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Casabe: New Tricks for an Old Field

Mauro Amaya At some point in the operational life of an oil field, natural drive dwindles and
Raúl Amaya
Héctor Castaño additional energy is needed to sustain production rates. In the Casabe field water-
Eduardo Lozano flooding has been used to enhance oil recovery. However, a combination of sensitive
Carlos Fernando Rueda
Ecopetrol SA lithology, structural complexity and water channeling caused hardware to fail and
Bogotá, Colombia
wells to collapse, disrupting the waterflood efficiency. New techniques in geologic
Jon Elphick analysis, waterflooding, drilling and production optimization are restoring this
Cambridge, England
once-prolific field to its former glory.
Walter Gambaretto
Leonardo Márquez
Diana Paola Olarte Caro
Old fields have stories to tell. The story of the of the natural drive period, the operator had
Juan Peralta-Vargas
Arévalo José Velásquez Marín Casabe field, 350 km [220 mi] north of Bogotá obtained a primary recovery factor of 13%. By this
Bogotá and situated in the middle Magdalena River time, however, production had declined signifi-
Valley basin (MMVB) of Colombia’s Antioquia cantly to nearly 5,000 bbl/d [800 m3/d]. Seeking
Oilfield Review Spring 2010: 22, no. 1. Department, began with its discovery in 1941. to reverse this trend, Ecopetrol SA (Empresa
Copyright © 2010 Schlumberger.
The field was undersaturated when production Colombiana de Petróleos SA) conducted water-
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to José Isabel
Herberth Ahumada, Marvin Markley, José A. Salas, Hector began in 1945, and during primary recovery the flood tests for several years before establishing
Roberto Saldaño, Sebastian Sierra Martinez and Andreas production mechanisms were natural depletion two major secondary-recovery programs in the
Suter, Bogotá; and Giovanni Landinez, Mexico City.
AIT, CMR-Plus, Petrel, PowerPak XP, PressureXpress,
and a weak aquifer. In the late 1970s, at the end mid to late 1980s.
TDAS and USI are marks of Schlumberger.
Crystal Ball is a mark of Oracle Corp. 25 125
IDCAP, KLA-GARD and KLA-STOP are marks of M-I SWACO.
Water
1. Peralta-Vargas J, Cortes G, Gambaretto W, Martinez Oil
Uribe L, Escobar F, Markley M, Mesa Cardenas A,
Suter A, Marquez L, Dederle M and Lozano E: “Finding 20 100
Waterflood pilot projects

Bypassed Oil in a Mature Field—Casabe Field, Middle

Water injection rate, 1,000 bbl/d


Casabe alliance formed
Oil production rate, 1,000 bbl/d

Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia,” presented at the


ACGGP (Asociación Colombiana de Geólogos y
Geofisicos del Petróleo) X Symposio Bolivariano, 15 75
Cartagena, Colombia, July 26–29, 2009.
Marquez L, Elphick J, Peralta J, Amaya M, Lozano E:
“Casabe Mature Field Revitalization Through an Alliance:
A Case Study of Multicompany and Multidiscipline 10 50
Integration,” paper SPE 122874, presented at the SPE
Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering
Conference, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, May 31–
June 3, 2009. 5 25
2. Cordillera is Spanish for range. Colombia has three
ranges: Oriental (eastern), Central, and Occidental
(western). These are branches of the Andes Mountains
that extend along the western half of the country. The 0 0
MMVB runs WSW-NNE, and the Magdalena River runs
1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

northward through it, eventually flowing into the


Caribbean Sea.
Operational year
3. Barrero D, Pardo A, Vargas CA and Martínez JF:
Colombian Sedimentary Basins: Nomenclature, > Casabe oil production and water injection. Waterflood pilot projects took place in the late 1970s, but it
Boundaries and Petroleum Geology, a New Proposal.
Bogotá, Colombia: Agencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos
was not until 1985 that the first of two major waterflood programs began. During the first three years of
(2007): 78–81, http://www.anh.gov.co/paraweb/pdf/ each program, high injection rates were possible; however, water soon found ways through the most
publicaciones.pdf (accessed February 5, 2010). permeable sands. Early breakthrough and well collapse forced the operator to choke back injection.
The steady decline in injection was accompanied by a decline in production, and attempts to reverse
this trend were unsuccessful. In 2004, when the Casabe alliance was formed, production rates were
5,200 bbl/d. By early February 2010, these rates had increased to more than 16,000 bbl/d.

4 Oilfield Review
During the secondary-recovery period, struc- In 2004 Ecopetrol SA and Schlumberger A Prolific Yet Complex Region
tural complexities, sensitive shales, heteroge- forged an alliance to revitalize the Casabe field. The middle Magdalena River Valley basin is an
neous sands and viscous oils all conspired to Using updated methods for managing highly elongated depression between the Colombian
undermine the effectiveness of the waterflood. complex reservoirs, the alliance reversed the Central and Oriental cordilleras and represents
And although initially successful at increasing decline in production: From March 2004 to an area of 34,000 km2 [13,000 mi2].2 Oil seeps are
production, injected water broke through prema- February 2010, oil production increased from common features within the basin; their pres-
turely at the production wells, an indicator of 5,200 to more than 16,000 bbl/d [820 to ence was documented by the first western explor-
bypassed oil (previous page). Sand production 2,500 m3/d].1 Also, the estimated ultimate recovery ers in the 16th century. These reservoir indicators
occurred in a high percentage of wells, contribut- factor increased from 16% to 22% of the original oil motivated some of the earliest oil exploration and
ing to borehole collapse and causing failure of in place (OOIP). led to the discovery in 1918 of the giant field
downhole equipment. Water-injection rates were This article describes the complexities of the called La Cira–Infantas, the first field discovered
gradually decreased in an attempt to overcome reservoirs within the Casabe concession and the in Colombia. Since that time, the MMVB has
these issues, and waterflooding became less oil recovery methods employed over the last been heavily explored. Its current oil and gas
effective at enhancing oil recovery; from 1996 70  years, concentrating primarily on the major reserves include more than 1,900 million bbl
onward the production rates declined between reengineering work using updated methods that [302 million m3] of oil and 2.5 Tcf [71 billion m3]
7% and 8% per year. began in 2004. of gas.3

Spring 2010 5
A Barrancabermeja Nuevo Mundo syncline Rio Suarez A’
anticline
Central Casabe La Cira–Infantas Peroles
Cordillera field field field
m

B a rran
0
5,000

caberm
0 10 20 km
10,000

e
nclin
0 5 10 mi

eja fa
15,000

ndo sy
Barrancabermeja

lt u
Galán

Nuevo Mu
fault

A
illera

Casabe
Palestine

Peñas La Cira–
ord

Blancas Infantas Peroles


A’

e
ticlin
al C

Formation
rez an

Real
ntr

Rio Sua
Ce

Miocene
0 150 m
0 500 ft La Cira shale

e
on
ra

lt z

Upper sands
le

fau

A1 and A2
il

ip
d

-sl
ke
r
o

i
str
C

W
al

Oligocene
-S
nt

NE

B0, B1, B2 and B3


ie

ain

Lower sands
Or

0 50 100 km

C sands

Eocene
0 25 50 mi 5,000 ft Cretaceous

> Casabe structural setting. The Casabe field lies to the west of La Cira–Infantas field in the middle Magdalena River Valley basin (left). The principal
MMVB structures and producing fields are shown in the generalized structural cross section A to A’ (top right). The basin is limited on the east by a thrust
belt, uplifting the oldest rocks. Cretaceous and Paleocene (green), Oligocene (orange) and Miocene (yellow) rocks are shown in the central part of the basin
cross section. The pre–Middle Eocene uplift and erosion have exposed the Central Cordillera on the west (gray). The Casabe field is highly layered, as shown in
the detailed structural cross section (bottom right). (Figure adapted from Barrero et al, reference 3, and Morales et al, reference 6.)

The abundance of hydrocarbon resources in The Colorado, Mugrosa and La Paz forma- the Casabe field in the Galán field. A high-angle
the basin attests to the prolific petroleum system tions that make up the Casabe field were depos- NE-SW strike-slip fault closes the western side of
active in this region. A thick, organic-rich lime- ited during the Paleogene Period. These are the trap. Associated faults perpendicular to the
stone and shale succession was deposited in an found at depths of 670 to 1,700 m [2,200 to main fault compartmentalize the field into eight
extensive pericratonic trough along the north- 5,600  ft]. The reservoir sands in the field are blocks. Drilling is typically restricted to vertical
west margin of the Guyana shield during the classified in three main groups: A, B and C, or deviated wells within each block because of
Cretaceous Period.4 These underlying source which are subdivided into operational units heavy faulting and compartmentalization.
rocks are separated from the primary reservoirs (above). Sands are typically isolated by imper- Throughout the history of the field, develop-
by an Eocene unconformity. Major fluid-migra- meable claystone seals and have grain sizes that ment planners have avoided placing wells in the
tion mechanisms to fields within the MMVB con- vary from silty to sandy to pebbly. area close to the western fault. This is because
sist of direct vertical migration where La Luna Structurally the Casabe field is an 8-km reservoir models generated from sparse 2D seis-
Formation subcrops the Eocene unconformity, [5-mi] long anticline with a three-way closure, mic data, acquired first around 1940 and later in
lateral migration along the Eocene sandstone well-defined eastern flank and a southern plunge. the 1970s and 1980s, failed to adequately identify
carrier and vertical migration through faults. The northern plunge is found outside the area of the exact location of major faults including the
ORSPR10—Michael Moody—Figure 02
4. Pericratonic is a term used to describe the area around a Jones SH, Barker MHS, O’Donoghue J, Mohler CE, paper SPE 122868, presented at the SPE Latin American
stable plate of the Earth’s crust (craton). Dubois EP, Jacobs C and Goss CR: “General Geology and and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference,
5. Although the exact fault locations were not well-defined, Oil Occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia,” Cartagena, Colombia, May 31–June 3, 2009.
by conservatively locating the wells away from the in Weeks LG (ed): Habitat of Oil. Tulsa: The American 8. Peñas Blancas field, discovered in 1957, is located 7 km
fault zones the waterflood planners ensured wells Association of Petroleum Geologists, AAPG Special [4 mi] to the southwest of the Casabe field. Both fields
remained within the correct block and inside the Publication 18 (1958): 641–695. have the same operator. The area between the fields was
western fault closure. 7. For more on undeveloped areas in the Casabe field: surveyed because oil indicators were found.
6. For more on historical structural maps from the Casabe Gambaretto W, Peralta J, Cortes G, Suter A, Dederle M
field: Morales LG, Podesta DJ, Hatfield WC, Tanner H, and Lozano Guarnizo E: “A 3D Seismic Cube: What For?,”

6 Oilfield Review
main strike-slip fault. The lack of a more accu- and washouts, and completion challenges such as looked. To improve structural understanding and
rate structural model caused two main problems: poor cementing and casing collapse. Tackling help increase reserves, Ecopetrol SA commis-
Reservoir engineers underestimated OOIP and each of these elements involved close collabora- sioned a high-resolution 3D seismic survey.
waterflood planners found it difficult to locate tion between the operator’s professionals and Geophysicists designed the survey to encom-
injector-producer pairs within the same reservoir technical experts from the service company. The pass both the Casabe and Peñas Blancas fields
and, to a lesser extent, within the same fault first stage of the project involved a thorough field- and also the area in between.8 WesternGeco per-
block.5 These uncertainties led the managers and wide analysis based on existing data and the gath- formed the survey during the first half of 2007,
experts of the 2004 Casaba alliance to build a ering of new data using the latest technologies, acquiring more than 100 km2 [38 mi2] of high-
multicomponent redevelopment plan. such as 3D seismic surveys and 3D inversion. resolution 3D seismic data; data interpretation
Ecopetrol SA has long-standing experience in followed later that year. The new data enabled
and knowledge of the field and the measures Undeveloped Areas and Attic Oil creation of a more precise and reliable structural
undertaken to keep it producing decade after Forty years ago it was common to create struc- model than one obtained from formation tops,
decade. Schlumberger provides new oilfield tech- tural maps by identifying formation tops from with the added advantage of covering almost the
nologies to the operator, including seismic sur- well data. With hundreds of evenly distributed entire Casabe concession (below).
veying, downhole measurements, data analysis wells this task was quite straightforward over In addition to accurately defining the struc-
and specialized drilling, as well as domain exper- most of the Casabe concession.6 However, a large ture of the subsurface, seismic data can also give
tise to decipher the challenges faced. With these undeveloped area near the main NE-SW strike- reservoir engineers early indications of oil-
capabilities the alliance was confident it could slip fault encompassed over 20 km2 [7.7 mi2]. bearing zones. In some cases oil-rich formations
obtain results within a year. Smaller undeveloped locations also existed.7 appear as seismic amplitude anomalies, called
The key goals of the redevelopment plan were A lack of well log data in these undeveloped bright spots. However, these bright spots do not
to increase reserves, manage the waterflood pro- areas meant that formation tops were not avail- guarantee the presence of oil, and many opera-
grams more efficiently and address drilling- able to create structural maps for several key tors have hit dry holes when drilling on the basis
related problems such as reactive lithology, areas of operator interest. As a result, significant of amplitude data alone.
tripping problems, low ROP, borehole collapse potential oil reserves were possibly being over-

Formation Tops Seismic Data

Depth, ft Depth, ft
3,300 3,300
N N
Structural Sketch
with Well Locations

0 1,000 2,000 m
4,050 4,900
0 3,000 6,000 ft

N
4,800 6,500
Area not
drained
or drilled

Well location

0 1,000 2,000 m 0 1,000 2,000 m

0 6,000 ft 0 6,000 ft

> Casabe structural maps and model. Structural maps of the field were of structural maps (Seismic Data). These maps indicate additional faults in
generated using formation tops from well logs (Formation Tops). But the field and adjusted positions of existing faults compared to the formation
operators avoided drilling along the main strike-slip fault for fear of exiting top maps. Calibration of the new maps from existing well logs further
the trap; hence, tops were unavailable (Structural Sketch, red-shaded area). improved their accuracy. Geophysicists input the maps into Petrel software
This poorly defined and undeveloped area represented significant potential to form a 3D structural model of the subsurface (inset, right). (Figure
reserves. High-resolution 3D seismic data were used to create a refined set adapted from Peralta-Vargas et al, reference 1.)

Spring 2010 7
Typical amplitude signature properties.10 Geophysicists calibrated these esti-
Bright spots
mates using data acquired by a suite of new-
generation logging tools (see “New Wells and
Results,” page  15) in approximately 150 wells.
Offset Using these calibrated rock types, geologists
created a facies distribution map, which they
AVO anomaly
combined with the structural model to create a
model of reservoir architecture.
The architectural model highlighted more
Offset
than 15 reservoirs with an average thickness of
3  m [10 ft] each. Reservoir engineers analyzed
10 of these reservoirs and discovered an addi-
Uncorrected common tional 5 million bbl [800,000 m3] of estimated
midpoint gather
reserves.11 The geologic model was then used dur-
AVO-corrected ing the waterflood redevelopment process to help
amplitude map
improve both areal and vertical sweep efficiency.

Effective Waterflooding
When the Casabe field was switched from natural
drive to waterflood in the late 1970s, the operator
chose to use a typical five-spot pattern with
approximately 500 injector and producer pairs.
To sweep the upper and lower sections of Sands A
and B, up to four wells were drilled per injection
location (next page, bottom). During the initial
waterflood period, injection rates peaked in 1986
Amplitude anomaly and 1991. These dates correspond to the first and
second year after the beginning of the two water-
flood programs for the northern and southern
areas of the Casabe field.
Two to three years after each peak there was
a noticeable drop in the water-injection rates.
This was due mainly to the restrictions imposed
Undeveloped area
on the rates to avoid casing collapse. However,
Offset Hydrocarbons
the reduction in water-injection rates was also
influenced by several other factors. These issues
> Minimizing uncertainty of amplitude anomalies. Bright spots (top left) are high-amplitude features on were identified in the alliance’s redevelopment
seismic data. These features can indicate oil accumulations, although they are no guarantee. One
plan and became a large part of the requirements
technique for understanding bright spots begins with modeling the amplitudes of reflections from
reservoirs containing various fluids (top right). The amplitude at the top of a sand reservoir filled with for reworking the Casabe waterflood programs.
water decreases with offset. The amplitude at the top of a similar reservoir containing gas can
  9. For more on AVO analysis: Chiburis E, Franck C,
increase with offset. The results are compared with actual seismic traces containing reflections from a Leaney S, McHugo S and Skidmore C: “Hydrocarbon
sand reservoir (bottom left) to more accurately characterize reservoir fluid. Combined with other Detection with AVO,” Oilfield Review 5, no. 1
information such as seismic inversion data, AVO-corrected amplitude maps (bottom right) can be a (January 1993): 42–50.
useful tool to confirm the presence of oil (light-blue areas). (Figure adapted from Gambaretto et al, 10. For more on inversion: Barclay F, Bruun A,
reference 7.) Rasmussen KB, Camara Alfaro J, Cooke A,
Cooke D, Salter D, Godfrey R, Lowden D, McHugo S,
Özdemir H, Pickering S, Gonzalez Pineda F, Herwanger J,
Several conditions can create misleading faults is uncertain. Interpretation of the Casabe Volterrani S, Murineddu A, Rasmussen A and Roberts R:
“Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines,”
amplitude anomalies, but careful processing and 3D seismic data clarified field corridors where Oilfield Review 20, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 42–63.
interpretation can distinguish them. Analysis of wells had not been planned because of the uncer- 11. Amaya R, Nunez G, Hernandez J, Gambaretto W and
Rubiano R: “3D Seismic Application in Remodeling
amplitude variation with offset (AVO) corrects tainty surrounding the main fault position. Wells Brownfield Waterflooding Pattern,” paper SPE 122932,
data during the common midpoint gathering have since been drilled along these corridors presented at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean
Petroleum Engineering Conference, Cartagena de
process (above).9 Using AVO-corrected amplitude with successful results (next page, top). Indias, Colombia, May 31–June 3, 2009.
ORSPR10—Michael
maps as an additional verification tool, interpret- Moody—Figure 04
A detailed geologic model provided a better 12. For more on understanding high-mobility ratios:
ers were able to confirm both undeveloped and understanding of the subsurface conditions, Elphick JJ, Marquez LJ and Amaya M: “IPI Method:
A Subsurface Approach to Understand and Manage
attic oil accumulations. which helped during the waterflood planning and Unfavorable Mobility Waterfloods,” paper SPE 123087,
Attic oil is an old concept. Operators know drilling processes. Prestack inversion of the 3D presented at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean
Petroleum Engineering Conference, Cartagena,
there can be oil in these higher zones, but identi- survey data yielded fieldwide estimates of rock Colombia, May 31–June 3, 2009.
fying them is difficult if the exact location of

8 Oilfield Review
0 1,000 2,000 m Block VIII
0 6,000 ft

Block VII 400

600
New well

Block VI 800

Depth, m
Undeveloped
1,000

Block V
N
Block IV Attic oil
1,200 B sands
Attic oil
Block III C sands
Drilled wells
1,400
Approved locations
Proposed locations
Undeveloped areas
Blocks I and II
1,600

> Attic well. Experts had long predicted a field corridor along the main helped well planners position the well. The trajectory avoided major faults
strike-slip fault, but the lack of accurate seismic data made the risk of and targeted a large undeveloped zone and two attic oil zones in the B and
drilling these zones too high. Interpretation of the 2007 3D seismic survey C sands (right). The wells constructed during the first and second drilling
enabled geophysicists to identify undeveloped drilling locations (red campaigns were vertical; in the third campaign, especially from late 2008
ellipses, left) close to the major fault. A new offset well, approved for Block onward, most of the wells drilled were offset wells in target pay zones close
VIII, was very close to the main strike-slip fault (dashed-green box, left). 3D to faults. (Figure adapted from Amaya et al, reference 11.)
seismic data and structural maps (middle) visualized using Petrel software

Spontaneous Depth, Injection Production


Potential ft Resistivity A1 A2 B1 B2 A B CBA
The operator had recorded early water break- Formation –80 mV 20 Sand 0 ohm.m 20
through in the field’s producers during both La Cira
Shale
waterflood programs. This was a result of injec- 2,500
tion water channeling inside high-permeability
layers. Also, a poor mobility ratio was present
throughout the field: Viscous oils (14.8 to 23.3 API
3,000
Colorado

gravity in the upper sands and 15.4 to 24.8  API


Upper sands

A1
gravity in the lower sands) were pushed aside by
the more freely flowing water, and once break-
through occurred the water influx increased.12 3,500

These conditions caused a poor vertical sweep A2


Oligocene

efficiency average of only 20%.


A3
4,000

ORSPR10—Michael Moody—Figure
B1 SUP 05
B1 INF
. Casabe field injection and production scheme. 4,500

Original field-development plans included as B2 SUP


Mugrosa

many as four wells per injection location to flood


Lower sands

the multilayered sands (blue wells). Up to two


wells were used to extract oil, but in some 5,000
B2 INF
locations a single production well commingled
fluids from Sands A and B, B and C, or A, B and C
B3
(green wells). The current string design for new
injector-producer pairs, shown in a later figure, 5,500
limits drilling to only one well per location. This
change has reduced cost and also the incidence
La Paz

C
of proximity-induced well collapse. (Figure
adapted from Peralta-Vargas et al, reference 1.)

Spring 2010 9
Waterflood Patterns in Block VI Sand production and high-velocity jetting of
sandy water through perforations significantly
eroded casing walls and completion hardware in
1986
the producers. During a critical period of the
3,000 waterflood, numerous wells collapsed and were
abandoned or taken off line. To sustain production
levels the operator chose to convert many injec-
2,400 tion wells to producers, but this drastically
affected the waterflood patterns (left).
Choking back injection rates to mitigate
1,800 well collapses was another factor that caused an
North, ft

uneven water-flow pattern. Areal sweep was poor,


resulting in many areas of bypassed oil. The
1,200 field’s redevelopment team wanted to reestablish
patterns to improve areal sweep efficiency.
Therefore, a large part of the third drilling cam-
600 paign involved planning and placement of new
injectors and producers. These were located to
recreate an evenly spread network of wells
0 throughout the field. However, areal sweep is
0 750 1,500 2,250 3,000 3,750 largely dependent on obtaining good vertical
East, ft sweep efficiency. Waterflood specialists first
Fault traces needed to design better injection control systems
Top of A sands Producers that would improve vertical sweep and also pro-
Top of B sands Injectors vide a mechanism to reduce the damaging effects
Top of C sands of water channeling on the production strings.
Vertical sweep efficiency is determined by the
2003
effectiveness of water, flowing from injector
3,000 wells, at pushing oil through permeable layers to
formation-connected oil producers. The original
multiwell injector design had no injection profile
2,400 control, so water flowed preferentially through
the most permeable formations. This water-
channeling effect is aggravated by several mech-
1,800 anisms: Shallower sands can be unintentionally
North, ft

fractured during waterflooding, significantly


increasing permeability. The injectivity index of
1,200 deeper layers may suffer if low-quality injected
water causes plugging of perforations or deposits
of scale in the production casing. Also, injected
600 water bypasses viscous oil, present in large
amounts in the Casabe field, and breakthrough
takes place in producers. As a consequence,
0 water flows through the layer of highest permea-
0 750 1,500 2,250 3,000 3,750 bility and may not be injected at all in others,
East, ft especially in the deeper sands with skin damage.
> Comparison of 1986 and 2003 waterflood patterns. By 1986 the operator had This has been a distinctive feature during Casabe
established an evenly distributed network of five-spot injection patterns throughout production operations.
the Casabe field (top). Well collapses had occurred in nearly 70% of the wells in To optimize flooding, water management spe-
Block VI, and a significant number of collapses had been recorded in all other cialists recommended selective injection strings
blocks in the field. In 2003 (bottom) many of the collapsed wells remained abandoned
or inactive and numerous injectors had been converted to producers. Experts
using waterflood-flow regulators (next page).
suggested a new drilling campaign to reestablish fieldwide five-spot patterns. These designs would enable the operator to choke
(Figure adapted fromORSPR10—Michael Moody—Figure
Elphick et al, reference 12.) 07 back injection rates in specific layers irrespective
of the reservoir pressure, permeability, skin dam-
age or any other factors that would normally
affect flow. Each layer is packed off to prevent any

10 Oilfield Review
fluids within that zone of the wellbore from invad- Four-zone injector schematic
ing another zone. An injection nozzle is located
within this section and is controlled from the sur-
face. The new selective-string designs have
improved the vertical sweep efficiency by enabling Gamma Ray
the operator to maintain higher injection rates 0 gAPI 150
into layers less affected by waterflood-induced Spontaneous
Potential Resistivity
problems. Conversely, the new designs have miti-
Sand –80 mV 20 0 ohm.m 15
gated issues related to channeling by allowing a A1H
reduction of rates in problematic layers.
Use of a single well designed with packed-off
flow control was also much more cost-effective Packer
than the previous design of up to four wells per A2
injection location. Up to 16 water-flow regulators
have now been installed in injectors in the
Casabe field. This solution also addressed the
possibility that drilling several injectors in close
proximity to one another was one of the likely WFR
causes of casing collapse.
A21
Overcoming Drilling Difficulties
Perforations
From first production in 1945 to the end of 2006,
approximately 45% of the production wells in the
Casabe field had at some point collapsed, with
different levels of severity. As a result, wells were
abandoned, left inactive or reactivated only after
costly workovers. The abandoned and inactive
wells represented millions of dollars in capital A3
investment in the field and in lost revenue due to
> Selective injection design. New injection strings in the Casabe field have up
lower production rates. The majority of casing
to 16 waterflood-flow regulators (WFRs). WFRs and check valves prevent
collapses had occurred in Block VI, which also
backflow and sand production in case of well shutdown. The zone-isolated
has the largest proven reserves. It was therefore injection devices are placed in the highly layered stratigraphic profiles of the
the focus of a casing-collapse study.13 most-prolific producers that commingle fluids from A, B and C sands.
In the first stage of the Block VI study, Production logs are unavailable because of rod pumps, but injection logs are
available: Track 1 describes a typical lithology of A sands (yellow shaded
production engineers gathered casing-collapse areas); spontaneous potential logs (blue curves) are more accurate than
statistics. In 2006 this block contained 310 wells. gamma ray logs (red curve) in the presence of radiation from feldspar, which
A total of 214 showed some degree of collapse. occurs naturally in the field. Track 2 shows resistivity response of the formation
Slightly more producers than injectors collapsed, at two measurement depths (red and blue curves) and water-injection zones
(green shaded area). (Figure adapted from Elphick et al, reference 12.)
but the difference was minor and indicated no
trend. Of the total number of wells with recorded
collapse events, 67 were abandoned and 80 were
inactive, a factor that the operator knew would
severely impact injection and production rates. operation. In the second campaign this figure the production engineers to display both models
The remaining wells had been reactivated after was slightly less, at 68%. This period, however, in the same 3D window. Using modeling tools,
costly workovers. The engineers then looked for corresponded to the waterflood programs; hence they could then tag and clearly see the wellbore
a correlation between the 214 collapses and many more wells had been drilled. During the depths and the locations along the Casabe struc-
when these wells were drilled to identify any study period there were no recorded collapse ture where collapses had been recorded.
drilling practices that were incompatible with events in Block VI for wells constructed in the The engineers discovered that casing collapse
the Casabe field. third drilling campaign. This change was consid- had occurred in all stratigraphic levels. However,
Three main drilling campaigns coincided with ered to be a result of improved drilling practices, collapse distribution did highlight a strong cor-
the primary-recovery, or natural-drive, period which are discussed later in this section.
ORSPR10—Michael relation to the overburden
Moody—Figure 08 and to the water-
(1941 to 1975); the secondary-recovery, or water- To determine a link between casing collapse flooded formations. The analysis of well location
flood, period (1975 to 2003); and finally the and subsurface conditions, the investigators con- 13. Olarte P, Marquez L, Landinez G and Amaya R: “Casing
waterflood period of the Casabe alliance (2004 to sidered the updated stratigraphic and structural Collapse Study on Block VI Wells: Casabe Field,” paper
SPE 122956, presented at the SPE Latin American
present). Of the wells drilled during the first models built from the new 3D seismic data. and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference,
campaign, 78% had casing-collapse events during Petrel seismic-to-simulation software enabled Cartagena, Colombia, May 31–June 3, 2009.

Spring 2010 11
80

70
Production wells Injection wells
60
Number of collapse events

50

40

30

20

10

0
A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C
Overburden Colorado Mugrosa La Paz Faults

Stratigraphic formation

> Areal and stratigraphic localization of casing collapse in Block VI. Statistical analysis of casing-collapse events within each stratigraphic section (left)
showed collapses in every formation. However, event frequency in the overburden and in the waterflooded zones (mainly Sands A1, A2, B1 and B2) was
several times higher than in other zones, indicating these intervals are more likely to cause collapse. Using Petrel modeling tools, engineers included Block
VI casing collapses in the structural model. A structural map of one reservoir (right) indicates collapses occurred throughout the block and not in any
specific area. (Figure adapted from Olarte et al, reference 13.)

Casing Liners
within the field and well-collapse distribution
7-in. H40 7-in. J55 7-in. K55 7-in. N80 65/8-in. H40 65/8-in. J55 revealed an evenly spread number of events,
20 lbm/ft 20 lbm/ft 23 lbm/ft 23 lbm/ft 20 lbm/ft 20 lbm/ft
0 which indicated no areal localization (above).
The next stage of the study was a probabilistic
500
analysis to evaluate the frequency of events
1,000 based on two variables: number of casing-
collapse events and operational year. Production
1,500
engineers created probabilistic distributions by
2,000 plotting both variables for each drilling campaign
Fluid level, ft

using the Monte Carlo simulation component of


2,500
the Crystal Ball software. The results showed the
3,000 highest number of events (about 30) for the wells
ORSPR10—Michael Moody—Figure 09 drilled during the first drilling campaign occurred
3,500
in 1985, coinciding with the beginning of the first
4,000 major waterflood program.
0% wall loss 20% wall loss Interventions were more frequently per-
4,500
10% wall loss 30% wall loss formed on wells drilled during the second drilling
5,000 campaign, which meant that the timing of each
collapse event was recorded with greater cer-
> Critical fluid levels for production casing and liners of the first drilling campaign. Testing using
tainty than for wells drilled during the first drill-
TDAS software determined the critical load condition for fluid evacuation in Block VI wells from the first
drilling campaign. Casing (green box, left) and liners (red box, right) were tested first to obtain critical ing period. Therefore, the probabilistic analysis
fluid-evacuation levels based on original design specifications and again after calculations of 10%, 20% was even more reliable. It revealed that casing
and 30% wall loss. All wells for the simulation were at depths of 5,000 ft; depending on the amount of wall collapse occurred primarily during the first few
loss, a collapse was probable as borehole fluid levels fell. For example, 7-in., 20-lbm/ft API Grade H40
casing strings could collapse even at their installed condition when the fluid was evacuated past 3,200 ft. years of the waterflood project and peaked during
Wells that passed the first simulated test failed when wall loss was increased. This result indicated 1988. Investigators identified a critical period of
that corrosion or general wear-and-tear (causing wall loss) would have weakened casing or liners
to the limit of collapse when the fluid level dropped to values that had been recorded in the field.
(Figure adapted from Olarte et al, reference 13.)

12 Oilfield Review
time during which collapse frequency was high. 30
Critical collapse period
This period coincided with the most intense rates Second drilling
25
of water injection (right). campaign

Number of wells collapsed


The next stage of the study evaluated the 20
mechanical integrity of the wells in the Casabe
field. This evaluation found that for the producers 15
First drilling campaign
in Block VI collapses occurred only in the produc- 10
tion liners and casing. To uncover the root causes
for all these collapses, every event was evaluated 5
using TDAS tubular design and analysis software.
0
The application enables analysis of the mechani-

1947
1949
1951
1953
1955
1957
1959
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
cal performance of a casing in two scenarios.
Operational year
First, an initial installed state considers the origi-
nal casing-design specification and downhole con-
ditions such as temperature and pressure. The
105
next scenario includes subsequent operationally Critical collapse period
induced events such as injection and production

Injection and production rate, bbl/d


that are interpreted as forces on the casing, called
case loads. Engineers analyzed case loads for
compressional, tensional and triaxial stresses. Water injected
104
To begin, engineers needed to define the
installed condition, characterized by tempera-
ture, pressure and casing strength, for casing
Oil produced
designs in Block VI. Then they could apply case
loads to determine when a casing would fail.
103
Pressure and temperature profiles for each well
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
were calculated using logs from the Casabe field.
Operational year
Because corrosion also significantly reduces cas-
ing strength, the USI tool, which measures ultra- > History of casing-collapse frequency. The frequency of collapse events by
sonic acoustic impedance, was used to determine year was plotted for the first and second drilling campaigns (top). In 1985 the
highest frequency (28) of reported events was recorded for wells from the first
the loss of wall thickness attributed to corrosion drilling campaign. For wells from the second drilling campaign, which occurred
(see “Scanning for Downhole Corrosion,” page 42). during the waterflood period, the peak frequency (20) of reported collapses
According to the USI data, wells exhibited wall occurred in 1988. Both values correspond to the beginning of the waterflood
programs in the northern and southern areas of the Casabe field. A critical
losses between 10% and 35%. Engineers defined
10-year period from 1985 to 1995 was identified as coinciding with the highest
four corrosion profiles at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% rates of production and water injection (bottom). (Figure adapted from Olarte
wall loss. These four profiles were combined with et al, reference 13.)
pressure and temperature data to generate the
installed conditions that engineers needed to
begin simulation of operational loads. After analysis of the casing design chosen Once all critical limits and conditions for
Engineers performed hundreds of simulations for wells during the first drilling campaign, the Casabe field had been obtained, production
using the TDAS software. The first analysis con- engineers discovered that the specifications engineers ran simulations for several casing
sidered fluid evacuation, a decrease of fluid level had resulted in casing strings that were not strings with different specifications to find an
in the borehole, which can be a critical load con- robust enough to withstand fluid evacuation optimal design for future wells. The TDAS simula-
dition for casing collapse. Fluid levels in the well- combined with the wall losses observed in tions enabled them to specify an ideal model that
bore may become low during the productive life Block VI (previous page, bottom). would give an estimated service life of 20 years.
of a field for several reasons. These include low The final mechanical analysis was related to This model has been applied to all new wells
productivity, increased extraction during produc- the main operational events leading to casing col- drilled throughout the field, with a successful
tion, sand fill, decreased water injection, and lapse. The reservoir pressure profile within the reduction in the frequency of recorded casing col-
swabbing and stimulation operations, all of which ORSPR10—Michael
formation during water injection Moody—Figure
could impact lapse to less than102% of wells from 2006 to 2009.
had taken place in the Casabe field. When fluid the casing in both producers and injectors. The This is a dramatic improvement compared with
level drops, the internal pressure no longer bal- calculated increase in load from waterflooding events during the previous 60 years, in which 69%
ances the external pressure and the casing must was applied to casing that had passed critical of wells in Block VI experienced collapses.
sustain this force. The critical load condition for load conditions in the earlier simulations; the
casing collapse occurs when the differential pres- new test would determine if the additional pres-
sure is higher than the casing can withstand. sure could cause them to collapse. This analysis
indicated that waterflooding increased the like­
lihood of casing collapse.

Spring 2010 13
Schematic of First Four Sections of the Original BHA with a Concentric Bit Together with the results from the other
major milestones of the field-redevelopment
81/2-in. bit 61/4-in. miscellaneous sub 61/2-in. collar 81/2-in. OD stabilizer plan, the new casing designs enabled the alliance
to begin a new drilling campaign. The third
campaign began in 2004, and by 2007 a total of
37 wells had been drilled. The alliance wanted to
drill as efficiently as possible to improve produc-
tion, but problems were encountered during
drilling. These included stuck pipe caused by dif-
Design Improvements of Bicentric Bits and RWD ferential sticking in depleted reservoirs, prob-
lematic wiper trips resulting from highly reactive
shales and well control issues introduced by
water influx from the waterflooding.
To address the hole-stability and stuck-pipe
problems, the redevelopment team began by
improving the drilling fluid design. Drillers had
been using the KLA-GARD mud additive to pre-
vent clay hydration, but it had little to no
Pilot bit Reamer Pilot bit Reamer success at inhibiting reaction in the troublesome
Casabe shales. Consequently, Schlumberger and
28 cutters 33 cutters 26 cutters 27 cutters M-I  SWACO initiated an investigation to find a
5 nozzles 2 nozzles 6 nozzles 2 nozzles
5 blades 4 blades 4 blades 4 blades more effective shale inhibitor.
13.4-mm cutter 13.4-mm cutter 19-mm cutter 19-mm cutter Laboratory analysis of 13 different fluid addi-
tives was conducted to compare their reaction-
Modification: Stabilization
pad and guardian bearing inhibiting capabilities on Casabe lithology.
to drill out Experts deduced, from core and cuttings sam-
ples, that the clays and shales were highly reac-
tive to water; therefore, the optimal drilling fluid
must prevent water from contaminating them.
Washout log
The KLA-STOP mud system was compatible with
the Casabe shales and had the best properties for
inhibiting these reactions: Its fluid composition
includes a quaternary amine that prevents water
from penetrating target formations by depositing
a synthetic coating along the borehole wall.
When the new system was put to use, however,
it did not meet expectations, and the reactive
lithology continued to affect drilling time. Design
iterations continued until 2008; at this point
experts had increased KLA-STOP concentration
to 2% and added 3% to 4% potassium chloride
[KCl]. However, hole problems persisted and
experts concluded that another contaminant
could be affecting the mud system. Using core
samples from a wide range of wells, analysts mea-
sured pore throat sizes and laboratory specialists
performed mineralogical analysis to determine
Before After the causes.
> New versus old drilling design. Original drilling designs included a traditional polycrystalline diamond
14. For more on bicenter bits and reaming-while-drilling
compact bit (top), but swelling clays caused problems during tripping. Engineers designed a reaming- technologies: Rasheed W, Trujillo J, van Oel R,
while-drilling (RWD) BHA that incorporated a smaller pilot bit and a reamer (tan box). RWD enabled Anderson M, McDonald S and Shale L:
oversized boreholes, which helped compensate for swelling and achieve target diameters for casing. “Reducing Risk and Cost in Diverse Well Construction
Further optimizations included larger cutters and a backup set of cutters to improve ROP (blue box). A Applications: Eccentric Device Drills Concentric Hole
and Offers a Viable Alternative to Underreamers,”
change in the number of nozzles and in the nozzle diameter dramatically reduced the washouts that
paper SPE 92623, presented at the SPE/IADC
were causing cementing problems (bottom). The decision to redesign the bit was made partly to cope Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, February 23–25, 2005.
with clay reactions. A new mud system has successfully inhibited the clay, and engineers are now
reconsidering a concentric bit to improve drilling efficiency.
ORSPR10—Michael Moody—Figure 14

14 Oilfield Review
The tests indicated that concentrations of CB-1054, was drilled with the new hardware, and New Wells and Results
smectite, previously identified as the swelling tripping times were notably reduced. Engineers The sands in the Casabe field have been exten-
clay, decreased with depth. But the mineralogical used the results from the pilot well to optimize the sively developed, but it is common in mature
analysis also revealed the presence of illite and bit and BHA designs. Experts ran unconfined com- fields to find oil in unexpected places. For exam-
kaolinite, which were not included as part of the pressive-strength tests on core samples taken at ple, some zones in the Casabe field were over-
original mud system investigation. These disper- numerous depths from several wells in the Casabe looked because the presence of low-resistivity
sive clays break off into the mud upon contact field, which returned values from 585 to 845 psi pay is difficult to detect using traditional resis­
with water, causing drilling problems such as bit [4.0 to 5.8  MPa]. The results from this analysis tivity tools; alternative tools are discussed later
balling, and also increase the viscosity of the allowed the engineers to optimize the number of in this section. Other zones in the field were inac-
mud, making mud-weight curves less accurate. A primary cutters and to introduce backup cutters cessible because a lack of structural data made
more complete understanding of downhole con- on the drill bit (previous page). the drilling risk too high. Using structural infor-
ditions enabled engineers to design a new mud Since the introduction of new technologies mation acquired by the alliance, the operator is
system with improved KLA-GARD B and IDCAP D and updated practices, the drilling problems now developing the highest section of the Casabe
clay inhibitors. KCl was completely removed from faced in the Casabe field have been resolved. field’s anticline structure in the B sands within
the fluid, helping to reduce environmental Better quality holes have increased the effective- Block V.
impact and cleanup. ness of cementing jobs. Tripping times have been Only one well in this block, the wildcat
The mineralogy study showed why drilling in reduced by more than 22%. Higher ROPs have Casabe-01 located downdip in the flank of the
the waterflooded zones was obviously problem- been achieved with updated cutter configura- anticline, exhibited oil shows in the thin sands
atic. Existing methods to avoid water influx tions and a PowerPak XP extended power steer- within the attic zones, but these zones had never
involved shutting in several injection wells up to able hydraulic motor (below). The majority of been tested. A new well, located updip of the
several weeks before drilling to reduce pressure. new wells in the Casabe field have directional wildcat well, was proposed to develop the A
In one extreme case 40 injectors were taken off S-type boreholes deeper than 5,200 ft [1.6 km] to sands. After reviewing the new 3D seismic data
line to drill just 2 wells, which ultimately reduced avoid collisions with existing and new wells or to and the projected length of the oil leg, geoscien-
production rates. reach reserves in fault zones. tists revised the total depth for this newly pro-
Experts looked into the different ways they posed well and suggested deepening it to reach
could reduce water influx while also limiting any the B sands.
effect on the waterflood programs. Instead of
shutting in injectors they could increase produc-
tion in layers that were drilling targets, even if
this meant producing large volumes of water. In
addition, connected producers that were cur-
rently shut in could be reactivated, and if they 18
Average drilling time
had no pump, there was a possibility that enough for year
pressure had built up for them to flow naturally. 15
Only after these steps were taken and deemed
insufficient would the alliance consider shutting 12
Number of days

in injectors.
Optimized wells in 2009, average depth 5,400 ft
Another part of the investigation involved 9
reducing injector shut-in time. To avoid water 2010
inflow, injectors were taken off line 15 days 6
before drilling commenced. However, it was
found that to avoid water delivery from the injec- 3
tor to the drilling location, injectors could be
shut in just before the drill bit penetrated the 0
2004 to 2006

2007

2008

2009

CB 1125D

CB 1127D

CB 1126D

CB 1271D

CB 1140D

CB 1129D

CB 1251

CB 1110D

CB 1147D

CB 1184D

CB 1137D

connected zone. Also, with the production-based


pressure-reducing measures, injector shut-in
time was reduced from seven days to just two,
Well
depending on the level of production.
The continuing difficulties with stuck pipe and
> Drilling results. The new RWD and bicenter bit drilling technologies have
tripping problems led the alliance to seek other
had18a considerable impact, improving hole quality, reducing total trip times,
options. After initial analysis of the drilling-related increasing ROP, minimizing stuck-pipe risk, reducing backreaming operations,
issues, engineers selected a bicenter bit and ream- and improving the quality of primary cementing jobs. Average drilling-job times
ing-while-drilling technologies.14 A pilot well, have15been cut15.3
from 15.3 days to 6.8 days.
Average drilling time, days

13.5
12
11.4
10.5
9

6 6.8

Spring 2010 3 15

0
Resistivity Data from this new well included chromatog- LWD tool indicated the compartment was at
Invaded Zone raphy performed on mud from the B sands, original pressure. Interpretation of data from
0.1 ohm.m 1,000
which revealed well-defined oil shows, and log the CMR-Plus combinable magnetic resonance
AIT 90-in. Array
0.1 ohm.m 1,000
interpretation confirmed the oil presence. This logs confirmed movable oil (below). The interval
AIT 60-in. Array oil is due to a lack of drainage from the updip was completed and the well produced 211 bbl/d
0.1 ohm.m 1,000 wells. New data acquired with the PressureXpress [34 m3/d] of oil with no water cut. Historically,
AIT 30-in. Array
0.1 ohm.m 1,000
AIT 20-in. Array New well
0.1 ohm.m 1,000
AIT 10-in. Array Lithology
0.1 ohm.m 1,000 Bulk Density
T2 Distribution Water
3
Permeability 1.65 g/cm 2.65 0 29
Neutron Porosity Oil
Timur-Coates T2 Log Mean
60 % 0 0.3 Sandstone
0.1 mD 1,000 ms 3,000
Schlumberger-Doll Research Small-Pore Porosity T2 Cutoff Bound Water
Depth,
ft 0.1 mD 1,000 Capillary-Bound Fluid 0.3 ms 3,000 Clay 1
4,850

A sands
4,883 to 4,892 ft
MD

B sands

4,900
4,904 to 4,922 ft
MD

4,950

2,000
PressureXpress data Hydrostatic Normal gradient
2,500

3,000
Fault 120 Hydrostatic
5,000 3,500
Depth, ft

Depleted
sands
Fault 130
4,000

4,500

5,000
Original pressure
5,500
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500
Pressure, psi

> Discovering the unexpected in Well CSBE 1069. A new well drilled to reach Sand B in Block V (right) reflected a change in previous practices; in this area
the B sands were considered depleted and invaded by water. After interpretation of mud logs indicated oil shows in two locations, Schlumberger acquired
pressure and nuclear magnetic resonance logs in the low-resistivity intervals. Interpretation of the CMR-Plus log (left) confirmed the presence of oil
(green-shaded areas Track 4). Pressure data (inset middle) indicated the bypassed oil zones were at original reservoir pressure (blue box) along the
normal gradient.

16 ORSPR10—Michael Moody—Figure 12 Oilfield Review


Density Porosity
40 % 0
Resistivity Free-Fluid Taper Density Porosity
Invaded Zone 40 % 0 30 % 0
0.1 ohm.m 1,000 Free Fluid CMR-Plus Bulk Water
AIT 60-in. Array 40 % 0 30 % 0 Resistivity
0.1 ohm.m 1,000 CMR-Plus 3-ms Porosity T2 Distribution CMR-Plus Bulk Fluid Spontaneous Potential Invaded Zone
AIT 30-in. Array 40 % 0 0 29 30 % 0 60 mV –40 0.2 ohm.m 20
0.1 ohm.m 1,000 Total CMR-Plus Porosity T2 Log Mean Bound Water Computed Gamma Ray AIT 60-in. Array Bulk Density
Permeability 40 % 0 0.3 ms 3,000 0 gAPI 140 0.2 ohm.m 20 1.65 g/cm3 2.65
Moved Water
Depth, Timur-Coates Small-Pore Porosity T2 Cutoff Caliper AIT 30-in. Array Neutron Porosity
ft 0.1 mD 1,000 Capillary-Bound Fluid 0.3 ms 3,000 Oil 6 in. 16 0.2 ohm.m 20 60 % 0

5,200

Free water

5,250

5,300

Free oil

5,350

> Log confirmation of low-resistivity pay. Well CSBE 1060 log interpretation indicated shaly sand zones with
salinities exceeding 50,000 ppm NaCl. Identifying oil in the presence of high-salinity formation water may be difficult
because resistivity measurements cannot be used to distinguish the two (red-shaded area in Resistivity track).
Shaly sands have higher water content than sand alone, and an alternative to resistivity measurements is needed.
The CMR-Plus tool, which measures relaxation time of hydrogen molecules to identify oil and water, uncovered the
presence of oil (Free oil, red-shaded area). Based on these results the interval was tested and returned clean oil,
confirming low-resistivity pay in the Casabe field.

experts did not look for oil downdip in the Interpretation of CMR-Plus data suggested the efficiency of the waterflood programs in the
Casabe field because the deeper formation had movable oil corresponding to the oil shows in the field and discovered additional oil reserves using
been flagged as a water zone. mud logs. Based on these results, the operator newly acquired data.
The field provided another surprise during a decided to test the well, which produced The collaboration between Ecopetrol SA and
routine replacement of a retired well. A produc- 130 bbl/d [21 m3/d] of oil with no water cut. After Schlumberger has been notably successful and
ing well had been mechanically damaged as a six months, cumulative production reached the partnership is currently scheduled to con-
result of sand production induced by the water- 11,000 bbl [1,750 m3] with no water cut. These tinue the Casabe story until 2014. Production
flood. A replacement was planned using improved values represent additional reserves where none wells are being added in the newly defined south-
design factors garnered from the casing-collapse were expected. ern Casabe field, enabled by the 2007 3D seismic
investigation. The operator drilled the well into The Casabe field redevelopment project is survey and improved logging methods. The new
the C sands for coring purposes. Before drilling, now in its sixth year, revitalizing the mature oil drilling practices and waterflood technologies are
this zone was considered to be water prone, but field. Figures gathered at the beginning of 2010 expected to achieve commercial production rates
during drilling, mud log interpretation suggested show the Casabe alliance has increased overall for many years to come. —MJM
there might be oil in these deeper sands. Log ORSPR10—Michael
production rates by nearlyMoody—Figure 13
250% since 2004. This
interpretation was inconclusive because of the improvement is due in part to a fast-track study
low resistivity; a new approach was required to that quickly identified the root causes impacting
identify movable oil (above).

Spring 2010 17

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