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    Page34 105

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    of 39
    WME CHAPTER 4 Structural Form From the structural engineer's point of view. the determination of the structural form of a high-rise building would ideally involve only the selection and arrange- meat of the msjor structural elements to resist most efficiently the various com binations of gravity ané horizontal loading. In reality. however. the choice of structural form is usually strongly influenced by other than structural considera tions. The range of factors that has to be taken into account in deciding the struc- ‘ural form includes the intemal planning. the material and method of construction, the external architectural treatment, the planned location and routing of the service systems, the nature and magnitude of the horizontal loading. and the height and proportions of the building. The taller and more slender a building, the more im- portant the structural factors become, and the more necessary it is to choose an appropriate structural form. In high-rise buildings designed for a similar purpose and of the same material ‘ana neight, the eteiency of the structures can be compared roughly by their weight per unit floor area. In these terms, the weight of the floor framing is influenced mainly by the Noor span and is virtually independent of the building height, while the weight of the columns, considering gravity loed only, is approximately pro- ponional ro the height (Fig. 4.1). Bulldings of upto 10 stores designed for gravity loading can usually accommodate wind loading without any increase in member sizes, because of the typically allowed increase in permissible stresses in Design Codes for the combined loading. Fos buildings of more than 10 stories, however, the additional material required for wind resistance increases nonlinearly with height so that for buildings of 50 stories and more the selection of an appropriate structural form may be critical for the economy, and indeed the viability, of the building. A major consideration affecting the structural for is the function of the build- ing. Modem office buildings call for large open floor spaces that can be subdivided with lightweight partitioning to suit the individual tenant's needs. Consequently, the stricture’s main vertical components are generally arranged, as far as possible around the perimeter of the plan and, internally, in groups around the elevator. stair, and service shafts (Fig. 4.2). The floors span the areas between the exterior and interior components. leaving large columa-free areas avsilable for ofice plan ring. The services are distributed horizontally in each story above the par and are usually concealed ina ceiling space. The extra depth required by this space 34 Weight oF steel (Ib/squtt) % “Floor, froning 6 10 2 90 40 50 6 70 @6 90 100 110 Fig. 4.1. Weight ofstet in tall buildings, causes the typical story height in an office building to be 11 ft-6 in. (3.5 m) oF In a residential building or hoiel, accommodation is subdivided permanenily and usually repetitively from floor to floor. Therefore. continucusly vertical col- ums and walls can be distributed over the plan to form, or fit within, the pamti> tioning (Fig. 4.3). The services can then be run vertically, adjacent 10 the walls and columns or in separate shafts, to emerge in esch story either very close 10 where required, or to be distrbuied horizontally from there 10 where required, long ove coridor ceiling spaces. Wi tie exception oF the comdors, hereTore, a cziling space is not required, and the soffit of the slab can serve as the ceiling, This allows the story heights in a typical residential building or hore! to be Kept down to approximately 8f-§ in. (2.7m). A 40-story residential building is, there= fore, generally of significantly less height than a 40-story office building. In addition to satisfying the previously mentioned nonstructural requiremens, the principal objectives in choosing & building's structural form are 0 arrange to suppor the gravity, dead and live, loading, and to wesst at all lvels the external Fig. 4.2. Plan of office block itube-type). ensra) care WME CHAPTER 4 Structural Form From the structural engineer's point of view. the determination of the structural form of a high-rise building would ideally involve only the selection and arrange- ment of the major structural elements to resist most efficiently the various com- binations of gravity and horizontal loading. In realty. however. tke choice of structural form is usually strongly influenced by other than structural considera- tions. The range of factors that has to be taken into account in deciding the struc- tural form includes the internal planning, the material and method of construction. the external architectural treatment, the planned location and routing of the service systems, the nature and magnitude of the horizontal loading, and the height and proportions of the building, The taller and more slender & building. the more im- Portant the siructural factors become, and the more necessary it's to choose an appropriate structural form. In high-rise buildings designed for a similar purpose and of the same material and height, the efficiency of the structures can be compared roughly by their weight per unit floor area. In these terms, the weight of the floor framing is influenced ‘mainly by the floor span and is vinually independent ofthe building height, while the weight of the columns, considering gravity load only, is approximately pro- portional to the height (Fig. 4.1). Buildings of up to 10 stories designed for gravity Toading can usually accommocate wind loading without any increase in member sizes, because of the typically allowed increase in permissible stresses in Design Codes for the combined loading. For buildings of more than 10 stories, however, the additional material required for wind resistance increases nonlinearly with height so that for buildings of 50 stories and more the selection of an appropriate siructural form may be critical for the economy, and indeed the viability, of the building. ‘A major consideration affecting the structural form is the function of the build- ing. Modem office buildings call for large open floor spaces that can be subdivided with lightweight partitioning to suit the individual tenant's needs. Consequently, the structure's main vertical components are generally arranged. as faras possible, around the perimeter of the plan and, internally, in groups arourd the elevator. stair, and service shafts (Fig. 4.2). The floors span the arcas between the exterior and interior components leaving large column-free areas available for office pla: ning. The services are distributed horizontally in each story above the panitioning and are usually concealed in. ceiling space. The extra depth required by this space 34 —" ae ey “ Teale zu ( 2 wt Ze me: aie Floor frano, 0 2 10 2 30 «80 6 70 8 90 100 110 Fig, 4.1. Weight of stet in tall uidings.. causes the typical story height in an office building to be 11 ft-6 in. (3.5 m) or nore Ino residential building or hotel, accommodation is subdivided permanendly and usually repetitively from floor to floor. Therefore, continuously venieal col= Uumss and walls can be cistnbuted over the plan to form, or fit within, the pamti= Woning (Fig, 4.3). The services can then de run vertically, adjacent to the Walls and columns or in separate shafts, 10 emerge in each story either very close to where requited, or to be distrbuted horizontally from there to where required, song dhe comidorcelling spaces. Wit the excepiton of the cormdors, therefore, ceiling space is not required, and the soffit of the slab ean serve asthe ceiling. This allows the story hejghs ina typical residential building or hotel t@ be kept down t approximately 8-8 in. (2.7m). A 40-story residential building is, there= fore, generaly of significantly les height than a 40-story office building. In addition to satisfying the previously mentioned nonstructural requirements, the principal objectives in choosing 2 building's strctural form are to arrange to suppor the gravity, dead and live, loading, and © resist at all levels the external Perimeter colunns 1 clear Floor sence BxEg Fig.4.2 Plan of office bleck (tube-type) Fig. 4.3 Plan of residential block. horizontal load shear, moment, and torque with adequate strength and stifness ‘These requirements should be achieved, of course, as economically as possible With regard to horizontal loading, a high-rise building is essentially « vertical cantilever. This may comprise one or more individually ating vertical cantilevers, such as shear walls orcores, each bendiag about its own axis and acting in unison only through the horizontal in-plane rigidity of the Noor slabs. Alternatively, the cantilever may comprise a number of columns or walls that are mobilized '0 act Compositely. to some degree. as the chords of a single massive cantilever, by vertically shear-esistant connections such as bracing cr beams. The lateral stiff ness.and strength of both of these basi cantilever systems may he farther enhanced ifthe major vertical elements have different free deflection characteristics. in which case they will interact horizontally through the connecting slabs and beams. Within the constraints ofthe selected structural form, advantage may be taken of locating the main vertical members on plan so that the dead load compressive stresses suppress the lateral load tensile stresses. thereby avoiding the possibilty of net tension occurring in the vertical members and uplift on the foundations Particular emphasis is placed in some types of structural form on routing the grav- ity load to the outer vertical members to achieve this purpose. Steel framing has played a pioneering role in the history of tall buildings. Itis appropriate for all heights of structure and, because ofits high strength-o-weight ratio, it has always been the material of consiruction forthe tallest buildings. It allows the possibility of longer floor spans, and of partial prefabrication, leading to reduced site work and more mpd erection. its disadvantages, however, include Aeeding fire and rust protection, being expensive to clad, and requiring costly di- ‘agonal bracing or rigié-frame connections. Ate the earlier use of steel through the fist half of the century. in the form of braced construction, it has evclved in ts structural forms somewhat in parallel with reinforced concrete 0 include rigid-frame, shear wall, wall-frame, tube and braced-tube, and outrigger types of arrangements, as well as in forms more par- ticular to stel such as the suspended siructure and the highly efficient massive space frame — GS CTRTURNET | Se Reinforced concrete tall buildings were introduced approximately two decades after the frst stcel tail buildings. Understandably. the earber concrete building, svructures were influenced in form by the skeletal, column and girder arrangements ff their steel counterparts, but they differed in depending on the inherent rigid- frame action of concrete construction to resist horizontal loading. Subsequently, the Mat plac and flat slab forms were introcuced and these. with the moment. resistant frame. continued as the main reperioire of reinforced concrete high-rise structural form until the late 1940s, ‘A major step forward in reinforced concrete high-rise structural form came with the introduction of shear walls for resisting horizontal loading. This was the first ficant developments in the siructural forms of concrete high-rise buildings, freeing them from the previous 20- to 25-story height limitations of the Figid-frame and flat plate systems. The innovation and refinement of these new forms, together with the development of higher strength concretes, has allowed the height of conerete buildings to reach within sriking distance of 100 stories. Of the following structural forms, some are more appropriate to stec! and others to reinforced concrete: many are suitable for either material, while a few allow or demand a combination of materials in the same structure. They are deseribed in a roughly historical sequence. ‘The structural form of tall buildings, as discussed so far, has concemed mainly the arrangement of the primary vertical components and their interconnections. This topic would not be complete, however. without including consideration of floor systems, because some of them play an integral part with the vertical com: Ponents in resisting the lateral. as well asthe gravity. lading The last part of the ‘chapter is devoted, therefore, to 2 brief review of the floor systems used jn tall buildings. Many of these are commonly used also in low-rise buildings but are included here for completeness. ina senes of si 4.1. STRUCTURAL FORM 4.1.1, Braced-Frame Structures In braced frames the lateral resistance of the structure it provided by diagonal members that. together with the girders, form the "web" of the vertical truss, with the columns acting as the ““chords"” (Fig. 4.4). Because the horizontal shear fon the building is resisted by the horizontal components of the axial tensile or ‘compressive actions in the web members. bracing systems are highly efficient in resisting lateral loads. Bracing is generally regarded as an exclusively steel system because the diag- ‘nals are inevitably subjected to tension for one or the other directions of lateral loading. Concrete bracing of the double diagonal form is sometimes used. how- ver, with cach diagonal designed as a compression member to camry the full ex- temal shear. The efficiency of bracing, in being able to produce a laterally very stiff structure for a minimum of additional material, makes it an economical structural form for Chard mars yt mers Single ¢sagone? Ooubte siagons) — ee + > Story hetght toee ig. 4A Braced frame—showing diferent types of bracing any height of building, up to the very tallest. An additional advantage of fully twiangulated bracing is that the girders usually participate only minimally in the lateral bracing action: consequently the floor framing éesign is independent of its level in the stricture and, therefore. can be repetitive up the height of the building with obvious economy indesign and fabrication. A major isadvantageof diagonal bracing is that it obstructs the internal planning and the location of windows and door. For this wacan heared hents are usvally incorporated internally along wall and panition lines. and especially arourd elevator. stair, and service shafts, An other drawback is thatthe diagonal connections are expensive to fabricate and erect The traditional use of bracing has been in story-heigh!. bay-width modules (Fig. 4.4) that are fully concealed in the finished building. More recently, however, extemal larger scale bracing. extending aver many stories and bays (Fig. 4.5), has been used to produce not only highly efficient structres, but aesthetieally attrc- tive buildings Bracing and its modes of behavior are described in more detail in Chapter 6 4.1.2 Rigid-Frame Structures Rigid-frame structures consist of columns and girders joined by moment-esistant connections. The lateral stifiness of a rigid-frame bent depends on the bending sttiness of the columns, girders, and connections in the plane of the bent (Fig. 4.6). The rigid frame’s principal advantage is its open rectangular arrangement, Which allows freedom of planning and easy fiting of dcors and windows. If used as the only source of lateral resistance in a building, in its typicel 20 ft (6 m)-30 (9 m) bay size, igi framing is ezoromie only for buildings up to about 25 SMories. Above 25 stories the relatively high lateral flexibility of the frame calls for ‘uneconomical large members in order to control the deft Mv os sy TN Fig. 4.5. Large-scale baced fre. Rigid-frame construction is ideally suited for reinforced concrete buildings be- cause of the inherent rigidity of reinforced concrete join. The rigidrame form is also used for steel frame buildings, but moment-esistant connections in steel tend to be costly, The sizes of the columns and girders a any level of arigid frame ate directly influenced by the magnitude of the extemal shear at that level, and they therefore increase toward the base. Consequently. the desi framing cannot be repetitive as itis in some braced frames. A further result is that sometimes it is not possible in the lowest stories to accommodate the required depth of girder within the normal ceiling space. bt Ve dit bed TT Fig. 4.6 Rigid frame. Gravity loading also is resisted by the rigid-frame action. Negative moments are induced in the girders adjacent t0 the columns causing the mid-span positive ‘moments to be significantly less than in a simply supported span. In structures in which gravity loads dictate the design, economies in member sizes that arise from this effect tend to be offset by the higher cost of the rigid joints. While rigid frames of a typical scale that serve alone to resist lateral loading have an economic height limit of about 25 stories, smaller seale rigid frames in the form of a perimeter tube. or typically scaled rigid frames in combination with shezr walls or braced bents, can be economic up to much greater heights. These structural forms are described later in this chapter. The detailed behavior of rigid frames is diseusted in Chapter 7 4.1.3. Infilled-Frame Structures In many countries infilled frames are the most usual form of construction for {all buildings of up co 30 stories inheight. Columa and girder framing of reinforced. concrete, or sometimes steel, is infled by panels of brickwork, blockwork. or castin-place concrete ‘When an infiled frame is subjected to lateral loading, the infill behaves effec tively as a strut along its compression diagonal wo brace the frame (Fig. 4.7). Because the infills serve also as external walls or internal panitions, the system is ‘an economical way of stiffening and strengthening the structure. ‘The complex interactive behavior of the infill in the frame, and the rather ran- dom quality of masonry, has made it difficule1o predict with accuracy the stiffness. and strength of an inflled frame. Indeed, at the tine of miiting, aw wetlod Of analyzing inflled frames for their design has gained general acceptance. For these reasons, and because of the fear of the unwitting removal of bracing infills at some time in the life of the building, the use of the infills for bracing tall buildings has ‘mainly been supplementary to the rigid-frame action of concrete frames. Aa cut- line of a method for designing inflled frames is given in Chapter 8. eC st 7 Te Osagona) strat mt atetonrert inet Fig. 4.7 Infilled frame. AAA Flat-Pl ind Flat-Siab Structures: ‘The flar-plate structure is the simplest and most logical of all structural forms in that it consists of uniform slabs. of $-8 in. (12-20 em) thickness, connected rig- ‘idly to supporting columns (Fig. 4.27). The system. which is essentially of rein- forced concrete, is very economical in having a flat soft requiring the most un- complicated formwork and, because the soffit can be used as the csling, in ereating ‘A minimum possible floor depth, Under latera! loading the behavior of a flat-plate stricture is similar to that of ‘rigid frame, that is, its lateral resistance depends on the flexural stifiness of the ‘components and their connections, wit the slabs corresponding to the girders of the ngid frame. It is particularly appropriate for apartment and hotel construction ‘where ceiling spaces are not required and where the slab may serve directly as the ceiling. The flat-plae structure is economical for spans of up 0 about 25 ft (8 mi), above which drop panels can be added to create a flatslab structure (Fig. 4.28) for spars of up 10 38 fi (12 m) Buildings that depend entirely for ther lateral resistance on fla-plate or flat slab action are economical up to about 25 stores. Previously. however, when Code requirements for wind design were less stringent, many flat-plate buildings were cconsiructed in excess of 40 stones, and are still performing satisfactonly, 4.4.5 Shear Wall Structures Concrete or masonry continuous vertical walls may cere both architecturally ae partitions and structurally to carry gravity and lateral loading. Their very hi plane stiffness and strengih makes them ideally suited for bracing tall buildings. In a shear wall structure, such walls are entirely responsible forthe lateral load resistance of the building. They act as vertical cantilevers in the form of separate planar walls, and 2s onplanar assemblies of connected walls arourd elevator, stair, and service shafts (Fig. 4.8). Because they are much stiffer horizontally than rigid frames, shear wall sructures can be economical up to about 35 stories. In contrast to rigid frames, the shear walls’ solid form tends to restrict planning where open intemal spaces are required. They are well suited, however, to hotels and residential buildings where the floor-by-floor repetitive planning allows the walls to be vertically continuous and where they serve simultaneously as excellent acoustic and fire insulators between rooms and apartments. 1f, in low- to medium-rise buildings, shear walls are combined with frames, it 4s reasonable to assume that the shear walls attract all the lateral loading so that the frame may be designed for only gravity loading. It is especially important in shear wall structures to try to plan the wall layout so that the lateral load tensile stresses are suppressed by the gravity load stresses. This allows them to be de~ signed to have only the minimum reinforcement. Shear wal structures have been shown to perfonn well in earthquakes, for which case ductility becomes an im- portant consideration in their cesign, The behavior and methods of analysis of shear wall structures are Giscussed in detail in Chapter 9. Shear was \/ XR A\ BN \ x LeveL LLL Ly, LELFIF IDI FITTS LEZ AAT AATAA. ‘ee QM Z. Me SA Fig. 48 Shear wall structure Coupled Wall Structures. A coupled wall stricture is a particular, but very common, form of shear wall stricture with its own special problems of analysis and design. It consists of two or more shear walls inthe samme plane, or almost the same plane, connected at the floor levels by beams or stiff slabs (Fig. 4.9). The effect of the shear-resistant connecting members is ta cause the set of walle to behave in their plane partly as a composite cantilever. bending about the commen ‘ceatrcida axis ofthe walls. This esults in a horizontal stiffness very much greater than if the walls scted as a set of separate uncoupled cantilevers ‘Coupled walls oceur often in residential construction where laterl-load resist ‘ant cross walls, which separate the apertments, consist of in-plane coupled pairs, ‘or trios, of shear walls between which there are corridor or window openings. Coupled shear walls are considered in detail in Chapter 10. Although shear walls are obviously more appropriate for concrete construction, they have occasionally been constricted of heavy steel plate. inthe style of mas- sive vertical piate or box girders, as parts of steel frame structures. These have been designed for locations of extremely heavy shear, such as at the base of ele- Vator shafts. 4.1.6 Wall-Frame Structures ‘When shear walls are combined with rigid frames (Fig. 4.10) the walls, which {end to deflect in a flexural configuration, and the frames, which tend to deflect in WARE E SON a Fig. 4.9 Coupled shear wall stricture, Shear volts Rigid frames Fig. 4.10, Wall-rame structure ‘shear mode. are constrained to adopt a common deflected shape by the horizontal Tigidity of the girders and slabs. As a consequence, the walls and frames interact horizontally, especially atthe top. to produce a stifer ard stronger structure, The interacting wall-frame combination is appropriate for buildings in the 40- 10 {60-story range, well beyond that of rigid frames at shear walls alone. An additional, less well known feature of the wall-frame structure is that, in a carefully “tuned” structure, the shear in the frame can be made approximately Uniform over the height, allowing the floor framing to be repetitive Although the wall-frame structure is usually perceived as a concrete structural form. with shear walls and concrete frames, astel counterpart using braced frames and steel rigid frames offers similar benefits of horizontal interaction. ‘The braced frames behave with an overall flexural tendency to interact withthe shear mode of the rigid frames. Deuailed descriptions of the behavior and methods of analysis for wall-frame structures are given in Chapter 11. 4.1.7 Framed-Tube Structures ‘The lateral resistance of framed-tube structures is provided by very stiff moment. ‘sisting frames that form a "tube" around the perimeter of the building. The frames consist of closely spaced columns, 6-12 fi (2-4 m) between centers. joined by deep spandrel girders (Fig. 4.11). Although the tube carries all the lateral load- ing, the gravity loading is shared between the tube and interior columns or walls ‘When lateral loading acts, the perimeter frames sligned in the ditection of loading act as the "webs" of the massive tube cantilever, and those normal tothe direction of the loading act as the ‘‘flanges.”" ‘The close spacing of the columns throughout the height of the structure is usu= ally unacceptable at the entrance level. The columns are therefore merged, or ter- ‘minated on a transfer beam, a few stories above the base so that only a few, larger, ‘more widely spaced columns continue to the base. The tube form was developed ‘riginally for buildings of rectangular plan, and probably its most efficient use is in that shape. It is appropriate, however, for other plan shapes. and has cccasion- ally besn used in circular and triangular configurations. ‘The tube is suitable for both steel and reinforced concrete construction and has been used for buildings ranging from 40 to more then 100 stories. The highly repetitive patter of the frames lends itself 10 prefabrication in stel, and to the use of rapidly movable gang forms in concrete, which make for rapid construction. ‘The framed tube has been one of the most significant modern developments in high-rise structural form. It offers a relatively efficient, easily constricted struc- ture, appropriate for use up to the greatest of heights. Aesthetically, the tube's extemally evident form is regarded with mixed enthusiasm; some praise the logic ofthe cleanly exprested structure while others extiize the grd-like facade as small- windowed and uninterestingly repetitious, The tube structure’s structural efficiency, although high, still leaves scope for improvement because the “flange” frames tend to suffer from ‘shear lag'"; this and entire YateralYousing Bere _SADOD 300000 TED Figs fll Pramedaube, ‘results in the mid-face “flange” columns being less stressed than the comer col- lumns and, therefore, not contributing as fully as they could 10 the flange action. Tube-in-Tube or Hull-Core Structures. ‘This variation of the framed tube consists of an outer framed tube, the “hull.” together with an internal elevaior and service core (Fig. 4.12). The hull and core act jointly in resisting both gravity and lateral loading. In a ste! structure the core may consist of braced frames ‘whereas in @ concrete structure it would consist of an assembly of shear walls, ‘To some extent, the outer framed tube and the inner core interact horizontally 45 the shear and flexure components of a wall-frame structure, with the benefit of increased lateral stifiness. However, the structural (ube usually adopts a highly dominant role because of its much greater structural depth Bundled-Tube Structures. This structural form is notable in its having been ‘sed for the Sears Tower in Chicago—ihe world’s tallest building. The Sears Tower ‘consists of four paraliel rigid steel frames in each onhogonal ditection, intercon= nected to form nine “bandied” tubes (Fig. 4.13a). As in the single-tube structure, the frames in the direction of lateral loading serve as “webs” of the vertical can tilever, with the normal frames acting as “flanges.” {Core (or sonar tuba) Hal} (or exter tube) 3 & i-ff | \ = 3 S sf } seb uy 2% Fig. 4.12 Tube-intube 2 ‘The introduction of the internal webs greatly reduces the shear lg in the flanges: Ba = ‘consequently their columns are more evenly stressed than in the single-tube struc. to) L ture, and their contribution to the lateral stifiness is greater. This allows columns — £ of the fumes to be spiced further apart ard 10 be lest obtrisive. In the Seam PhO} t+-i-e EF Tower, sdvantage was taken of the bundled form to discontinue some ofthe tubes, and So reduce the plan of te building at stages up the height Fig. 413b, c, and ®) Braced-Tube Structures. Another way of improving the efficiency of the framed tube, thereby increasing is potential for use to even greater heights 2s well as allowing greater spacing between the columns, is to add diagonal bracing to the faces of the tube. This arrangement was fist used in a sieel structure in 1969, in (Chicago's John Hancock Building (Fig. 4.14), and ina reinforced concrete struc. ture in 1985, in New York's 780 Third Avenue Building (Fig. 4.15). Inthe sce! tube the bracing traverses the faces of the rigid frames, whereas in the conerete structure the bracing is formed by a diagonal pawtem of concrete window-size Panels, poured integrally with the frame. Because the diagonals of a braced tube are connected 10 the columns at each intersection, they virally eliminate the effects of shear lag in both the fange and + 67-90 Two ads ona cae sto an = Fig. 4.14 steet-braced tube, Lindow spensoas agers) br omittad 9 create _ AA UEVRUCTURAL FORM Se ‘web frames. As a result, the stricture behaves under lateral loading more like a traced frame, with greatly diminished bending inthe members ofthe frames, Cons ‘sequently, the spacing of the columns can be larger and the depth of the spans less, thereby allowing lager size windows than inthe conventional tube structure, In the braved-tube structure the bracing contributes also to the improved per- formance of the tube in carrying gravity loading: differences between gravity 1oad stresses in the columns are evened out by the braces transferring axial loading from, the more highly tothe less highly stressed columns. 4.1.8 Outrigger-Braced Structures “This efficient structural form consists of a central core, comprising either braced frames or shear walls, with horizomal cantilever "outrigger" trusses or girders connecting the core to the outer columns (Fig. 4.16a). When the structure is loaded horizontally, vertical plane rotations of the core are restrained by the cutriggers through tension in the windward columns and compression in the leeward columns (Fig. 4.16b). The effective structural depth of the building is greatly increased, thus augmenting the lateral stiffness of the building and reducing the lateral de- fiections end moments in the core, In effect, the outriggers join the columns to the core to make the structure behave as a partly composite cantilever. Perimeter columns, other than those connected directly to the ends of the outs riggers, can also be made to participate in the outrigger action by joining all the perimeter colurmns with a horizontal russ or girder around the face of the building. butrseger Sraced | @ cs) Fig. 4.16 (a) Outrigger-braced sructure; (b outigger-braced structure ander load, ‘at the outrigger level. ‘The large. often two-story, depths of the outrigger and pe- Fimeter trusses make it desirable to locate them within the plant levels in the build- ing, ‘The degree fo which the perimeter columns of an outrigger siructure behave

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