the wing will make the boundary layer go turbulent, and the turbulence will fan out downstream. The pressure over a wing reduces as you go aft, reaching a minimum at about the point of maximum curvature, and then increases toward total head pressure as you go toward the trailing edge stagnation point. A regime of rising pressure as you move downstream is called an adverse pressure gradient, and it is a fact that laminar boundary layers cannot normally be sustained in an adverse pressure gradient. The transition point, the change to a turbulent layer, will therefore move forward to the point of maximum curvature. (figure 11-3-2) 3.2 Issue 5 Principles of Flight On an airfoil the transition point will be at the point of maximum. curvature, or further forward if the surface is damaged or degradedTurbulent BLs drive deeper into the adverse pressure gradient and maintain lift Transition Point Figure 11-3-2 ‘This effect, combined with the inevitable surface damage, dead flies and even rainwater on real aircraft, means that most of the wing will have a turbulent boundary layer. Laminar Flow Airfoils In an attempt to reduce drag some aircraft are fitted with “laminar flow” airfoils. These have their point of maximum curvature at about 45% chord, which hopefully keeps the transition point further aft, leaving a larger area of the wing with the laminar boundary layer, giving less drag. For the reasons given above this is not, in practice, entirely successful. High performance sailplanes still use laminar flow sections, but the wing is kept scrupulously clean and polished to obtain maximum benefit. ‘There is, however, a compensating benefit. The turbulent layer, with its greater kinetic energy, will carry on further against the adverse pressure gradient and remain attached to the wing surface for longer than would a laminar layer. Airflow Separation As the turbulent boundary layer moves on downstream over the wing the adverse pressure gradient, the falling free stream velocity and the surface friction combine to slow the air in the boundary layer. Eventually, the air in a layer near the surface stops moving, and even reverses direction. The boundary layer now breaks down and separates from the surface, leaving a Principles of Flight Issue 5 3.3wake of random and disturbed flow. The point where this occurs is called the separation point. (figure 11-3-3) Transition Separation Point Point Flow Reversal Figure 11-33 Two things now happen. Bernoulli's theorem - which was limited to steady flow - no longer works, and lift falls in the area of separated flow. The pressure difference between the front and back of the airfoil produces extra drag, called form drag. Trailing edge controls, like ailerons, will be less effective in the disturbed flow, so the longer the boundary layer remains attached the higher will be C/Max and the better your controls will work. Most high lift devices are concerned with keeping the boundary layer under control and fully attached at high alpha, The Elements of Drag ‘The total drag of an aircraft in flight is considered in two bits, zero lift drag and lift induced drag. Zero lift drag is more usually known as profile drag, and sometimes as parasite drag. This is the drag you would get when flying at zero g. In level flight or in manoeuvre the need to produce lift induces extra drag. We will look first at profile drag, which is further sub- divided into skin friction and form drag, which we have just met, and interference drag 3.4 Issue 5 iples of Flight Profile drag is made up of form drag, skin friction and interference dragProfile Drag Benet) Figure 11-3-4 Form Drag the first element of profile drag, is caused by the form or shape of the object generating disturbed and turbulent flow and higher pressure in front of the object than behind it. For this reason it is sometimes called pressure drag. A flat plate at 90° to the relative airflow is generating pure form drag. AAA : Ry Fat: very high prole drag Oras Figure 11-3-5 Principles of Flight Issue 5 3.5Skin friction ‘This is the drag caused by friction in the boundary layer. If a flat plate is positioned in line with the relative airflow the drag will be much less, and all the drag will be skin friction. Because flat, squared off or fat objects give very high profile drag values they are given the characteristic “streamline” shape to minimise drag. (figure 11-3-5). This shape greatly reduces form drag, but does bring about an increase in skin friction, as the surface area in contact with the flow is much larger. Overall, however, moderate streamlining much reduces drag Interference Drag Interference drag is the element of extra drag that arises from the joining of wings and fuselage, wings and engine pods and so on. It is a mixture of form drag and skin friction Factors Affecting Profile Drag If we put all the elements of profile drag together, we find that the drag depends on a large number of factors, as did lift. These include the dynamic pressure element, »pV2, the size and shape of the parts concerned, surface roughness, alpha, R and M. The effect of increasing M on drag is covered in the section on high speed flight, but you should note that drag increases sharply after the first shockwaves form at just above Morir. An increase in R increases some elements of drag and decreases others, but in practice the overall effect is to increase drag. Surface roughness increases profile drag. Shape and size are considered both as plan area and as cross-section area relative to the free-stream airflow, and increasing either will increase drag, either as profile drag or skin friction. It follows from this that increasing alpha, which effectively increases the aircraft cross-section relative to the airflow, will also increase drag. This is one of the elements of lift-induced drag. Putting all the factors together enables us to derive a formula for profile drag, otherwise known as profile drag, It is, Profile drag = %CppS pV where Cor is the coefficient of profile drag. Cxr is sometimes ‘used in place of Cop. 3.6 Issue 5 Principles of FlightInduced drag includes form drag, interference drag and skin friction Induced Drag Induced drag is the common name for lift dependent drag or lift induced drag. This is not entirely correct, however, for induced drag is only one of the elements of drag that increase as alpha is increased to obtain lift for level light or manoeuvre. Form drag will certainly increase, and it is likely that interference drag and skin friction will also rise. We will use induced drag for the total, but will remember that there are still the other small elements to be accounted for. etre ety I, eau el) Teter et) Skin Drag Figure 11-3-6 Induced drag is generated on finite wings when there is a pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces. In earlier sections you saw the effect of these pressure differences - the generation of vortices, extra downwash as the wingtip vortex presses down on the airflow over the tip area, and then the resultant loss of lift. (figure 11-3-7). To regain sufficient lift for level flight you then must increase alpha, and that will increase drag. Principles of Flight Issue 5 3.7Figure 11-3-7 In cross section it works as in figure 1-3-8. eal wr io Downes ut Figuro 11-3-8 ‘The top drawing is of an infinite wing, generating enough lift for level flight, but with no vortices. In the second drawing we see the effect of making it a real wing with a tip. The vortices begin, the downwash increases, and this effectively reduces alpha and reduces lift. 3.8 Issue 5‘An elliptical planform is best, but is difficult to make. You can get aclose approximation with double tapered wings To regain the lift we need for level flight alpha must be increased. This increase in alpha increases the total reaction force and tips it aft, so we get an increase in drag as well as lift. This increase in drag, caused solely by the need to maintain lift on a real wing is induced drag, sometimes called vortex drag. The Elliptical Wing Figure 11-3-9 If other factors are equal an elliptical wing has the least induced drag. A formula for the coefficient of induced drag can be derived for this planform. It is: oho C, OA where Cpr (sometimes Cx) is the coefficient of induced drag and A is the aspect ratio of the wing. Within the working range of alpha there is a direct relationship between alpha and Cu, so you can substitute alpha for Ci? in the formula. The formula shows that induced drag is proportional to the square of the lift coefficient (or alpha). It is also inversely proportional to wing aspect ratio, and high aspect ratio wings - nearest to infinite wings - have the least induced drag. Winglets Induced drag is also related to wing planform, lift, weight and speed. The production of vortices is the cause of induced drag, and as this is a tip effect anything that will reduce the tip effect will reduce drag. Factors that reduce the tip effect have already emerged - Lift, and include planform, taper, washout, wing Principles of Flight Issue 5 3.9section change at the tips and endplates, tiptanks and winglets at the tips. Figure 11-3-10 Flaps ‘The effect of lowering flap is difficult to predict. With inboard flap down the aircraft will fly at a lower overall alpha for the same lift, so the outboard section and tips will have a form of washout. This should reduce the tip effect. Your best guess is that, while profile drag goes up, induced drag is not significantly changed by flap extension. Figure 11-3-14 3.10 Issue 5 Anything that reduces the effect of the vortices round the wingtip will reduce induced dragTwice the weight or 2g means Induced drag goes up by a factor of 4 Induced drag is the killer at low ‘speed and high alpha A General Formula for Induced Drag A constant is added to the induced drag formula to account for different planforms and tip configurations. The final, general, formula for any given aspect ratio and wing design is: Cy, =KC? This is because the severity of the vortices and downwash depends on the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing, which generates lift. Increasing lift, if all else is equal, means increasing Cy. Increasing lift, as in manoeuvre, or increased weight in level flight will therefore raise the induced drag. Increasing weight on an aircraft is equivalent to increasing the wing loading, so aircraft designed with a high wing loading will also have a high induced drag. In level flight induced drag varies as the square of all-up weight at any given speed. In manoeuvre it varies as the square of the load factor. Equally, in level flight where lift is constant, if speed is reduced then C, must be increased by increasing alpha. As speed is increased, C, is reduced. From the lift formula, we can derive the relationship between Cpr and speed in level flight, and it is: Coy ve substituting this in the formula Induced Drag = CoiSpV2, for any given configuration, Induced Drag = a Where the Ks are just constants. This shows that Cp is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the speed in level flight, and that induced drag itself will decrease with the square of increasing speed in level flight. At takeoff, for example, induced drag can account for three-quarters of the total drag. Put that together with the effect of increased weight and you can see that on takeoff and initial climb any excess weight will give a severe induced drag penalty. At high speed induced drag becomes a very small proportion of the total. Ground Effect Flying within about half a wingspan of the surface suppresses the downwash - it has nowhere to go - and significantly reduces induced drag. It also restores lost lift, for with the downwash gone local alpha near the wingtips goes back up. Principles of Flight Issue 5 3.41