Radio Navigation CHAPTER 1 - RADIO THEOR' INTRODUCTION. PRODUCING A RADIO WAVE FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH, ‘THE FREQUENCY SPECTRUM ADDING INFORMATION. Amplitude modulation Sidebands Frequency Modulation. Pulse Modulation .. PHASE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE POLARISATION. AERIALS .. CHAPTER 2 - PROPAGATION. INTRODUCTION REFRACTION. DIFFRACTION, REFLECTION .. ATTENUATION. Space WAVES.. ‘SURFACE WAVES. SKY WAVES. ‘SPORADICE ATMOSPHERIC DUCTING TONOSPHERIC DUCTING STATIC AND NOISE SUMMARY .. ‘THE DOPPLER EFFECT Doppler Navigation Systems. CHAPTER 3 - COMMUNICATIONS. INTRODUCTION... F LONG RANGE COMMUNICATIONS SHORT RANGE COMMUNICATIONS. SELCAL. Cockrrr EQUIPMENT . SATCOM AND DIGITAL DATA LINKS ACARS si GROUND DIRECTION FINDING, DF Letdowns. VDF Fixing... Errors. CHAPTER 4~ THE NDB... INTRODUCTION. CARnIER WAVES, IDENTS AND THE BFO.. RECEIVER OPERATION Loop Aerials ..nm Instrument displays... ERRORS AND ACCURACY Radio Navigation Issue Contents 4Static: Thunderstorms. Night Effect... enn Station Interference Coastal Refraction Quadrantal Error DIP erro ‘Mountain Effect. RANGE scons ‘TYPES OF NDB STATIONS... LOCAONS nnn Homing and Holding NDBS... En-route and Long Range NDB&. OPERATING THE EQUIPMENT NDB TRACKING CHAPTER 5- THE VOR. INTRODUCTION. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION INSTRUMENT DISPLAYS. ‘THE CONE OF CONFUSION. IDENTIFICATION .. ERRORS AND ACCURACY Site Error and Doppler VOR. Propagation ErrOr$ cons Equipment Errors... ‘TYPES OF VOR... VOR AND DME ASSOCIATION... OPERATING THE EQUIPMENT VOR TRACKING CHAPTER 6 - ILS ssnnsnsenninnnnnnnnntnnnnnnnnn INTRODUCTION. : ea FREQUENCIES... INSTRUMENT DISPLAYS. LOCALISER OPERATION .. Localiser Aerial and Coverage THE GLIDEPATH nese Glidepath Coverage .riunenmnnnenmnnne MARKER BEACONS...-ssreen sen ILS CATEGORIES FALSE GLIDESLOPES OFFSET LOCALISER wncsmnnremsnnnnsi BACKCOURSE APPROACHES. n.sunnnnnsnn CALCULATING HEIGHTS AND RATES OF DESCENT SYSTEM ERRORS wrnennnneennne eee CHAPTER 7 - MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS). INTRODUCTION. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION. COVERAGE .. 7 [ERRORS AND COMPARISON OF ILS AND MLS... CHAPTER 8- RADAR THEORY AND GROUND RADA\ INTRODUCTION seni ieee ee a eotteeee 1 Contents 2 Issue 5 Radio Navigation{ FREQUENCIES: : Contivous WAVE RADAR AND PULSE RADAR PULSE RADAR THEORY... = PULSE RADAR MAXIMUM RANGE... PULSE RADAR MINIMUM RANGE, BEARING AND RANGE RESOLUTION. ‘THE CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) DISPLAY GROUND RADAR .. : Aerials. ‘Moving Target Indication. ‘SURVEILLANCE RADAR. En-route Surveillance. Terminal Surveillance Radar. Approach Surveillance Radar. PRECISION APPROACH RADAR (PAR). ‘AIRFIELD SURFACE MOVEMENT RADAR .... CHAPTER 9 - AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR. INTRODUCTION . = FREQUENCY nnn : EQUIPMENT ... ‘TESTING THE EQUIPMENT ON THE GROUND LOOKING AT CLOUDS 2... ‘MAPPING RADAR. RANGE SCALES... : ‘CONTROL PANELS CHAPTER 10 - DME. wooo MANEUBNE INTRODUCTION poe PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION, ee BEACON SATURATION. ACCURACY. TACAN, 7 VOR/DME ASSOCIATION ... COCKPIT EQUIPMENT eo DME RANGE AND DME DERIVED GROUNDSPEED. DME SYMBOLS... DME FIXING AND DME ARCS. DME WITH ILS... DME/?. CHAPTER 11 INTRODUCTION. aa PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION CONTROLLER'S DISPLAY, CockPIr EQUIPMENT SPECIAL CODES AND PROCEDURES... ERRORS MODES... ‘Mode S All Call. CHAPTER 12 HYPERBOLIC NAV SYSTEMS & LORAN INTRODUCTION ACCURACY... LIMITATIONS Radio Navigation Issue 5 Contents 3LORAN, PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ONBOARD EQUIPMENT sinesannnin ACCURACY AND RANGE CHAPTER 13 - SATELLITE NAVIGATION ‘Time SATELLITES. PREQUENCIES . PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION TIME To FIRST Fix ACCURACY AND SYSTEM ERRORS, UERE. Satellite ephemeris error. aa ‘Atmospheric or lonospherie error.. Instrument/Receiver error Multipath Signals Clock Bias FIXING ERRORS, DOP .... Satellite geometry error Optimum Geometry. Coverage Problems IMPROVING THE NAVIGATION SOLUTION ... PRAT Ae eeitetie ee Integrated Navigation Systems... - cade eciie RECEIVERS AND AERIALS vnsssosnnnesnnnnennnnnsnn 10 SOY UAAAADUKKE Multiplex receivers Continuous receivers.. Aerial Location. LEGALITY... SYSTEM DEVELOPMENTS. Differential GPS. ee ah PseUd lites nen Eat testa : Sareltite Based Augmentation Systems 2 GNSS. GPS APPLICATIONS Air Traffic Control. aaa Aircraft Navigation ‘ CHAPTER 14 AREA NAVIGATION. INTRODUCTION... RNAV Advantages of RNAV. B-RNAY. PARNAP vo RNAV EQUIPMENT BASIC EQUIPMENT .. ADVANCED EQUIPMENT Databases. Cost Management with the FMS... FMS Inputs... i Airborne Operation... The EFIS NAV Mode. The EFIS MAP Mode EFIS VOR and ILS Displays. The EFIS PLAN Mode... Contents 4 issue S Radio Navigationo EFIS Colour Coding cicsccrnesenesee 42 Navaid Priority. B ETAs and ETOs. Radio Navigation Issue 5 Contents 5Intentionally Blank Contents 6 Issue § Radio NavigationRadio waves travel at the speed of light Chapter 1 - Radio Theory Introduction adio waves have become such a common part of our life in the twenty first century that we tend to take the benefits for granted. Most students will have studied some radio theory at school, many will have acquired a far greater depth of knowledge. This section considers not only radio communications but also radio navigation aids and radar systems. Producing a radio wave To produce a radio wave all that is needed is an oscillating electrical current and an aerial. The electrons moving backwards and forwards in the aerial produce a changing electromagnetic field which moves away from them at the speed of light. cer pean Figure 9-1-1 4A Radio NavigationWhen this changing electromagnetic field passes over the electrons in a receiving acrial they are moved in sympathy producing a current identical to the one that was transmitted. Amplifiers and filters compensate for the power loss to make the signal usable. Frequency and Wavelength ‘The waves are referred to in terms of their frequency or wavelength. The speed of light is constant (in a vacuum) at 300,000,000 or 3 x 108 metres per second. An alternating current that cycles once in a second will produce one wave in that time. At the end of the second the front of the wave is 3 x 108 metres away so the wave length is 3 x 108 metres. As the wave has cycled once in a second it is said to have a frequency of one cycle a second or, to use the correct unit, one Hertz (Hz) Doubling the frequency will halve the wavelength. It will be useful later to also remember the speed of light as about 162,000 nautical miles per second. Wavelength 1.5 x 10'm Fa2He 1205s 3x:10'motres Wavelength 1.5 x 10'm_, Fs 20H 120.058 Figure 9-1-2 Radio frequencies can be very high, ranging from 300 Hz to 300,000,000,000 Hz. By convention 1000 Hz is called a Kilohertz (KHz), 1,000,000 Hz a Megahertz (MHz) and 1,000,000,000 Hz a Gigahertz (GHz). ‘The relationship between frequency and wavelength can be expressed more correctly by the formula 1.2 issue 5 Radio Navigation High frequencies have short wavelengths 4000H2 in a kHz 4000Khz in a MHz 1000Mhz in a GHz¢ f where A is the wavelength, c is the speed of light and f is the frequency. The formula can be transposed to read c a f= and you can, if you wish, remember it using a triangle like we did with voltage, current and resistance. For the formula to work the correct units must be used Wavelength must be in metres, the frequency in Hz and the speed of light in metres per second. Using this formula the frequency can be calculated from the wavelength and vice- versa. Example: A radio signal has a frequency of 3 KHz, find the wavelength. Solution: Using the formula, aA = 3x 108 3x 109 ‘The problem here is that the some calculators will not accept the figure 300,000,000 as they only have an eight digit display. If you have a calculator like this you must cancel some zeros. 2 = 300,000,668 3,600 = 300,000 3 This can now be entered into the calculator to produce the answer, 100,000 metres, which would normally be expressed as 100 km. ‘Try another. Example: A radio signal has a wavelength of 3.5 centimetres. What is the frequency? Solution: 3.5 cm is 0.035 m. Using the formula, Issue 5f = 3x 108 0.035 This can be entered into the calculator by dividing 3 by 0.035 and then multiplying the result by 108 or adding eight zeros, which is the same thing. 85.7 x 108 Hz 8.57 x 109 Hz 8.57 GHz The Frequency Spectrum ‘The radio spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that has frequencies from 3Khz to 300Ghz. Within these bounds it is broken down into eight bands ranging from Very Low Frequencies (VLF) to Extremely High Frequencies (EHF). You will need to be able to reproduce the table below so that you can associate frequencies and wavelengths with the appropriate bands. very Lovely Frequency (Centimetric) “VLE | Very Low 3Khz-30Khz — 100 km - 10 km eed ___ Frequency (Myriametric) Very al t Usoful LF | Low |30Khz - 300Khz 10 km - 1 km seuine Frequency: (Kilometric) Equipment MF | Medium 300Khz-3Mhz 1 km- 100m | Frequency (Hectometric) HF | High 3Mhz-30Mhz | 100 m-10m | Frequency \(Decametric) VHF | Very High 30Mhz - 300Mhz |10 m-1m | Frequency (Metric) UHF | Ultra High 300Mhz - 3Ghz 1m - 10cm Frequency (Decimetric) “SHF Super High | 3Ghz - 30Ghz | 1em-1mm (Millimetric) | | EHF Extremely High |30Ghz - 300Ghz Frequency Figure 9-1-3 Radio NavigationModulation is the addition of information to a AM produces two sidebands as well as the carrier Ifyou use mnemonics to remember sequences try this one: Very Lovely Maidens Have Very Useful Sewing Equipment Adding information ‘The frequency of the radio wave on its own is not audible. Even if it was, it would only be heard as a monotone. Any information to be transmitted must be laid on top of the carrier wave before transmission and decoded by the receiver. This is known as modulation and demodulation. WA | poo w+ ‘Arpliude modulation Figure 9-1-4 The simplest form of modulation is to vary the strength or the amplitude of the carrier wave to transmit information. Sidebands As the radio wave now has not only the carrier wave frequency but also the intelligence frequencies both above and below the line then three frequencies are now transmitted together, the original carrier wave, the carrier wave plus the intelligence and the carrier wave minus the intelligence. These two new frequencies are called sidebands. 15The intelligence is duplicated on the sidebands so it is possible to reduce the amount of space taken up by the transmission, the bandwidth, by not transmitting the carrier wave and one of the sidebands. This also reduces the power required by the transmitter. The clever electrical systems that do this are said to produce single sideband transmissions when only the sideband is suppressed, by convention the lower one, and single sideband suppressed carrier when the carrier wave is also removed. AM can use SSB transmissions to save power and bandwidth Figure 9-1-5 Frequency Modulation As an alternative to varying the amplitude of a wave the frequency may be varied. The resulting signal is frequency modulated (FM) Intetigence » Cartier Wave > Intetigence and Carrier Wave. > Figure 9-1-6 1.6 Radio NavigationFM is more complex but reduces static FM sidebands are wider than AM Although an FM receiver will pick up just the same interference and static with the signal as an AM receiver it has the capability to ‘clip’ the signal to remove any extraneous variations in amplitude. The variations in frequency which carry the intelligence are unaffected. Thus an FM audio signal will produce a high fidelity reproduction of the original without interference from static. Inteligence an Carrier Wave a Frequency Modtlation Inteligence and Carrier Wave ! Y Static Interference, AM and FM Figure 9-1-7 With frequency modulation the mixture of frequencies is much more complex than AM and the bandwidth is much wider. An FM transmission will require three times as much power and more than twice the bandwidth of an equivalent single sideband AM signal. Because of the greater bandwidth occupied by a station FM signals are restricted to low power, and thus short ranges, to avoid congesting the airwaves. ‘The advantages of FM are therefore: = Less static ‘The disadvantages are + Greater power requirement * Greater bandwidth = More complex receiving equipment required Radio Navigation suePulse Modulation Finally, information such as morse signals can be transmitted Pulse modulation by interrupting the carrier wave to send a series of dots and sends digital data dashes. More complex systems can send digitised information or morse in a binary code. This is how computers communicate. ae eee II ee oe Cari Wave i | l Figure 9-1-8 Phase and Phase difference Positions on a radio wave are described in degrees from 0 10 The phase of 0° 360. By convention the measurement starts where the ig where the amplitude of the wave is increasing through zero. The diagram —_ amplitude is zero below shows the phase notation. and rising. Phase Notation Figure 9-1-9 1.8 Radio NavigationFor phase comparison frequency and wavelength must be the same amplitude wave is 270° out of phase from the low amplitude wave If two transmissions with the same wavelength start at the same point and time the waves will be synchronised and in phase. If one starts slightly after another they will be out of phase by an amount measured in degrees. For phase comparison the amplitude of the waves may differ but the wavelength, and thus the frequency, must be the same. This presents a recurring problem to engineers designing radio equipment that relies on phase comparison. The two signals being compared must have the same frequency and wavelength but must be distinguishable. Similarly, the two signals must be somehow prevented from cancelling each other out, a real possibility if they are 180° out of phase. The solutions to this problem can be particularly elegant, and we shall look at them as we consider the system that relies on phase comparison, VOR. To determine phase difference find where your wave rises through the neutral position and read the phase of the reference wave at that point. In the diagram below the high amplitude wave is 270° out of phase with the reference wave. Figure 94-10 Radio Navigation issue 5Polarisation Radio waves are composed of two elements, the electrical or E field which we have already considered and a magnetic field at right angles to it called the H field. Both the E and the H field as well as being orthogonal are also at right angles to the direction of propagation. Figure 9-41-14 A vertically polarised wave is a wave in which all the electrical oscillation is in the vertical plane. This is not unusual, any vertical aerial will produce a vertically polarised wave which will require a vertical aerial to receive it. Likewise a horizontal one will produce a horizontally polarised wave. ‘This effect can be seen on any aircraft. VHF communications frequencies are vertically polarised and the aircraft aerials are vertical. Navigation frequencies are horizontal and the aerials are horizontal, often in a 'V’ shape on the fin of the aeroplane. 4.10 Radio Navigation If the E field is vertical the H field is horizontal Vertical aerials Produce a vertically polarised wave VHF comms is vertically polarised, VORs are horizontally polarisedaerial is half or quarter the wavelength There is overhead Aerials ‘The simplest aerial is a vertical or horizontal conductor, the orientation depending on the polarisation. This is a di-pole aerial. The ideal aerial size is either half the wavelength or a quarter of the wavelength. Figure 9-1-12 shows the radiation pattern for a quarter wave vertical dipole aerial. ‘Aerial Radiation Pattern uerter wave \ortical Dipole Aerial Figure 9.4.12 The view from above is symmetrical, showing that the aerial transmits equally well in all directions. From the side it can be seen that the aerial transmits well horizontally but there is an area overhead where there is no transmission, and therefore no signal will be received. These diagrams are called polar diagrams and could apply equally well to receiver aerials. The effect of the ideal aerial size can be seen in the systems we use. Car radios operate mainly on VHF, we would expect the aerials to be a quarter wavelength, that is between 2.5m and 25cm, and we find exactly that. Mobile telephones are UHF, aerials are quarter wavelength, between 25cm and 2.5em. Radio Navigation Issue 5 414‘To transmit directional signals a parabolic aerial or dish acrial can be used. The particular property of a parabolic shape that makes it useful as a reflector is that transmissions from one point, called the focus, all reflect in the same direction. Figure 9-1-13 ‘The parabolic aerial produces a ‘pencil beam! ideal for target tracking such as might be used in aircraft weather radar. Ground based radars often make use of just a section of the aerial to track in only two dimensions. A modern alternative to the parabolic dish is the phase array aerial. In this type a series of conducting elements like small dipoles are arranged in a line and are fed signals in phase with each other. The interference pattern they produce acts like a pencil beam. * The aerial system on the left is made of two separate aerials rotating together, a phase array aerial on the top and a parabolic section below. Figure 9-1-4 4.12 5 Radio NavigationAll dish aerials produce sidelobes Phase array aerials produce smaller sidelobes Slotted scanners work in pretty much the same way as phase array aerials except that the vertical dipole element is replaced by a slot which acts as a resonant cavity to produce the radio signal. The slots themselves are not always visible. Many modern aircraft radars, particularly military types, use slotted scanners. Figure 9. 45 Aerials that produce beamed signals, whether phase array or based on parabolic reflectors, have a similar polar diagram. ‘The main transmission lobe has sidelobes of wasted energy, the more efficient the aerial system the smaller the sidelobes. Figure 9.4.16 Sidelobes can be the source of errors and interference in beamed aerial systems. A parabolic antenna can waste two Radio Navigation sul 4.13thirds of the energy directed into it, a well designed slotted J aerials will waste less than half that. 1.14 Issue 5 Radio NavigationRefraction is caused by a change of speed Chapter 2 - Propagation Introduction any students will remember experiments with waves in a water tank from their school days. Just like the waves in water, radio waves can lose their energy and be reflected or bent in certain circumstances to change their path through the atmosphere. Whilst reflection is fairly straightforward, bending can be caused by either refraction or diffraction. Refraction When light passes through a lens it is bent or refracted at the edge of the glass because the speed of the wave is changed Any change in density of the medium a radio wave passes through or over will produce a similar effect. The amount of refraction depends on the change in speed of the wave, its wavelength and the angle at which it hits the new medium. Longer wavelengths are refracted most. etn cate Speneee Steed “Te wars tomar ae Figure 9-2-1 Radio Navigation s 24Radio waves can be refracted as their speed changes because of the surface they are passing over or because of the medium. they are passing through Diffraction When a wave is directed through a narrow hole a circular waveform appears on the other side. The hole has acted like a point source and effectively retransmitted the wave. This diffraction effect also occurs where a wave passes over a sharp object. Once more diffraction is greater at longer wavelengths. => Figure 9-2-2 Reflection Reflection depends on the density of the materials, the wavelength of the radio waves and the angle they hit at. Reflection also occurs where otherwise it might not if the waves hit a surface or, in some circumstances, changes in density in the atmosphere at a very shallow angle. To see this effect hold your watch face up to the light and tilt it towards the horizontal until refraction becomes reflection and the surface acts like a mirror. In some radar systems where reflection is an integral part of the design care is taken to ensure the wavelength is compatible with the target size, that is to say the same size as the target or smaller. 22 u Radio Navigation Diffraction is caused by sharp objects. Diffraction is greatest at low frequencies Radar reflection is most likely when the wavelength is compatible with the target sizeAttenuation is the loss of power ina wave Atmospheric attenuation Surface attenuation is greatest at high frequencies josphorie attenuation Is greatest at low frequencies Attenuation Attenuation is the loss of signal strength of a wave. In a vacuum there is no attenuation as the radio wave has nothing to give up its energy to. However, as a radio wave passes through the atmosphere the electrons in dust and water droplets absorb some of the energy causing atmospheric attenuation. Atmospheric attenuation increases as the frequency increases becoming significant above 1 GHz. Radio waves passing over the earth's surface also lose their energy and slow down. Surface attenuation is greatest and speed is lowest over the ice caps, then desert areas, then over other land and there is least attenuation and the wave travels fastest over the sea. Surface attenuation increases as frequency increases just the same as atmospheric attenuation. This is not really surprising as the same substances, rock and water, affect both. Waves passing through the layer of electrically charged atoms at the edges of space known as the ionosphere are likewise attenuated. In contrast to the other two, ionospheric attenuation increases as frequency decreases, Space Waves Space waves are line of sight waves. All radio frequencies use this method of propagation although its range is limited by obstructions and by the curvature of the earth, The maximum theoretical range of a VHF/UHF space wave in nautical miles can be determined from the formula Max theoretical range =1.23 vHy + 1.23 vH2 where Hi is the height of the transmitter and Ha is the height of the receiver both measured in feet above mean sea level. Figure 9-2-3 Ground reflected waves are also included in this category. Radio Navigation e 23Surface Waves At lower frequencies radio waves passing over hills and buildings are diffracted. The effect is increased by the slower speed of the wave front near the earth's surface which creates a downward component to the movement. This tends to make the wave follow the curvature of the earth. Surface Wave Formation ure 9-2-4 The distance a surface wave can travel is limited by surface attenuation which decreases at lower frequencies and over the sea. Surface waves are around 100nm long in the HF band, 500nm in the MF, 1000nm in the LF and over 4000nm long in the VLF bands. Surface waves and space waves occur together and the combination is called a ground wave. Sky Waves Sky waves are refracted from the ionosphere. This is an area in the very outer fringes of the atmosphere many hundreds of kilometres above the earth's surface. In the ionosphere the few gas molecules that are present are being constantly bombarded with solar and cosmic radiation. The molecules of gas, which normally have no electrical charge, are split into positively and negatively charged ions. The density of the ions increases with height, up to a point, and increases with the intensity of radiation. ‘The ionosphere is weaker at night than during the day because the ionising solar radiation is not present. 2.4 > Radio Navigation Surface waves are caused by diffraction and slowing the wave Surface waves are longest at low frequencies ‘Sky waves refract from the Ionosphere ‘The ionosphere is weaker at nightNothing is received in the give near global range to HF Sky waves are only reliable in the HF band Where the ion density changes radio waves will be refracted. Most of the refraction occurs about 125km up, at what is known as the E layer. A wave of a low enough frequency at the right angle of incidence can be refracted back to earth. ‘The distance from the transmitter to the point where the first returning sky wave is received is called the minimum skip distance. This also decreases with frequency. In the gap between the ground wave and the first returning sky wave nothing will be received, this is the dead space. ha, Se Figure 9-2-5 Skip distances are increased at night as the ionosphere weakens and refracts less. By day or night a returning sky wave of sufficient power can be bounced off the earth to be refracted again. This is known as multi-hop transmission, and may lead to four or five bounces, depending on the terrain. ‘The maximum skip distance occurs when the signal leaves the earth at a tangent and is restricted by the curvature of the earth. The maximum theoretical skip distance from the E layer is about 1500NM. ‘The low frequencies which refract best are also those that suffer most from ionospheric attenuation. This means that sky waves are only reliable in the HF band, where the frequencies are low enough to refract but not so low that they get attenuated. Sky waves are present as interference in the MF and LF bands, notably at dawn and dusk. Radio Navigation Issue 25Sporadic E In times of high solar activity the E layer is much more heavily ionised than usual and becomes dense enough to generate returning sky wave in the VHF band leading to unusually long range reception. Atmospheric Ducting When atmospheric conditions are right radio waves in the VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF bands can find an atmospheric duct that allows them unusually long range propagation. Ducts near the surface need a marked temperature inversion and a rapid decrease in humidity with height. Air mass subsidence can produce an elevated duct. Apart from these generalisations atmospheric ducting is unpredictable, although there is nearly always some ducting which typically extends line of sight ranges by about 15%. Atmospheric ducting is also referred to as super refraction, where refraction is less than normal it is called sub-refraction lonospheric ducting In the VLF band wavelengths are in the order of tens of kilometres and frequencies are so low that sky waves would not normally be expected. ceed Figure 9-2-6 2.6 Radio Navigation Sporadic E can lead to long range interference in the VHF band ducting is likely in stable air. Super refraction can ‘cause long range Interference from VHF to EHF lonospheric ducting is a reliable method of propag: VLF onlyStatic Is greatest at low frequencies The point is reached where the signals no longer refract but reflect from the ionosphere. Now as the signals barely enter the ionosphere attenuation is minimal and — multi-hop transmissions combine with surface waves up to 4000nm long to use the gap between the ionosphere and the earth as a natural waveguide. This is known as ionospheric ducting. Static and Noise Static and noise can both interfere with radio signals. Static is a natural phenomenon caused primarily by the electrical discharges in convective clouds. Thunderstorms generate huge amounts of electricity and these discharges particularly affect the lower frequencies becoming insignificant in the VHF band. When precipitation, particularly rain, strikes an aircraft at a different electrical potential there is a minute discharge of static. This precipitation static is most troublesome in the LF and MF bands. Noise is man made interference from unshielded electrical equipment. It mostly affects the VHF frequencies and above when alternating currents and sparking from poor connections produce electromagnetic fields. Summary Atmospheric and surface attenuation are greatest at high frequencies, ionospheric attenuation is greatest at low frequencies. All radio frequencies produce space waves, sky waves are only reliably present in the HF band but are present as interference in the MF and LF bands. Surface waves start to be significant in HF and get longer with lower frequencies. Atmospheric ducting is occasionally present in VHF and higher, ionospheric ducting is present in VLF only. Static is greatest at the lowest frequencies. ‘The diagram below summarises radio propagation visually. Surface wave ranges can only be approximate as they depend on power output and the surface over which they travel. Radio Navigation 27Space Sky Surface lonospheric lonospheric Waves Waves Waves Ducting Attenuation Static wr | a LF MF e HE F = VHF UHF SHF EHF ‘Atmospheric Surface Attenuation ‘Attenuation Propagation Figure 9-2-7 The Doppler Effect ‘The Doppler effect can be heard in the change in pitch of aircraft noise as an aircraft at low level passes the observer. It is a high pitch initially, then falls to a lower pitch as the aircraft passes by. The same effect is present with radio waves and, in particular, radar. With a static transmitter and a static receiver the received frequency is the same as the transmitted frequency. If the transmitter is flying towards the receiver more cycles are received each second so the received frequency is higher. The change in received frequency is called the Doppler Shift and it is proportional to the relative velocity. A closing relative velocity produces an increase in frequency, a positive Doppler shift. If the transmitter and receiver are moving apart the received frequency is lower, a negative Doppler shift. 2.8 Radio Navigation With caveats, the highest frequency for static is 30Mhz, the highest frequency for sky waves is 30Mhz velocity produces a positive doppler shift9 Ghe Transmitted The Doppler Effect Figure 9-2-1 8 ‘The formula for Doppler Shift is Doppler Shift = Relative velocity (metres per second) Transmitted wavelength (metres) Example: A stationary transmitter is producing a signal at 8GHz. The aircraft receiver is flying towards it at 500kt. Calculate the Doppler Shift. Solution: First convert the relative velocity into metres per ‘second, 500 x 6080 = 3040000 ft per hour 3040000 = —844.4 ft per second 60 x 60, 844.4 = 287.45 metres per second. 3.28 Secondly calculate the wavelength, wavelength = 3x 108 8x 10° = 0.0375 m Now insert these into the formula, Radio Navigation Issue 5 29Doppler Shift = 257.45 0.0375 6865 Hz 6.865 KHz If it had been asked we could also state the received frequency which would be 8GHz plus 6.865 KHz or 8,000,006,865 Hz. If you like conversion factors then knots to m/sec is divided by 1.94. Doppler Navigation Systems Doppler navigation systems compute the groundspeed and drift of the aircraft from the Doppler shift in reflected signals. The more sophisticated systems use this, tied in with information from other instruments, to compute the aircraft's track and groundspeed and to ultimately give a continuous position readout. Although now largely superseded by satellite navigation and inertial navigation Doppler can still be found fitted to military aircraft and helicopters. Only the basic principles of Doppler will be tested in the exam, calculations are not in the present syllabus. 2.10 ; Radio Navigation Divide by 1.94 to convert knots to metres a secondHF is used for Jong range Chapter 3 - Communications Introduction his chapter deals with long and short range R/T communications systems. Most students willbe familiar with the short range frequencies used by aerodromes and radar units but not all will have experience of the long range comms networks that control the more remote corners of the globe. As with all radio systems the frequency bands used are chosen primarily because of their propagation characteristics. Long Range Communications At first sight the VLF band and ionospheric ducting would appear to be the most suitable for this task but the huge aerial size required, as high as 1500ft, make them uneconomic and the high levels of static prevent conventional voice transmission. The HF band is a reasonable alternative offering predictable sky wave propagation with less static and lower costs. The HF frequencies used in aviation range from 2MHz to 22Mhz. The choice of frequency for the range and conditions can be quite important. Attenuation and static must be minimised by keeping the frequency as high as possible and the receiver must be kept out of the dead space. ‘The frequency at which the first returning skywave just hits the receiver is called the optimum frequency. The constantly changing conditions in the ionosphere prevent this from being used as the slight variations in skip distance would move the receiver into and out of the dead space constantly interrupting the signal. The frequency is lowered slightly to keep the Radio Navigation issue 34receiver in contact and this becomes the Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF), with the emphasis on the word ‘usable’. i, de esaias i Peery oes | oh j | o ‘Optimum Frequency and MUF Figure 9-3-4 Any receiver beyond the first returning skywave would also receive the signal but it is important to realise that it would not be the best quality signal for that range, the frequency could always be increased to the MUF for that range to reduce attenuation and increase clarity. Similarly, frequencies lower than the MUF will also be received in the same position but ionospheric attenuation and static will increase to the point where the signal is inaudible. This is the Lowest Usable High Frequency (LUHF) MUFs vary most by day and night. The ionosphere at night is less dense and therefore less likely to refract radio signals. To compensate for this we must use a lower frequency signal which tends to bend more than high frequencies. Thus night frequencies are typically half that of the daytime frequency. HF agencies produce propagation charts to guide pilots in their choice. Opposite is a chart of optimum frequencies produced by British Telecom's Portishead Radio aeronautical service, now withdrawn but typical of its kind. One would try to make contact at the published frequency just below the optimum for the aircraft position and time of day. In some parts of the world, particularly those on the other side of the polar ice caps, frequency prediction is impossible. 3.2 issue 5 Radio Navigation Use the highest possible HF frequency that works ‘Sun's up frequency up, ‘Sun's down frequency downHF comms is SSB with a suppressed PORTISHEAD RADIO AERONAUTICAL SERVICE ca GKX wo ees jesse aaa Sommers ria aan ae eee enum Male eee "ATR REEPING FRE GUPNCTES NAT ‘elaine ae ake ese oe ou anes ase H.F. PROPAGATION FORECASTS {eepng ‘on higher tequencies be subject Te popogetonel | SUMS be cowed Sonia HF Propagation Chart Figure 9-3-2 ‘The following factors will affect the range and hence the quality of HF transmissions: ‘Transmitter power Frequency Time of day Season Location (don't expect multi-hop transmissions over the ice caps). + Disturbances in the ionosphere HF signals are usually single sideband with a suppressed carrier wave to reduce the bandwidth and keep the required transmission power down. Radio Navigation issue 5 3.3Short Range Communications Short range comms are restricted to line of sight propagation paths. From this point of view any frequency from VHF to EHF would be suitable. Atmospheric attenuation, however becomes significant above the UHF band unacceptably reducing transmission range. Military agencies use the upper VHF and lower UHF bands. Civil agencies use the VHF band from 118 MHz to 137 MHz which gives negligible interference from static tied to minimal attenuation. VHF channel spacing is currently 25Khz in some airspace with 8.33Khz spacing introduced in upper airspace. Reception is usually good when in range. Occasionally line of sight signals and ground reflected signals which move in and out of phase can interfere to alternately reinforce themselves and cancel each other out causing the volume of the signal to increase and decrease, an effect known as fading. Factors which affect range include: + Transmitter power «Height of transmitter & receiver + Obstructions + Fading Selcal Large aircraft have equipment fitted that allows the pilots to be contacted on the radios without continuously monitoring the frequency. This is particularly needed for long oceanic legs using HF frequencies. Selcal, short for selective calling, operates on HF or VHF radios. Each airframe has a Selcal code allocated to it made up of four letters, for example SHKM, which is notified to the ATC agency on the flight plan and once more on first R/T contact. ‘The ATC agency can transmit coded tones corresponding to the letter code that activates a flashing light and an audio tone in the cockpit. Once called the crew can put their headsets on and respond on the appropriate radio. ‘The Selcal must be checked with the ATC agency before the crew remove their headsets and go from a listening watch on the frequency concerned to a selcal watch. In practise this seleal check is carried out on first contact with each new 3.4 e5 Radio Navigation VHF comms 418Mhz to 437Mhz, higher frequencies are used in some JAA countries The SELCAL code goes in item 18 of the flight plan The SELCAL must be checked on first contact with each new agencyagency, even if the selcal has already been checked on the same frequency with the previous agency. Cockpit Equipment ‘The Radio Navigation syllabus does not require familiarity with the cockpit equipment, this section is for information only. Separate controls are used to select the frequencies used and to control transmission and reception. Shown below is the VHF and HF comms controller from an A320, © vat fo vir2 fe vars (3) = AM I, Cie Ue 8 Figuro 9-3-3, ‘The selectors marked VHF1, VHF2, VHF3, HF1 and HF2 are pressed to display the selected frequency in the active window and the standby frequency in the right hand window. The standby frequency can be tuned with the concentric knobs below the window and frequencies can be switched from standby to active by pressing the transfer key, the double green arrow. Normal tuning of nav aids is automatic. The bottom row of buttons are for manual reversion. Each flight deck station has a comms box, called an Audio Control Panel, which is used to select which radios are listened to and to select the radio on which to transmit. Shown opposite is the Audio Control Panel from an A320, the Boeing ones are very similar. The top row of buttons, mostly with ‘CALL’ written on them, are used to select the radio on which to transmit. Only one button can be pushed in at a time. ‘The CALL light flashes amber and a buzzer sounds when the SELCAL is activated on that radio. Radio Navigation 35i 7 G Tce ie Le oa ca Ca pode (CD) yang cy ‘YO 5 v4 Rees) Gesu Cae Ty ce ¢ 5 ra of) C2) Poe ia Du Figure 9-3-4 ‘The knobs underneath the CALL lights and those on the bottom row control which facilities are listened to. To select a radio or nav facility press and release the knob so it pops out and then turn to adjust the audio volume. Several can be selected at once. ‘The toggle switch on the left of the panel can be selected up to talk on the intercom, left at the central position to deactivate the boom mikes and held in the RAD position to talk on the selected radio. There is also a press to transmit switch on the side stick. This overrides the one on the ACP. SATCOM and Digital Data Links Satellite links can be used to pass data, voice messages or pictures to and from aircraft and ground stations. The satellites are operated by INMARSAT, the International Maritime Satellite Organisation. ‘The satellites maintain a geostationary or Clarke orbit around the equator about 30,000 km above the earth's surface. As this orbit has the same period as the earth's rotation they remain stationary above the surface. Four satellites are able to provide coverage at all longitudes and between 80°N and 80°S. ‘Transmissions are in the UHF band, relying on line of sight transmission. These frequencies only suffer slight atmospheric attenuation and little or no ionospheric attenuation, the signals are also unlikely to be refracted significantly by the ionosphere. All signals are digitised, that is to say converted into a stream of pulses making up a binary code, rather like the way a fax machine operates. 3.6 ssue 5 Radio Navigation SATCOM is operated by INMARSAT INMARSAT satellites are geostationary Coverage is 80°N to 80°SACARS is a VHF data link between operator and aircraft VDF roceivers uso Adcock aerial ACARS The Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting ‘System is a VHF data link used by operators to send and receive messages to aircraft in flight using the aircraft radios, usually VHF 3, number 3 VHF radio. Modern FMS systems and flight data recorders will automatically pass information on engine and airframe parameters and navigational data. ACARS can also be used to send company messages about passenger loads, timings and aircraft movements. Ground Direction Finding Some VHF ground radio stations are equipped with automatic direction finding (VHFDF). Military stations may provide VHF DF or UHF DF. Figure 9-3-5 ‘The receiver aerials, known as Adcock aerials, are a series of dipoles arranged in a circle. Each will receive a_ slightly different phase of the incoming signal. The difference in phase indicates where the signal is coming from. Modern displays are digital. Radio Navigation 37Bearing information can be provided on request expressed as cither a magnetic or true direction either to or from the station. bearings from two DF stations can provide a fix. The pre-war Q code is used to avoid confusion. QTE ‘True bearing from the station QDR Magnetic bearing from the station QDM Magnetic bearing to the station Mnemonics can help remember the meanings of these codes. ‘The letter Q at the start of the code was an indicator to a morse operator that a code was being sent, the subsequent letters are the important ones, TE is 'true emanation’ DR __ is direction radial’ DM __ is ‘direction magnetic’, but ‘direction to’ because a radial is a ‘direction from’, Bearings are classified by their quality, Class A bearings are accurate to +2°, Class B, the most common, to 45°, Class C to +10° and Class D outside 10°. Ground DF stations can decline to give a bearing if accuracy is poor. DF Letdowns ‘Two types of DF letdown are available, the VDF procedure and the QGH, the letters GH standing for ‘ground homing’. The advantage with both procedures is that no on board nav equipment is needed. ‘The VDF letdown is available throughout the world. Stations which can offer the service are listed in the COM section of the AIP, details of the letdown are in the RAC section. A pilot calling for a VDF letdown will be provided on each call with his QDM. Making due allowance for drift, headings can be set to the airfield overhead. Once in the overhead the published outbound track is flown followed by a turn inbound. Minimum descent heights apply as this is very definitely an airfield approach rather than a runway approach. The pilot must have a copy of the procedure and it remains his responsibility to interpret the procedure, to allow for drift and make track corrections. 3.8 10 § Radio Navigation A bearing accuracy of 45° is the most common and can be assumed if the class is not given The pilot interprets the procedure on a VDF approach