Sustainability 11 06557 v2

sustainability
Article
The Evolutionary Use of Curved Wood in Korean
Traditional Architecture
Seong Lyong Ryoo and Hyun Chul Youn *
Department of Architecture, Korea University, Anam-ro 145, Seoul 136-713, Korea; ryoosl@korea.ac.kr
* Correspondence: nadaeworld@korea.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-10-7126-1956

Received: 5 November 2019; Accepted: 13 November 2019; Published: 20 November 2019
Abstract: Various types of curved wooden have always been used in traditional Korean architecture.
One component is a curvaceous column with varying thicknesses, and the others are curved beams or
girders that are needed to support the roof and present diverse curvature. By examining the historical
alteration of the parts and shapes of these curved members, it is possible to identify the sustainable
aspects of Korean traditional architecture and infer the influence of the historical background on
forming the sustainability of the architecture. To be specific, while the Goryeo Dynasty (10–14 C)
showed an aesthetic summit of temple architecture in terms of extravagant curved wooden members
precisely calculated and designed under the influence of Buddhism and aristocracy, the early Joseon
Dynasty (15–16 C) presented restrained curve forms of wooden members with fewer materials and a
faster process due to Neo-Confucianism, which emphasized austerity. After tremendous social crisis
and two wars, the mid-Joseon Dynasty (17–18 C) showed creative indigenous houses with naturally
curved timbers, minimizing the manufacturing process and maximizing the pragmatic functionality
of the space under the influence of the wars and Silhak (the Realist School of Confucianism). In
addition, the late Joseon Dynasty (19–20 C) presented office buildings with strengthened dynamic
shapes of the naturally curved timbers as symbolic expression, which is an expanded concept beyond
the functionality. In Korean traditional architecture, curved wood members have been used without
interruption—although in varying degrees depending on social and economic situations—and have
continued to be one of the characteristics of Korean architecture.
Keywords: curved wooden members; restrained curve forms; naturally curved timbers; functionality;
symbolic expression
1. Introduction
Korea has a long history of wood architecture. The term ‘adaptable to nature’ tends to be a
common modifier to express the characteristics of Korean traditional architecture [1]. For Korean cases,
the concept of convergence and harmony with nature [2] has also been emphasized to describe the
very nature of Korean traditional wooden buildings. It is true that Korean wood architecture has
uniquely evolved, in a way adapting and revealing the materiality of wood. While they share some
common features over time, the wooden structures have different ideas and styles according to the
time, as shown between those of the Goryeo (10–14 C) and Joseon (15–20 C) Dynasties [3].
The differences between the times have been also manifested in paintings, crafts, and many other
artworks as well. Perhaps, pottery is among the most notable examples to understand the differences.
A Korean daily newspaper once ran an advertisement of an exhibition containing a picture of Goryeo
celadon and Joseon white porcelain, which effectively showed the different aesthetics of the different
times (Figure 1). While the Goryeo celadon shows elaborate and splendid expression in symmetrical
form, the Joseon white porcelain presents simple and plain aspects with asymmetrical proportion. The
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557; doi:10.3390/su11236557 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557 2 of 16
form, the Joseon white porcelain presents simple and plain aspects with asymmetrical proportion.
The expressional differences of form come from various factors such as religion, ideology,
expressional differences of form come from various factors such as religion, ideology, international
international relations with the adjacent countries, and collective public tastes of the time [4].
relations with the adjacent countries, and collective public tastes of the time [4].
(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) Goryeo celadon; (b) Joseon white porcelain. (Source: DonA Ilbo Article 2019.7.1).
Figure 1. (a) Goryeo celadon; (b) Joseon white porcelain. (Source: DonA Ilbo Article 2019.7.1).
Similar to the craft fields, this research attempts to verify that the period of Korean traditional
architecture
Similar can be divided
to the by certain
craft fields, noticeable
this research architectural
attempts elements
to verify that theofperiod
the buildings.
of KoreanIntraditional
particular,
the research focuses
architecture on the curve-shaped
can be divided woodenarchitectural
by certain noticeable members ofelements
Korean traditional architecture,
of the buildings. which
In particular,
have not only
the research universality
focuses but also diversity
on the curve-shaped wooden of the times from
members Goryeo
of Korean to Joseon.
traditional Scrutinizing
architecture, the
which
historical alteration
have not only of the curved
universality but alsowooden members,
diversity this research
of the times tries totoreveal
from Goryeo that
Joseon. the changethe
Scrutinizing of
historical
the alteration
parts and shapesofofthe
thecurved
members wooden members,
are critical this research
evidences tries to reveal
of the sustainability that thetraditional
of Korean change of
the parts andreflecting
architecture shapes ofthe
thesocial
members are critical
and cultural evidencesofofthe
background theera.
sustainability of Korean traditional
architecture reflecting the social and cultural background of the era.
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.1. Materials
The research subjects are chosen among the listed buildings that contain curved or bent wooden
members of the framework.
The research subjects areEspecially,
chosen among it is limited
the listed to buildings
the buildings
that of designated
contain curvednational cultural
or bent wooden
properties in Korea. Since they are under strict national level management, they,
members of the framework. Especially, it is limited to the buildings of designated national cultural as objective research
sources,
propertiesareincredible to retain
Korea. Since they their appearance
are under at the time
strict national levelof constructionthey,
management, and as are recognized
objective as a
research
representative example
sources, are credible to of the era
retain in historical,
their appearance academic,
at the time andofartistic aspects.and are recognized as a
construction
representative example of the era in historical, academic, and artistic including
There are several Goryeo-era buildings that still remain in Korea, aspects. Andong Bongjeongsa
Geukrakjeon
There are several Goryeo-era buildings that still remain inin Korea,
in the 10th century [5], the oldest wooden building Korea, including
Yeongju Buseoksa
Andong
Muryangsujeon in the 11thincentury
Bongjeongsa Geukrakjeon the 10th[6], and Yaesan
century [5], theSudeoksa Daeungjeon
oldest wooden building in 1308 [7]. Yeongju
in Korea, Most of
them are Buddhist temple buildings, which also include Yeongju Buseoksa
Buseoksa Muryangsujeon in the 11th century [6], and Yaesan Sudeoksa Daeungjeon in 1308 [7]. Most Josadang and Yeongcheon
Eunhaesa
of them are Geojoam
BuddhistYeongsanjeon. If it is not
temple buildings, a temple,
which also the main Yeongju
include gate of Gangneung Gaeksa is one
Buseoksa Josadang and
of
Yeongcheon Eunhaesa Geojoam Yeongsanjeon. If it is not a temple, the main gate of many
the Goryeo-era buildings we can still witness [8]. Compared to the Goryeo Dynasty, more
Gangneung
Joseon-era
Gaeksa is onebuildings remain. In buildings
of the Goryeo-era terms of the wepurpose of building,
can still witness for instance,
[8]. Compared many
to the moreDynasty,
Goryeo types of
Joseon’s
many morebuildings havebuildings
Joseon-era been left,remain.
including palaces,
In terms housings,
of the purpose educational
of building,facilities, and villas,
for instance, manywhile
more
Goryeo’s consist merely of the Buddhist temples and government buildings.
types of Joseon’s buildings have been left, including palaces, housings, educational facilities, Therefore, due to and
the
large number and variety, it is relatively easy to group the buildings of Joseon
villas, while Goryeo’s consist merely of the Buddhist temples and government buildings. Therefore, Dynasty into three
periods:
due to thethelarge
early,number
middle,and andvariety,
latter. it is relatively easy to group the buildings of Joseon Dynasty
into three periods: the early, middle, and latter.
2.2. Methods
The research is conducted by site visit and data analysis from the collected historical records.
2.2. Methods
Figure 2 shows the specific locations of the research cases with the map of South Korea. After classifying
The research is conducted by site visit and data analysis from the collected historical records.
the periods of the traditional buildings, it shows that there are certain typical curved wooden members
Figure 2 shows the specific locations of the research cases with the map of South Korea. After
that represent a particular period. For example, Umiryang (cow-tail-shaped beam, interconnects
classifying the periods of the traditional buildings, it shows that there are certain typical curved
purlins with different levels in the form of steps) was used from the Goryeo Dynasty to the early Joseon
wooden members that represent a particular period. For example, Umiryang (cow-tail-shaped beam,

interconnects purlins with different levels in the form of steps) was used from the Goryeo Dynasty
to the early Joseon Dynasty, and is similar to the Baeheulim (entasis) column. Chungryang (a beam
perpendicular
Dynasty, to the girder,
and is similar with one end
to the Baeheulim hanging
(entasis) on theChungryang
column. girder and the otherperpendicular
(a beam side hanging to onthethe
lateralwith
girder, flat) one
is not
endseen in theon
hanging Goryeo Dynasty,
the girder and thebut it started
other to be used
side hanging in the
on the early
lateral Joseon
flat) is notDynasty
seen in
and was used until the late Joseon Dynasty. Thus, this research studies the detailed
the Goryeo Dynasty, but it started to be used in the early Joseon Dynasty and was used until the late positions and
functions of the curved wooden members. In addition, in order to analyze the formation
Joseon Dynasty. Thus, this research studies the detailed positions and functions of the curved wooden of the
members,Incurvature
members. addition,isincalculated, and it the
order to analyze wasformation
checked whether the member
of the members, was made
curvature by processing
is calculated, and it
or in its natural state.
was checked whether the member was made by processing or in its natural state.
Figure 2. The key map of South Korea and the specific locations of the cases (source: author).
Figure 2. The key map of South Korea and the specific locations of the cases (source: author).
3. Goryeo Dynasty (Approximately 918–1392): Curves of Delicacy and Exquisiteness
3. Goryeo Dynasty (approximately 918–1392): Curves of Delicacy and Exquisiteness
In the Goryeo Dynasty, the cross-section of the girder is elaborately trimmed to resemble pottery
(FigureIn 3).
the Cross-sections
Goryeo Dynasty, the4 cross-section
1 to were found inof the
the girder is elaborately
buildings trimmed
of the Goryeo to resemble
Dynasty, pottery
Bongjeongsa
(Figure 3). Cross-sections 1 to 4 were found in the buildings of the Goryeo Dynasty,
Geukrakjeon, Buseoksa Muryangsujeon, Seongbulsa Geukrakjeon, and Buseoksa Josadang, respectively; Bongjeongsa
Geukrakjeon,
and Buseoksa
five to 10 were Muryangsujeon,
found from the buildings ofSeongbulsa Geukrakjeon,
the Joseon Dynasty. and Buseoksa
The cross-sections Josadang,
in the buildings
respectively; and five to 10 were found from the buildings of the Joseon Dynasty. The
of the Goryeo Dynasty look similar to pottery, having narrower tops and bottoms than the center. cross-sections
in the buildings of the Goryeo Dynasty look similar to pottery, having narrower tops and bottoms
than the center.
Figure 3. The Sections of cross-beams (source: author’s edit [9]).
In addition, the Baeheulim-style column and Umiryang, “cow-tail-shaped” beam are among the
most notable examples of Korean traditional techniques applied to curves. The Baeheulim-style
column is one of the typical characteristics of wooden architecture in the Goryeo period, where a
convex curve is applied to wooden building columns, which is known as the entasis. In general, the
Figure 3. The Sections of cross-beams (source: author’s edit [9]).
diameter of a Baeheulim column’s
Figure cross-section
3. The Sections is the widest
of cross-beams (source:one-third
author’s editof the[9]).way from the bottom,
becoming narrower
In addition, theatBaeheulim-style
both ends [10]. Based column on these dimensions,“cow-tail-shaped”
and Umiryang, it is easy to see thebeam deliberate design
are among
of In
the addition,
Baeheulim the Baeheulim-style
column where the column
diameter and
of Umiryang,
the bottom “cow-tail-shaped”
part is the
the most notable examples of Korean traditional techniques applied to curves. The Baeheulim-style second beam
widest are
and among
the toptheis
most
the notable
smallest examples
(Figure 4a). of Korean
Among thetraditional
remaining techniques
wooden applied
buildings to
in
column is one of the typical characteristics of wooden architecture in the Goryeo period, where a curves.
Korea, The
the Baeheulim-style
building with the
columncurve
greatest
convex is oneisof
degree ofthe
applied typical
curvature characteristics
in
to wooden the building
Baeheulim of column
wooden
columns, architecture
can
which beisfound
known inas
at the
thethe Goryeo
main gateperiod,
entasis. where
of general,
In Gangneung thea
convex
Gaeksa curve
(Figure is applied
4b). All to
the wooden
buildings building
of the columns,
Goryeo which
Dynasty is known
have the
diameter of a Baeheulim column’s cross-section is the widest one-third of the way from the bottom, as the entasis.
Baeheulim-style In general,
columns the
to
diameter
some degree.
becoming of a Baeheulim
As seen
narrower column’s
in the
at both endswooden cross-section
architecture
[10]. Based is
on theseofthe widest one-third
the Goryeoit is
dimensions, Dynasty,of the
easy to see way
the the from
Baeheulim the
deliberate bottom,
columns
design
of the Baeheulim column where the diameter of the bottom part is the second widest and the topdesign
becoming
were narrower
deliberately at both
designed ends
curves [10].
to Based
maximize on these
the dimensions,
aesthetic it
expression is easyof to
thesee the
curved deliberate
lines as well as
is the
of
to the Baeheulim
maintain a column
stable visual where
depth. the diameter of the bottom part is the
smallest (Figure 4a). Among the remaining wooden buildings in Korea, the building with the greatest second widest and the top is
the smallest
degreeThere (Figure
was
of curvature 4a).
in theAmong
a similar technique
Baeheulim the in
remaining
China,can
column wooden
which buildings
is called
be found at theSuōzhù in Korea,
main ofthe
according
gate building with
to Yíngzàofǎshì
Gangneung Gaeksa the
greatest
[11,12]. degree
In of
addition, curvature
the corridorin theandBaeheulim
main column
building of can be
Horyuji found
in at
Japan, the
(Figure 4b). All the buildings of the Goryeo Dynasty have the Baeheulim-style columns to some degree. the main
oldestgate of Gangneung
existing wooden
Gaeksa
building,
As (Figure
seen in was 4b). All
once
the wooden the buildings
compared
architecture to the of
of the the
entasisGoryeo
Goryeo columns Dynasty
Dynasty, ofthe havetemple
Greek
Baeheulim the Baeheulim-style
architecture.
columns columns
From
were deliberately to
these
some degree.
examples,
designed curves Astoseen
we can assume in the
maximize that wooden
thethe
aesthetic architecture
technique of having
expression ofofthe
the Goryeo
entasis-like Dynasty,
curves
curved lines as in
well theasBaeheulim
building columns
to maintain columns
a in that
stable
were
era deliberately
had been
visual depth. widelydesigned
used in curves
the to maximize
architecture of the aesthetic
Korea, China, expression
and Japan. of the curved lines as well as
to maintain a stable visual depth.
There was a similar technique in China, which is called Suōzhù according to Yíngzàofǎshì
[11,12]. In addition, the corridor and main building of Horyuji in Japan, the oldest existing wooden
building, was once compared to the entasis columns of Greek temple architecture. From these
examples, we can assume that the technique of having entasis-like curves in building columns in that
era had been widely used in the architecture of Korea, China, and Japan.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Buseoksa Muryangsujeon Interior Column; (b) Gangneung Gaeksamun Exterior Column
(source: author).
(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Buseoksa Muryangsujeon Interior Column; (b) Gangneung Gaeksamun Exterior Column
(source: author).
Umiryang (cow-tail-shaped beam) is another typical characteristic of wooden architecture in the

Goryeo period.
There was a Built
similarintechnique
1308, Sudeoksa
in China, Daeungjeon is famous
which is called Suōzhù foraccording
the beautiful appearance
to Yíngzàofǎshì of its
[11,12].
profile (Figure 5). Its Matpae-style roof (gable roof) enables both profiles of the
In addition, the corridor and main building of Horyuji in Japan, the oldest existing wooden building, building to be visually
exposed,
was and thus reveals
once compared the beauty
to the entasis columns of the curved
of Greek lines architecture.
temple of HongyeboFrom (rainbow-shaped
these examples, beam).
we
Connecting adjacent purlins of the roof, the three Hongyebos are installed on
can assume that the technique of having entasis-like curves in building columns in that era had been each side, resulting in
a total of six symmetrically placed on both sides
widely used in the architecture of Korea, China, and Japan. from the center of the building. Linking and fixing
the Umiryang
members (cow-tail-shaped
at different levels, beam)thisis another
beam Umiryang also creates
typical characteristic an aesthetically
of wooden architecturebeautiful
in the
composition. Umiryangs are also found in the main gate of Gangneung Gaeksa.
Goryeo period. Built in 1308, Sudeoksa Daeungjeon is famous for the beautiful appearance of its profile However, the
differences
(Figure 5). Itsare that there are
Matpae-style rooffewer
(gableUmiryangs,
roof) enables and itsprofiles
both curvature is less
of the steeptobecause
building the exposed,
be visually building
size is smaller. This architectural element is important evidence for
and thus reveals the beauty of the curved lines of Hongyebo (rainbow-shaped beam). Connectingthe cultural and architectural
exchanges
adjacent between
purlins Korea
of the roof,and
theChina, especially southern
three Hongyebos are installedChinaon[13].
each side, resulting in a total of six
Considering the previously mentioned features, it seems
symmetrically placed on both sides from the center of the building. Linking clear that theandwooden architecture
fixing the members at of
the Goryeo Dynasty was endeavoring to create specific aesthetics from the
different levels, this beam Umiryang also creates an aesthetically beautiful composition. Umiryangs elaborately processed
curves
are alsoin structural
found in theelements
main gate such as columns Gaeksa.
of Gangneung and girders. Furthermore,
However, it was during
the differences the
are that Goryeo
there are
Dynasty when great efforts were made to complete the formative beauty to the highest
fewer Umiryangs, and its curvature is less steep because the building size is smaller. This architectural level through
active cultural
element exchanges
is important withfor
evidence neighboring
the culturalcountries similar toexchanges
and architectural other art disciplines
between Korea suchand
as pottery
China,
and crafts.
especially southern China [13].
(a) (b)
Figure 5. (a) Sudeoksa Daeungjeon elevation; (b) Sudeoksa Daeungjeon Umiryang (source: author).
Figure 5. (a) Sudeoksa Daeungjeon elevation; (b) Sudeoksa Daeungjeon Umiryang (source: author).
Considering the previously mentioned features, it seems clear that the wooden architecture of the
4. Joseon Dynasty
Goryeo Dynasty (approximately
was endeavoring to1392–1910)
create specific aesthetics from the elaborately processed curves
in structural elements such as columns and girders. Furthermore, it was during the Goryeo Dynasty
4.1. Early
when Joseon
great Dynasty
efforts (1392–1592):
were made The Restrained
to complete and Weakened
the formative beauty toCurvature
the highest level through active
cultural exchanges
There with neighboring
are notable countries of
wooden buildings similar
the to otherJoseon
early art disciplines
Dynastysuch as pottery
including and crafts.
Bongjeongsa
Daeungjeon, Gaesimsa Daeungjeon, Muwisa Geukrakjeon, Gwanryongsa Yaksajeon, Songgwangsa
4. Joseon Dynasty (Approximately 1392–1910)
Guksajeon, and Songgwangsa Hasadang and Sungryemun in Hanyang, which was the capital at the
time.
4.1. In addition,
Early there are
Joseon Dynasty a number of
(1392–1592): Thewooden buildings
Restrained of the early
and Weakened Joseon Dynasty still remaining
Curvature
in some culturally preserved villages.
There
Comparedare notable wooden buildings
to the architecture of the
of the Goryeo early Joseon
Dynasty, Dynasty
the curves includingcomponents
in architectural Bongjeongsa of
Daeungjeon, Gaesimsa Daeungjeon, Muwisa Geukrakjeon, Gwanryongsa Yaksajeon, Songgwangsa
the early Joseon period can be described by two trends: the weakening of the curvature and a curve
Guksajeon, and Songgwangsa
close to a straight line. Hasadang and Sungryemun in Hanyang, which was the capital at the
time. For
In addition, there are a number
example, the Baeheulim pattern,of wooden
one ofbuildings
the mostof the early Joseon
representative Dynasty
features stillGoryeo
of the remaining
era,
in some culturally preserved villages.
became indistinct in the buildings of this period. It tended to be visually unapparent even if it was
Compared to the architecture of the Goryeo Dynasty, the curves in architectural components of
the early Joseon period can be described by two trends: the weakening of the curvature and a curve
close to a straight line.
For example, the Baeheulim pattern, one of the most representative features of the Goryeo era,
became indistinct in the buildings of this period. It tended to be visually unapparent even if it was
Additionally, Umiryang, which had been used in the Goryeo Dynasty, was also applied to the
wooden architecture of the early Joseon Dynasty. With regard to temple architecture, Gwanryongsa
Yaksajeon, Gaesimsa Daeungjeon, and Dogapsa Haetalmun are among the well-known Buddhist
temples with Umiryangs installed in the early Joseon era. Except for the temple buildings,
Jeonjugaeksa
Sustainability 2019,Jungchung,
11, 6557 a government building in the city of Jeonju, shows how an Umiryang 6 of 16
looked at the time. Compared with the Umiryang of the Goryeo Dynasty, the curvature of this
Umiryang, in terms of the ratio of the width to the length of the curve, became less steep and
applied.
weakened However, thereDynasty
in the Joseon are many(Figure
columns 6). that gradually become narrower from the bottom to the
top. This
Comparing the section between Sudeoksa column.
type of column is called a “Minheulim” Daeungjeon of the Goryeo Dynasty and Muwisa
Additionally,
Geukrakbojeon of Umiryang, whichDynasty
the early Joseon had been used
[14], in the
there is aGoryeo Dynasty, was
clear distinction alsocurved
of the applied to the
wooden
wooden architecture of the early Joseon Dynasty. With regard to temple
member, Umiryang. When it comes to the height proportion of the member, the height becomes much architecture, Gwanryongsa
Yaksajeon,
lower than Gaesimsa
the member Daeungjeon,
length from and Dogapsa
Goryeo Haetalmun
to the are among
early Joseon. the well-known
The proportion, H/L, canBuddhist
be seen
temples with Umiryangs installed in the early Joseon era. Except for the temple buildings,
from Figure 6: 0.5 to 0.27. From the point of the curvature, both h and l are getting smaller. If both Jeonjugaeksa
Jungchung,
height distances a government
were loweredbuilding in thethere
equally, city of Jeonju,
would be shows howin
no change anH/L.
Umiryang looked
As a result, at the time.
although the
Compared
curved wooden with the Umiryang
member of the
is still usedGoryeo
from Dynasty, the curvature
the Goryeo Dynasty to of the
thisearly
Umiryang,
JoseoninDynasty,
terms of the
the
ratio of the width to the length of the curve, became less steep and weakened
deliberate formative curve of the Goryeo Dynasty is clearly reduced in the Confucian society of the in the Joseon Dynasty
(Figure 6).
Joseon Dynasty.
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Height
Height proportion
proportion (H/L)
(H/L) and
and curvature
curvature (H/L)
(H/L) comparison
comparison between
between Sudeoksa
Sudeoksa Daeungjeon
Daeungjeon
(GoryeoDynasty)
(Goryeo Dynasty)and
andMuwisa
MuwisaGeukrakbojeon
Geukrakbojeon(Early
(EarlyJoseon
JoseonDynasty)
Dynasty)(source:
(source:author’s
author’sedit.
edit. Cultural
Cultural
Heritage
Heritage Administration).
Administration).
Comparing the sectionhas

Muwisa Geukrakjeon between
drawn Sudeoksa Daeungjeon
attention for of thequalities
its architectural Goryeo ofDynasty and
the time Muwisa
responding
Geukrakbojeon of the early Joseon Dynasty [14], there is a clear distinction of the
to the changes of the Umiryang. The crossbeams show different shapes from one another based curved woodenon
member, Umiryang. When it comes to the height proportion of the member, the
the columns’ position supporting them, and Daedeulbo (a crossbeam or girder) of the largest height becomes
much lower
diameter wasthan the member
installed lengthHowever,
in the center. from Goryeo to the
Toetbo, earlyofJoseon.
a kind thinnerThe proportion,
crossbeam, was H/L,
usedcan be
on the
seen from Figure 6: 0.5 to 0.27. From the point of the curvature, both h and l are getting smaller. If
both height distances were lowered equally, there would be no change in H/L. As a result, although
the curved wooden member is still used from the Goryeo Dynasty to the early Joseon Dynasty, the
deliberate formative curve of the Goryeo Dynasty is clearly reduced in the Confucian society of the
Joseon Dynasty.
Muwisa Geukrakjeon has drawn attention for its architectural qualities of the time responding to
the changes of the Umiryang. The crossbeams show different shapes from one another based on the
side of the building, and the Umiryang was placed on the top of the Toetbo. As the result, the
combined height of the Toetbo and the Umiryang is equal to the Daedeulbo. Based on these changes,
we can predict that future architectural works will use a Daedeulbo with a larger diameter, and the
Umiryangposition
columns’ will become obsolete.
supporting them, and Daedeulbo (a crossbeam or girder) of the largest diameter
The weakening
was installed of the However,
in the center. curve is also because
Toetbo, the of
a kind size of the crossbeam,
thinner building was was reduced
used on andthethe number
side of the
of components used to make the building decreased. As a result, the cost
building, and the Umiryang was placed on the top of the Toetbo. As the result, the combined height and effort invested in the
building
of wereand
the Toetbo reduced.
the Umiryang is equal to the Daedeulbo. Based on these changes, we can predict
In addition,
that future the kings
architectural worksandwill theuseleaders of the Joseon
a Daedeulbo with a Dynasty suppressed
larger diameter, Buddhism.
and the Umiryang It will
was
impossible
become obsolete. to officially become a monk, and the benefits of applying to temples disappeared.
Therefore, it was impossible
The weakening to build
of the curve new
is also buildings
because on aof
the size large
the scale,
buildingandwas
it was not easy
reduced andtotherepair
numberand
maintain existing buildings [2].
of components used to make the building decreased. As a result, the cost and effort invested in the
Compared
building to the time when Buddhism was suppressed, the Joseon Dynasty’s national ideology
were reduced.
was InNeo-Confucianism,
addition, the kings where
and leaders
the leadersof Confucianism
of the Joseonvalued Dynasty thesuppressed
practice ofBuddhism.
moderation Itand wasa
frugal lifestyle. This idea was well reflected in the architecture. The representative
impossible to officially become a monk, and the benefits of applying to temples disappeared. Therefore, buildings were
their
it washouses
impossible and to other
buildeducational
new buildings facilities such scale,
on a large as Seowon.
and it wasThenotcurved
easy to building
repair and components,
maintain
Daedeulbo
existing and Chungryang,
buildings [2]. a perpendicular beam to the Daedeulbo, can also be seen in the houses
and the Seowonto
Compared building.
the time when Buddhism was suppressed, the Joseon Dynasty’s national ideology
Daedeulbo is a verywhere
was Neo-Confucianism, important
leaders component of Eastvalued
of Confucianism Asian thewooden architecture
practice of moderationthat connects
and a frugalthe
front and rear columns, regardless of the size and type of building. Therefore,
lifestyle. This idea was well reflected in the architecture. The representative buildings were their it is essential even in
small-scale
houses buildings
and other and houses.
educational The such
facilities smallest and simplest
as Seowon. structure,
The curved “3Ryang-jip”,
building components,is basically
Daedeulbo two
columns
and supporting
Chungryang, a crossbeam, and
a perpendicular beam a short
to thecolumn
Daedeulbo,called Daegong
can also be is placed
seen onhouses
in the the crossbeam
and the
holding building.
Seowon a gable roof (Figure 7b). Several houses of the early Joseon Dynasty, such as
Songcheomjongtaek,
Daedeulbo is a very Gwangajeong,
important Hyangdan,
component and of EastMuchumdang
Asian wooden werearchitecture
built usingthat very simple
connects
structures that have been well preserved, especially in Yangdong village
the front and rear columns, regardless of the size and type of building. Therefore, it is essential [15,16].
even Since the distance
in small-scale betweenand
buildings the houses.
front andThe rearsmallest
columnsand is small and the
simplest building“3Ryang-jip”,
structure, is not very tall, is
a convex-shaped
basically two columns timbersupporting
is used for athe girder (Figure
crossbeam, and a6 short
left). This structure
column calledmakes
Daegongthe ceiling
is placedof the
on
indoor
the space look
crossbeam high and
holding reduces
a gable roofthe cost of
(Figure construction.
7b). Several houses In spite
of of
thethe small
early size of
Joseon the building,
Dynasty, such
there
as is a feeling of openness.
Songcheomjongtaek, This kind
Gwangajeong, of structure
Hyangdan, supports the guiding
and Muchumdang were built principles
using very of simple
Joseon
Dynasty architecture:
structures that have been restrained simplicity
well preserved, while considering
especially in Yangdong functionality.
village [15,16].
(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) Songcheomjongtaek’s Sarangchae crossbeam; (b) 3Ryang-jip at SosuSeowon

Figure 7.
(source: (a) Songcheomjongtaek’s Sarangchae crossbeam; (b) 3Ryang-jip at SosuSeowon (source:
author).
author).
Since the distance between the front and rear columns is small and the building is not very tall,
There is a saying
a convex-shaped timber“Gumibulu” in Korean
is used for the to describe
girder (Figure thisThis
6 left). kind of aesthetic,
structure makes which translates
the ceiling to
of the
“looking
indoor frugal
space buthigh
look not and
shabby”. Similar
reduces to Gumibulu,
the cost there is
of construction. Inalso
spite“Hwaibulchi”, meaning
of the small size “looking
of the building,
splendid
there but notofextravagant”.
is a feeling openness. This kind of structure supports the guiding principles of Joseon Dynasty
Chungryang,
architecture: the perpendicular
restrained beam
simplicity while to Daedeulbo,
considering is a common component that is used in
functionality.
traditional
There isKorean architecture
a saying “Gumibulu”to make “Palchakchibung”,
in Korean which
to describe this kindis of
a type of half-hipped
aesthetic, roof in the
which translates to
wooden frugal
“looking buildings of Joseon.
but not shabby”.Chungryang is connected
Similar to Gumibulu, to the
there Daedeulbo
is also at a right
“Hwaibulchi”, angle“looking
meaning and is a
splendid but not extravagant”.
Chungryang, the perpendicular beam to Daedeulbo, is a common component that is used in

traditional Korean architecture to make “Palchakchibung”, which is a type of half-hipped roof in the
wooden buildings of Joseon. Chungryang is connected to the Daedeulbo at a right angle and is a
unique structural feature of the Korean wooden architecture. Ojukheon [17] and Haeunjeong [18] in
unique structural feature of the Korean wooden architecture. Ojukheon [17] and Haeunjeong [18]
the city of Gangneung are among the representative cases installed with Chungryang in the early
in the city of Gangneung are among the representative cases installed with Chungryang in the early
Joseon Dynasty. The length of a Chungryang is 1 Gan (about 3 m), and the shape is close to a straight
Joseon Dynasty. The length of a Chungryang is 1 Gan (about 3 m), and the shape is close to a straight
line. In particular, the edge of the beam connected with the main girder is a straight line. However,
line. In particular, the edge of the beam connected with the main girder is a straight line. However, on
on the opposite side, the joint part connected to the column was processed into a curved shape. Except
the opposite side, the joint part connected to the column was processed into a curved shape. Except
for residences, Chungryang is also found in Seowon, which is a private educational institution of the
for residences, Chungryang is also found in Seowon, which is a private educational institution of the
Joseon Dynasty. SosuSeowon [19] is the first Seowon in Korea, revealing that the layout of the
Joseon Dynasty. SosuSeowon [19] is the first Seowon in Korea, revealing that the layout of the building
building at that time was not yet formally set up. In the Seowon, there is a building called
at that time was not yet formally set up. In the Seowon, there is a building called Ganghakdang (lecture
Ganghakdang (lecture room), which was built at the time [20]. Myongryundang has Palchakchibung,
room), which was built at the time [20]. Myongryundang has Palchakchibung, just like Ojukheon and
just like Ojukheon and Haeunjeong in Gangneung, and thus Chungryangs were installed at a right
Haeunjeong in Gangneung, and thus Chungryangs were installed at a right angle to the Daedeulbo
angle to the Daedeulbo (Figure 8). The Chungryang appears to be almost a straight line. From a
(Figure 8). The Chungryang appears to be almost a straight line. From a profile view, the bottom
profile view, the bottom part is shaped as a curved line toward the point connecting the columns,
part is shaped as a curved line toward the point connecting the columns, while the top part of the
while the top part of the Chungryang looks like a straight line.
Chungryang looks like a straight line.
(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) Gangneung Ojukheon “Chungryang”; (b) SosuSeowon Ganghakdang (lecture hall)
Figure 8. (a) Gangneung
“Chungryang” Ojukheon “Chungryang”; (b) SosuSeowon Ganghakdang (lecture hall)
(source: author).
“Chungryang” (source: author).
Among the representative buildings of the Joseon Dynasty, the philosophy and ideas of
Among thescholars
Neo-Confucian representative
are well buildings of the
reflected. AsJoseon Dynasty,
such, there are the philosophy
historians who and ideasthat
contend of Neo-
the
Confucian scholars are well reflected. As such, there are historians who contend that
role of architects in the Joseon Dynasty can be seen as Confucian scholars [21]. A notable example the role of
architects
of in the Joseon
this argument is fromDynasty
Lee Hwang can of
bethe
seen as Confucian
early scholars
Joseon Dynasty, who[21]. A notable
built example which
Dosan Seodang, of this
argument
reflects hisistaste
fromforLee Hwang
a frugal of the suitable
lifestyle early Joseon
for a Dynasty, who built Dosan Seodang, which reflects
scholar [22].
his taste for a frugal lifestyle suitable for a scholar [22].
4.2. Mid-Joseon Dynasty (1592–1800): Application of Naturally Curved Timber
4.2. Mid-Joseon
Between theDynasty (1592–1800):
end of the Application
16th century of Naturally
and the first Curved
half of the Timber massive international wars
17th century,
took Between
place during the Joseon
the end Dynasty.
of the 16th Hence,
century Joseon
and the firstfound
half ofitself in itscentury,
the 17th worst situation
massiveeconomically
international
and
warssocially. Two wars,
took place duringImjinwaeran,
the Joseonthe JapaneseHence,
Dynasty. InvasionJoseon
between 1592 itself
found and 1598, andworst
in its Byongjahoran,
situation
the
economically and socially. Two wars, Imjinwaeran, the Japanese Invasion between 1592 andsocial
Manchu war from 1636 to 1637, were among the most well-known ones. The complex 1598,
circumstances
and Byongjahoran,including a reduced
the Manchu war population,
from 1636 torestoration
1637, were fromamong thethedestruction of the wars,
most well-known ones. and
The
challenging
complex socialforeign relations were
circumstances reflected
including in the architecture
a reduced population,as well. Nevertheless,
restoration there were of
from the destruction some
the
positive aspects of these difficulties. In the process of overcoming the physical and mental
wars, and challenging foreign relations were reflected in the architecture as well. Nevertheless, there damage,
Korean
were somesociety gained
positive a newof
aspects perspective, adopting
these difficulties. more
In the rational
process of and pragmatic
overcoming thinking
the physicaland
andrejecting
mental
old customs,
damage, and this
Korean social
society trend awas
gained new also reflected inadopting
perspective, architecture.
moreWhile the nation’s
rational power had
and pragmatic been
thinking
weakened by the war, on the contrary, Korea’s unique techniques had been developed and
and rejecting old customs, and this social trend was also reflected in architecture. While the nation’s incorporated
in the formative
power had beenarts and architecture
weakened by the [23].
war, on the contrary, Korea’s unique techniques had been
developed and incorporated in the formative arts and architecture [23].
For example, the Toetbo beam was a widely used component of Korean housing construction
because of its many advantages. Among them, a special case can be found in Dorae village in the city
of Naju, which is one of the representative historic villages of the mid-Joseon Dynasty. The oldest
left columns. From the right, two columns do not match the one on the front and the other on the
side.
To create such a plan, a different structure needed to be applied. Generally, a crossbeam connects
two columns directly. However, if the row of the columns is not aligned in a straight line, it is
Sustainability
impossible2019, 11, 6557a horizontal beam between the columns. Therefore, one side was connected
to install 9 of 16
to
the column, and the other side where there was no column was connected to a purlin at a higher
level. Due to the level difference, the crossbeam had to be bent, and thus was made of naturally
For example, the Toetbo beam was a widely used component of Korean housing construction
curved timber (Figure 9a).
because of its many advantages. Among them, a special case can be found in Dorae village in the city
It is possible to speculate why the conventional column arrangement was not used in that period.
of Naju, which is one of the representative historic villages of the mid-Joseon Dynasty. The oldest
First, a visual effect can be created where the floor would look larger if viewing the building from the
building in the village is Unamgotaek Sarangchae, which was constructed in 1732 [24]. This building
front. At present, the front of the Daechung appears to be two bays long. If the column had been
has a unique feature in the layout of the columns. In general, columns of a wooden building are
positioned normally, the front of the Daechung would be appeared to be 1.5 bays. Actually, the front
placed, aligning lines from the front and rear as well as the left and right. However, in the Unamgotaek
bay of the Daechung was seen as a symbol of the social status of the homeowner in Korea.
Sarangchae, the columns are not arranged on an orthogonal grid if comparing right and left columns.
Homeowners generally thought three bays were the ideal modules for the Daechung in order to show
From the right, two columns do not match the one on the front and the other on the side.
the dignity of the house.
To create such a plan, a different structure needed to be applied. Generally, a crossbeam connects
Second, this arrangement helps enlarge the vertical indoor space. If the columns are aligned in
two columns directly. However, if the row of the columns is not aligned in a straight line, it is impossible
a straight row, there needs to be a horizontally straight crossbeam to connect them, and its level
to install a horizontal beam between the columns. Therefore, one side was connected to the column,
would be lower than the current convex one. As a result, it would be impossible or uncomfortable
and the other side where there was no column was connected to a purlin at a higher level. Due to
for a person to stand and pass under the beam. In addition, a regular alignment of the columns lines
the level difference, the crossbeam had to be bent, and thus was made of naturally curved timber
would result in a smaller area from the edges of the Daechung, leading to a poor use of space.
(Figure 9a).
(a) (b)
Figure9.9.(a)(a)
Figure Toetbo
Toetbo BeamBeam at Unamgotaek
at Unamgotaek SarangchaeSarangchae in mid-Joseon;
in mid-Joseon; (b) atToetbo
(b) Toetbo Beam Beam at
Mangcihangdan
Mangcihangdan
in in earlyauthor).
early Joseon (source: Joseon (source: author).
It
Theis possible to speculate
current plan why the conventional
of Unamgotaek resulted fromcolumn arrangement
considering the size was not
of the used in that
elevation viewperiod.
of the
First,
floor aandvisual
the effect
use ofcan be created
space. This typewhere the floor
of plan was would
enabledlook larger
by the useifofviewing the curved
naturally building from
timber.
the front. At
Carpenters at present,
that timethe front
strove toof thesuch
find Daechung
timbersappears
in nature. to be two bays long. If the column had
been The
positioned
extended normally, the front
Toetbo beam wasof theused
also Daechung
for shade. would be appeared
On the to beto1.5
opposite side, bays.
the Actually,
east of Korea,
the
andfront
east bay of the
of Naju in Daechung
Jeonlanamdo, wasthere
seen as symbol
is a city of the
called social status
Yeongcheon of the homeownerwhere
in Gyongsangbukdo in Korea.the
Homeowners
Sunwondong generally
village is thought
located. three
In thatbays werethere
village, the ideal modulessite
is a housing forcalled
the Daechung in order to
Yeonjunggotaek show
that has
the
beendignity
listedofasthe house.
a nationally designated cultural asset [25]. It is composed of a main house and a
Second,
pavilion. thispaper,
In this arrangement helps enlarge
the Yeonjung pavilionthe vertical indoor
is discussed space.
in terms If the
of the usecolumns
of curved are alignedsince
timbers, in a
straight
the ideasrow, thereto
applied needs to be athe
maximize horizontally
building’s straight
functioncrossbeam to connect them, and its level would
are very unique.
be lower
Thethan the current
original convex
structure one. As awas
of Yeonjung result, it would“3Ryang-jip”
a simple be impossiblestyle.
or uncomfortable
The roof wasfor a person
composed
only
to of rafters,
stand and pass creating
under theshort eaves.
beam. If the eaves
In addition, are short,
a regular the structure
alignment is vulnerable
of the columns to rainfall
lines would as
result
well
in as windarea
a smaller or strong
from thesunlight.
edges of Therefore,
the Daechung,the rafters
leadingof Yeonjung were
to a poor use ofextended
space. with a Buyeon. If
The current plan of Unamgotaek resulted from considering the size of the elevation view of
the floor and the use of space. This type of plan was enabled by the use of naturally curved timber.
Carpenters at that time strove to find such timbers in nature.
The extended Toetbo beam was also used for shade. On the opposite side, to the east of Korea,
and east of Naju in Jeonlanamdo, there is a city called Yeongcheon in Gyongsangbukdo where the
Sunwondong village is located. In that village, there is a housing site called Yeonjunggotaek that has
been listed as a nationally designated cultural asset [25]. It is composed of a main house and a pavilion.
In this paper, the Yeonjung pavilion is discussed in terms of the use of curved timbers, since the ideas
applied to maximize the building’s function are very unique.
The original structure of Yeonjung was a simple “3Ryang-jip” style. The roof was composed
Sustainability 2019, 11,
only of rafters, x FOR PEER
creating REVIEW
short eaves.
If the eaves are short, the structure is vulnerable to rainfall 10 of 16
as
well as wind or strong sunlight. Therefore, the rafters of Yeonjung were extended with a Buyeon. If
the
the building
building had
had followed
followed thethe original
original plan,
plan, itit could
could have
have been
been installed
installed without
without another
another column.
column.
However,
However, because
because itit was
was enlarged,
enlarged, the
the columns
columns had had to
to be
be built
built up
up outside
outside in
in order
order to
to hang
hang the
theBuyeon
Buyeon
as an extension of the roof. Since there was a height difference between the existing and new
as an extension of the roof. Since there was a height difference between the existing and new columns, columns,
aa bent
bent connecting
connecting beam
beam had
had to
to be
be used.
used. InIn this
this way,
way, the
the roof
roof provided
provided proper
proper protection
protection against
against
rainstorms
rainstorms and sunlight as an awning. Therefore, naturally curved timbers became a very useful
and sunlight as an awning. Therefore, naturally curved timbers became a very useful
building
building material
material sought
sought after
after by
by carpenters
carpenters (Figure
(Figure 10).
10).
(a) (b)
Figure 10. (a) Yeonjung Pavilion Section (source: author’s edit. Cultural Heritage Administration);
Figure 10. (a) Yeonjung
(b) Yeonjung Pavilion
Pavilion Toetbo Section
Beam (source:
(source: author’s edit. Cultural Heritage Administration); (b)
author).
Yeonjung Pavilion Toetbo Beam (source: author).
There are some distinctive features when comparing the wooden buildings in historic villages
There
between the areearly
some and distinctive
mid-Joseon features
eras. when
Thosecomparing
in mid-Joseon the wooden
used curved buildings
timbers in historic
in morevillages
diverse
between
positions,the early
while theand mid-Joseon
curved timbers eras. Those
in early in mid-Joseon
Joseon used curved
were not frequently usedtimbers in more diverse
for girders.
positions, while the curved
In Unamgotaek timberscurved
Sarangchae, in early Joseonwere
timbers were applied
not frequently
to columns used andfor girders.
purlins. The use of
In Unamgotaek Sarangchae, curved timbers were applied to
curved timber enlarged the front view and heightened the indoor space. In Yeonjunggotaek’s columns and purlins. The use of
pavilion,
curved
curved timber
timbersenlarged
were used theto front
extend view and heightened
the eaves and to create thea indoor
unique space.
awning. In All
Yeonjunggotaek’s
these practical
pavilion,
solutions curved
resultedtimbers
from thewere used toideas,
carpenters’ extend the corresponded
which eaves and to create with the a unique
philosophy awning. All these
and attitude of
practical solutions resulted from the carpenters’ ideas, which corresponded
“Gyongsaechiyong” in Silhak (the Realist School of Confucianism). The incorporation of Silhak ideas with the philosophy and
attitude of “Gyongsaechiyong”
in architecture can be seen wheninJeong Silhak (the Realist
Yakyong built School
a new cityof Confucianism).
called Hwasung The incorporation
with the support of of
Silhak ideas in architecture can be seen when Jeong Yakyong built a new city
King Jeong-Jo at the end of the 18th century. However, the signs that practical ideas would be reflected called Hwasung with
the support of were
in architecture King already
Jeong-Joappearing
at the endinofthe the 18th century.
mid-17th century. However, the signsone
Yoo Hyongwon, that
ofpractical ideas
the pioneering
would be reflected
Silhak scholars, arguedin architecture
in his bookwere already appearing
Bangyesurok that it was in timethetomid-17th
change the century. Yooof
functions Hyongwon,
traditional
one of[3].
cities the pioneering Silhak scholars, argued in his book Bangyesurok that it was time to change the
functions of traditional cities [3].
4.3. Late Joseon Dynasty (1800–1910): Symbolic and Creative Use of Naturally Curved Timber
4.3. Late Joseon Dynasty (1800–1910): Symbolic and Creative Use of Naturally Curved Timber
In the late Joseon period, a representative characteristic is the increased use of decorations in the
building,
In theespecially
late Joseon featuring
period, adragons. In the characteristic
representative architectural style is thecalled Dapo,
increased use a of
building component
decorations in the
called Anchogong
building, especiallyisfeaturing
constructed on theIn
dragons. top ofarchitectural
the the building stylecolumns.called It originally looked very
Dapo, a building simple
component
in the palace
called Anchogongbuilding where Anchogong
is constructed on the topwasofused for the first
the building time. ItItwas
columns. the Daeungjeon
originally looked veryof the Yosu
simple
Heungguksa
in built in 1690
the palace building wherethatAnchogong
started to engrave
was used thefor
dragon in Anchogong
the first time. It was[26]. the Another
Daeungjeonexample
of the is
Yosu Jinnamgwan
Yosu Heungguksabuilt builtinin1718,
1690which was an army
that started training
to engrave thefacility.
dragon Interestingly,
in Anchogong both[26].
are located
Another in
Yosu, which
example is a harbor
is Yosu Jinnamgwan city. Thus,
builtthe navy was
in 1718, which stationed
was an there
armyand had afacility.
training militaryInterestingly,
unit consisting of
both
Buddhist
are locatedmonks
in Yosu,at that
which time.
is a The
harbor Anchogongs
city. Thus,in thethe palace
navy wasbuildings
stationeddid therenotandhave
hadsculpted dragon
a military unit
consisting
features. Theof Buddhist
Anchogongs monks
with at that time.
engraved The Anchogongs
dragons were found only in the palace
in the buildings
temple did except
buildings, not havefor
sculpted dragon features.
those in Jinnamgwan The11a).
(Figure Anchogongs with engraved dragons were found only in the temple
buildings, except for those in Jinnamgwan (Figure 11a).
Sustainability
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2019, 11,
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FOR PEER REVIEW 11
11of
of 16
16
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 11.
11. (a)
(a)Exterior
Exteriordragon-carved
dragon-carvedAnchogongs
Anchogongs at at
Daeheungsa Chunbuljeon
Daeheungsa (source:
Chunbuljeon author);
(source: (b)
author);
Interior
Figure
(b) dragon-carved
11.
Interior (a)
dragon-carvedChungryangs
Exterior dragon-carved at at
Seonamsa
Anchogongs
Chungryangs Daeungjeon
at Daeheungsa
Seonamsa (source:
(source:Sansa
Chunbuljeon
Daeungjeon World
(source:
Sansa World Heritage
author); (b)
Heritage
Registrations
Interior Promotion
dragon-carved Committee).
Chungryangs
Registrations Promotion Committee). at Seonamsa Daeungjeon (source: Sansa World Heritage
Registrations Promotion Committee).
A dragon
dragon sculpture
sculpture ofof the Anchogong
Anchogong seen seen inin the front of the temple building has made the
Buddhist
Buddhist temple itself Banyayongsun, meaning a dragon-propelled
A temple
dragon itself
sculpturea Banyayongsun,
of the Anchogong meaning
seen in the front of the temple
dragon-propelled boat to Geukrakjeongto,
building has made the
Geukrakjeongto,
Buddhist paradise.
paradise. There
temple itself
There wasa anotion
a was notion
Banyayongsun, that
that regarded
meaning
regarded athe the temple
temple building
dragon-propelled
building boat
as theas
to the
boat boat
to to paradise,
Geukrakjeongto,
paradise, the
which
which influenced
Buddhist
influenced paradise.theThere
the dragon dragonwasdecoration
decorationa notion on
topthe
on the that of topcolumns
the of the
regarded thecolumns
temple [27].
building
[27]. There There
are asare
also thealso
some some
boat
templestemples
to paradise,
whose
whose
murals murals
which influenced
includedincluded paintings
the dragon
paintings of dragonof dragon
decoration on(Figure
boats boats
the top(Figure
12). 12).
of the columns [27]. There are also some temples
whose murals included paintings of dragon boats (Figure 12).
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 12. (a) Painting of Banyayongsun (Bogwangsa Daeungjeon); (b) Painting of Banyayongsun
Figure 12. Geukrakjeon)
(Tongdosa (a) Painting of(source:
Banyayongsun
author). (Bogwangsa Daeungjeon); (b) Painting of Banyayongsun
(Tongdosa
Figure 12. Geukrakjeon)
(a) Painting of(source: author). (Bogwangsa Daeungjeon); (b) Painting of Banyayongsun
Banyayongsun
As previously
(Tongdosa mentioned,
Geukrakjeon) Chungryang
(source: author). is one of the architectural structural elements used since
As previously mentioned,
the early Joseon Dynasty. However, inside theChungryang is main
one ofbuilding
the architectural structural
of the Buddhist elements
temple, used since
the ornament of
the early
dragon Joseon
As previously Dynasty.
sculpture began However,
mentioned, to be inside
Chungryang
used as anthe main of building
isAnchogong
one of the ofpillar.
the Buddhist
the architectural structural temple,
It is in the samethe
elements ornament
used
position since
and
of
thethe
functionsdragon
early Joseonsculpture
as the Dynasty.
Chungryangbegan to bethe
However,
from used
insideas an
early the Anchogong
Joseonmain building
houses of
or the pillar.
of the
Seowon It is in the
Buddhist
buildings. samethe
temple,
However, position and
ornament
although
functions
of the was
there as
dragon nothe Chungryang
sculpture
decoration and from
began bethe
ittowas early
used Joseon
as an
created houses or
toAnchogong
be straight in Seowon
of the earlybuildings.
the pillar. It is in the
Joseon However,
samethe
period, although
position
head and
of a
there was as
functions
Chungryang nothedecoration
in Chungryang
the and from
late Joseon itwaswasthe created
sculpted to beastraight
early with
Joseon dragon in Seowon
houses head.
or the Dragon
earlybuildings.
Joseon period,
sculpturesHowever,
thatthe head
appeared of in
although a
Chungryang
there
the latewas17th in
noand the late18th
decoration
early Joseon
and itwas
wassculpted
centuries created
were alsowith bea straight
to used dragon
indoors.head.
in theDragon sculptures
early Joseon period,thatthe
appeared
head ofina
the late
The17th
Chungryang firstand
in
placeearly
the late18th
where centuries
Joseon
Chungryangs were
was sculpted also
with
carved used
with indoors.
a dragon
dragonshead.wereDragon
used was sculptures that appeared
Yosu Jinnamgwan in
[28].
Since The
the latethen,first
17th place
and
Chungryangs where
early 18th Chungryangs
centuries
decorated were
with carved
dragon with
also used dragons
indoors.
sculptures were were usedused
widely wasin Yosu Jinnamgwan
Buddhist temples[28].[29].
Since then,
The
The first Chungryangs
first
temple place
waswhere
Hwasung decorated
Chungryangs
Yongjusa with dragon
carved
Daeungbojeon sculptures
with dragons were
werewidely
where dragon used used
was
sculptures Yosuin Buddhist
were Jinnamgwan
used in onlytemples
[28].
two
[29].
of theThe
Since then,
fourfirst temple waslocated
Chungryangs
Chungryangs Hwasung
decorated at theYongjusa
with InDaeungbojeon
dragon
front. sculptures
large buildings, where
were dragon
fourwidely sculptures
used
Chungryangs in were were
Buddhist used
temples
usually usedin
only
[29].
in two
theThe of rear,
first
front, the four
left, Chungryangs
temple was Hwasung
and right. In thelocated
Yongjusa
temple at ofthe front. In built
Daeungbojeon
Seonamsa large
wherebuildings,
in dragon
1824, fourfour Chungryangs
sculptures
dragons were
are were
used
positioned in
usually
only four
onto two used
of in the
the fourfront,
Chungryangs rear, left,
Chungryangs
(Figure 11b).and right.
located at Inthethe temple
front. of Seonamsa
In large buildings, built
fourin Chungryangs
1824, four dragons were
are positioned
usually
Theused inonto
Chungryangthe four inChungryangs
front, rear,
the late and(Figure
left,Joseon right.
Dynasty 11b).
In thetended
templeto of use
Seonamsa
bent timberbuilt inas1824, four dragons
its natural shape,
The Chungryang
are positioned
compared to theonto inChungryangs
four
Chungryang the of
latetheJoseon
early Dynasty
(Figure
Joseon era.tended
11b). to use above,
As discussed bent timber as its natural
the Chungryang of theshape,
early
compared
JoseonThe to thewas
Chungryang
dynasty Chungryang
in the late
constructed ofinthe earlyDynasty
Joseon Joseon
a relatively era.
tended
straight As discussed
line. to
In use bent
addition,above,
timber theasChungryang
the Chungryang its natural oftime
of this the
shape,
early Joseontodynasty
compared was constructed
the Chungryang of the in a relatively
early Joseon era. straight line. In addition,
As discussed above, the Chungryang of of this
the
early Joseon dynasty was constructed in a relatively straight line. In addition, the Chungryang of this
was
timerelatively thinner,
was relatively and the
thinner, andhead of theofChungryang
the head the Chungryang did notdidprotrude
not protrude fromfrom
the Daedeulbo,
the Daedeulbo, the
girder. The Chungryangs in the late Joseon Dynasty used natural
the girder. The Chungryangs in the late Joseon Dynasty used natural timber almost without timber almost without processing,
which was suitable
processing, which was to express
suitable thetodynamic
express shape of a wiggling
the dynamic shape of dragon. Additionally,
a wiggling dragon. dragon scales
Additionally,
were painted on the body of Chungryang.
dragon scales were painted on the body of Chungryang.
The
The following
following conclusions
conclusions can can bebe drawn
drawn by by synthesizing
synthesizing what what was was discussed
discussed earlier.
earlier. First,
First, the
the
dragon
dragon decorations
decorations in in the
the building
building are are likely
likely toto have
have been
been started
started by by Buddhist
Buddhist monks.
monks. Second,
Second, the
the
dragon
dragon decorations
decorationsused used in government
in government offices or main
offices buildings
or main of palaces
buildings were symbols
of palaces were of authority,
symbols of
but the dragon
authority, decorations
but the in the temple’s
dragon decorations in themain building
temple’s main have come have
building to represent
come toarepresent
concrete image of a
a concrete
dragon-drawn ship.
image of a dragon-drawn ship.
In
In addition to the temple buildings,
addition to the temple buildings, there
there isis another
another example
example of of the symbolism of
the symbolism the architecture
of the architecture
in
in the
the late
late Joseon era.era. Milyang
MilyangYongnamru
Yongnamrubuilt builtinin1844
1844was wasoneoneofofthe the large
large pavilions
pavilions belonging
belonging to
to a local government accommodation facility, a Gaeksa. The Gaeksa
a local government accommodation facility, a Gaeksa. The Gaeksa housed Jeonpae, a tablet with the housed Jeonpae, a tablet with
the
word wordJŏn,Jŏn,
whichwhichwaswaskeptkept
as anas emblem
an emblem of the
of the king’sking’s presence,
presence, andand people
people pledged
pledged allegiance
allegiance to
to the
the
king.king.
ThisThis building
building waswas alsoalso
usedusedas as a guesthouse
a guest housefor forgovernment
governmentofficials
officialswhowho visited
visited from the the
central
central government in Seoul. Therefore, Yongnamru, the pavilion belonging to the
Yongnamru, the pavilion belonging to the guest house, was guest house, was
mainly
mainly used used as
as a recreational
recreational spot
spot for
for the officials
officials to
to enjoy the surrounding
surrounding scenery scenery and
and to to relax
relax while
while
writing
writing poetry.
poetry.
Yongnamru
Yongnamruisiscomposed composed of three buildings.
of three There is
buildings. the main
There is the building
maininbuilding
the center, inNeungpagak
the center,
at a higher place
Neungpagak at a on the left,
higher placeandon Chimryugak at a lower place
the left, and Chimryugak at a on the place
lower right. on Thetheword
right.“Chimryu”
The word
in Chimryugak is the abbreviation of Suseokchimryu, which is a metaphorical
“Chimryu” in Chimryugak is the abbreviation of Suseokchimryu, which is a metaphorical expression expression meaning
“soothing the wearythe
meaning “soothing body andbody
weary mind andin mind
nature”. In addition,
in nature”. the literal
In addition, meaning
the literal of Chimryu
meaning is “a
of Chimryu
pillow on theon
is “a pillow water” or “toor
the water” use
“towater as a pillow”.
use water If a person
as a pillow”. lies down
If a person on theon
lies down Chimryugak,
the Chimryugak, there
must
there be mustwater
be below
water the person’s
below head as ahead
the person’s metaphor. In addition,
as a metaphor. In the water in
addition, thethe mainin
water building
the mainat
the higherat
building location needslocation
the higher to flow downneedstoto Chimryugak.
flow down Intoorder to complete
Chimryugak. Inthis metaphoric
order to complete imagethis
of
falling
metaphoric water,image
a staircase-shaped
of falling water, corridor was built between
a staircase-shaped corridorthe two
was buildings
built between [30]. the
Naturally curved
two buildings
timber was usedcurved
[30]. Naturally to create the staircase-shaped
timber was used to create building. This wood was
the staircase-shaped also used
building. forwood
This the stairs.
was The
also
architect
used for the of Yongnamru in 1844 intended
stairs. The architect of Yongnamru to show the meaning
in 1844 intendedoftoChimryu
show theby means of Chimryu
meaning shaping the by
building as a cascade of stairs (Figure 13).
means of shaping the building as a cascade of stairs (Figure 13).
(a) (b)
Figure 13. (a) View of Milyang Yongnamru from South; (b) Staircase-shaped corridor in Chimryugak
Figure
of 13. (a)
Milyang View of Milyang
Yongnamru (source:Yongnamru from South;
Cultural Heritage (b) Staircase-shaped
Administration [31]). corridor in Chimryugak
of Milyang Yongnamru (source: Cultural Heritage Administration [31]).
As a result of examining the buildings built in the late Joseon Dynasty, the tendency to use curved
As is
timbers a result
clear. of examining
First, in temple thearchitecture,
buildings built in the
curved late Joseon
timbers Dynasty,
were used the tendency It
for Chungryangs. towas
use
curved timbers is clear. First, in temple architecture, curved timbers were used for Chungryangs.
the same Chungryang as used in other times, but they were thinner and in a relatively straight form It
was the same Chungryang as used in other times, but they were thinner and in a relatively
in the early Joseon buildings. However, in the late Joseon dynasty, the naturally curved timbers for straight
form in the early
Chungryang wereJoseon
used tobuildings. However,
express wiggling in thein
dragons late
theJoseon
templedynasty, the naturally
architecture. The dragoncurved timbers
symbolized
a strong presence in charge of defending people accompanied by Buddha, a leading figure todragon
for Chungryang were used to express wiggling dragons in the temple architecture. The defeat
symbolized
bad a strong
energy. The dragonpresence
sculpturesin originated
charge of from
defending people
the exterior of accompanied
buildings, but by
laterBuddha, a leading
the use increased,
figure to defeat bad energy. The dragon sculptures originated from the exterior of buildings, but later
the use increased, eventually expanding into the interior as well. The temple building decorated with
the dragon figures represented Banyayongsun, the dragon boat to paradise.
In addition, curved timbers in a government building were used to create a staircase building.
In order to connect the upper and lower levels of buildings, a staircase was placed in the middle,
symbolizing the gathering of water falling from a high place to a low place. Moreover, the structure
symbolizes Chimryu, a person lying down and resting on water. In the late Joseon period, the bent
wooden
Sustainability structure
2019, 11, 6557 is expanded to give meaning beyond the function compared with the functional 13 of 16
use of the bent wood. In contrast to the architecture in the mid-Joseon period when the curved timbers
were used just functionally, the use of those in the late Joseon era gave symbolic and metaphoric
eventually
meaningsexpanding into the interior as well. The temple building decorated with the dragon figures
to the buildings.
represented Banyayongsun, the dragon boat to paradise.
5. The
In Characteristics
addition, of Curved
curved timbers in Wooden Members
a government in the Early,
building wereMiddle,
used toand LateaJoseon
create staircase building.
Dynasty
In order to connect the upper and lower levels of buildings, a staircase was placed in the middle,
symbolizing the gathering of water falling from a high place to a low place. Moreover, the structure
Table 1. Periods of Joseon Dynasty and its Architecture, Expression, and Social Influence
symbolizes Chimryu, a person lying down and resting on water. In the late Joseon period, the bent
Period of Joseon Early
wooden structure is expanded to give meaning beyond theMiddlefunction compared with the Late
functional use
SosuSeowon Daeheungsa
Architecture
of the bent wood. In contrast Ganghakdang Tongdosa Daeungjeon
to the architecture in the mid-Joseon period when Chunbuljeon the curved timbers
were used
Type just functionally,
of Curved Wood the use of
Processed those in the late
Curve Joseon
Naturally era gave symbolic
Curved andCurved
Naturally metaphoric
meanings toExpression
the buildings. Asceticism Pragmatism Symbolism
Wars and Silhak (the Realist School
Social Influence Neo-Confucianism Elegant Culture
of the
5. The Characteristics of Curved Wooden Members in Confucianism)
Early, Middle, and Late Joseon Dynasty
Seeing the representative
Seeing architecture
the representative of each
architecture of period of theof
each period Joseon Dynasty,
the Joseon the height
Dynasty, the proportion
height
and curvature
proportionofandthecurvature
curved wooden members
of the curved show
wooden their expressional
members characteristics
show their expressional related with
characteristics
socialrelated with social
background background
(Table (Table
1, Figure 14).1, In
Figure 14).of
terms In the
terms of the height
height proportion
proportion (H/L),
(H/L), the the length
length of the
of the
members members
becomes becomes
longer in thelonger
middlein (3057
the middle
mm) and(3057latemm)
(3606and
mm)lateJoseon
(3606 periods
mm) Joseon periodsto the
compared
early compared to the(2222
Joseon period early mm).
JoseonSince
period (2222
the mm).woods
curved Since thearecurved woods
structural are structural
members, members, theof the
the lengthening
lengthening of the members means that the functionality also becomes stronger over time. On the
members means that the functionality also becomes stronger over time. On the other hand, the height
other hand, the height of the members increased from the early Joseon (435 mm) to the mid-Joseon
of the members increased from the early Joseon (435 mm) to the mid-Joseon (929 mm).
(929 mm).
Figure 14. Height proportion (H/L) and curvature (H/L) comparison among SosuSeowon Ganghakdang
(Early Joseon), Tongdosa Daeungjeon (Mid-Joseon), and Daeheungsa Chunbuljeon (Late Joseon) (source:
author’s edit. Cultural Heritage Administration).
This indicates that Confucianism’s strict norm of the early Joseon period weakened in the
mid-Joseon period. In other words, the dramatic height change using curves disappeared in the culture,
emphasizing the moderation of the early Joseon period, after which it reappeared in the mid-Joseon
period. As a result, the distinctive difference in H/L is found between the early and the middle of
Joseon periods, while the middle and late Joseon periods remain unchanged. Since the middle and
late Joseon used naturally curved wood, the materials have a limitation, which that they are hard
to fabricate.
Table 1. Periods of Joseon Dynasty and its Architecture, Expression, and Social Influence
Period of Joseon Early Middle Late

SosuSeowon Daeheungsa
Architecture Tongdosa Daeungjeon
Ganghakdang Chunbuljeon
Type of Curved Wood Processed Curve Naturally Curved Naturally Curved
Expression Asceticism Pragmatism Symbolism
Wars and Silhak (the Realist
Social Influence Neo-Confucianism Elegant Culture
School of Confucianism)
When it comes to the curvature (H/L), height is getting higher as time passes, and there is a
remarkable difference in length between the early Joseon (572 mm) and the mid-Joseon Dynasty
(1262 mm). In addition, H/L, the curvature, increases from the early to the late Joseon period. In the
Confucianism society of the early Joseon period, the curvature was weakened, but the formal identity
was maintained. Furthermore, it was actively used again in the mid-Joseon period related with social
changes, wars, and Silhak. In the late Joseon period, the size and curvature of materials did not change
much compared to the mid-Joseon period, but it contained semantic symbolism.
6. Conclusions
Curved timbers were used to show the partial as well as the total formative aesthetics of buildings
in the Goryeo Dynasty (10–14 C). Thus, the shape of the curve was thoroughly calculated and carefully
designed. The Baeheulim-style column, Umiryang, and the cross-sections of the beam are among the
representative examples in that period.
On the other hand, in the early Joseon Dynasty (15–16 C), a simple curve was used compared
to the Goryeo period. Specifically, the wood was processed in a shape close to a straight line, and a
curved shape was applied only if necessary. Another style involved using bent timbers taken from
nature, which preserved the naturally curved shape selectively in the housing buildings. This is a
sustainable formal alteration of curved wooden members, because the change makes it possible for
people of the era to effectively save construction time and cost. The practical idea comes from the
dominant social paradigm, Neo-Confucianism, which emphasized the austerity of life.
In the mid-Joseon Dynasty (17–18 C), curved timbers were used creatively by architects or
carpenters to serve practical functions. In order to maintain the function of the buildings most
effectively, they used the naturally curved wooden members. The application of the wild timbers
minimized the manufacturing process and maximized the pragmatic functionality of the space under
the influence of severe wars and Silhak (the Realist School of Confucianism).
In late Joseon Dynasty’s (19–20 C) wooden architecture, the architects or carpenters gave symbolic
and metaphoric meanings to the buildings beyond practical solutions by using the curved timbers.
The different characteristics of the use of the curved wood are closely related to the political and
economic situation. For example, since the Goryeo Dynasty was a Buddhist state, the buildings built
in the temples were the best masterpieces of the time. However, in the Joseon Dynasty, large-scale
constructions were reduced except for the palace buildings, and the Confucian architecture built in the
province was more praised for its frugal appearance. The international wars of the late 16th and early
17th centuries had devastated the country, resulting in the shortage of trees suitable for building, and
people increasingly focused on building a practical way. After the renaissance of King Yengjo and King
Jeongjo in the 18th century, national power was restored, and in the 19th century, there were many
changes in architecture, which led to a large number of decorations and attached a lot of meanings to
the forms. After all, even though the political, economic, and cultural situation changes according to
the times, it can be seen from the curved woods that ‘natural friendly’ traditions continue unbroken in
Korean traditional architecture.
The curved form in the stair shape of the Goryeo Dynasty and the corridor of Milyang Yongnamru
in the late Joseon Dynasty has a similar resemblance (Figure 15). The curved structures of Sudeoksa
The curved form in the stair shape of the Goryeo Dynasty and the corridor of Milyang
Yongnamru in the late Joseon Dynasty has a similar resemblance (Figure 15). The curved structures
Daeungjeon are intended to look aesthetically pleasing, and the curved stairs of Yongnamru were
of Sudeoksa Daeungjeon are intended to look aesthetically pleasing, and the curved stairs of
designed to mimic the image of a waterfall. The two different buildings show the tradition of Korean
Yongnamru were designed to mimic the image of a waterfall. The two different buildings show the
architecture that has been passed down for nearly a thousand years.
tradition of Korean architecture that has been passed down for nearly a thousand years.
(a) (b)
Figure15.
Figure 15.(a)
(a)Building
Building with
with curved
curved timber
timber in Goryeo
in the the Goryeo Dynasty
Dynasty (918–1392);
(918–1392); (b) Building
(b) Building with
with curved
curvedintimber
timber in the
the Late LateDynasty
Joseon Joseon Dynasty (1800–1910)
(1800–1910) (source: (source:
CulturalCultural
HeritageHeritage Administration).
Administration).
To
Tosum
sumup, examining
up, examining historical alteration
historical of theofparts
alteration the and shapes
parts and of the curved
shapes of thewooden
curvedmembers,
wooden
itmembers,
is possible topossible
it is identify to theidentify
sustainable aspects of aspects
the sustainable Korean of traditional architecture
Korean traditional and to infer
architecture andthe
to
influence
infer the of the historical
influence of the background on formingonthe
historical background sustainability
forming of the architecture.
the sustainability While the
of the architecture.
Goryeo
While theDynasty
Goryeo(10–14DynastyC) had(10–14 an C)
aesthetic
had anclimax
aestheticof the extravagant
climax curved structures
of the extravagant precisely
curved structures
designed under the backgrounds of Buddhism and aristocracy, the early
precisely designed under the backgrounds of Buddhism and aristocracy, the early Joseon Dynasty Joseon Dynasty (15–16 C)
showed
(15–16 C)restrained curved shapes
showed restrained curved of shapes
wood details
of wood with fewer
details materials
with and a faster
fewer materials andbuilding process
a faster building
due to Neo-Confucianism,
process due to Neo-Confucianism, which emphasized austerity. austerity.
which emphasized After tremendous social crisis,
After tremendous including
social crisis,
two wars, the mid-Joseon Dynasty (17–18 C) showed very creative indigenous
including two wars, the mid-Joseon Dynasty (17–18 C) showed very creative indigenous houses with houses with naturally
curved timbers
naturally curved minimizing the manufacturing
timbers minimizing process and maximizing
the manufacturing process and themaximizing
pragmatic functionality
the pragmatic of
the space underofthe
functionality theinfluence
space underof the wars and Silhakof
the influence (thetheRealist
warsSchool of Confucianism).
and Silhak (the RealistInSchool
addition,
of
the late Joseon Dynasty
Confucianism). (19–20the
In addition, C) late
presented
Joseonoffice buildings
Dynasty (19–20with
C) strengthened
presented office dynamic shapes
buildings of
with
the naturally curved
strengthened dynamictimbers
shapesas of symbolic expression,
the naturally which isasansymbolic
curved timbers expanded concept beyond
expression, which isthean
functionality. In Korean traditional architecture, curved wood members
expanded concept beyond the functionality. In Korean traditional architecture, curved wood have been used without
interruption,
members have although
been used in without
varying interruption,
degrees depending
although oninsocial
varyinganddegrees
economic situations,
depending and have
on social and
continued
economic to be one ofand
situations, the have
characteristics
continuedoftoKorean
be onearchitecture. Thus, theofstudy
of the characteristics Koreanof the curved wooden
architecture. Thus,
members
the study of
of historical
the curvedheritage
woodenarchitecture
members ofofhistorical
South Korea is a good
heritage opportunity
architecture of South to understand the
Korea is a good
sustainability
opportunity to of understand
the traditional thebuildings themselves,
sustainability of the as well as the
traditional cultural and
buildings historicalasbackground.
themselves, well as the
In addition,
cultural andthe application
historical of the curved
background. wooden
In addition, themembers
application needs to curved
of the be studied
woodenin terms of biophilic
members needs
design today, because
to be studied in termsofof their biomorphic
biophilic designforms
today,andbecause
material ofconnection with nature
their biomorphic forms [32].
and material
connection with nature [32].
Author Contributions: All authors contributed substantially to this study. Individual contributions are:
conceptualization, S.L.R.; methodology, S.L.R.; validation, S.L.R. and H.C.Y.; formal analysis, S.L.R.; investigation,
Author
S.L.R. andContributions: AllS.L.R.
H.C.Y.; resources, authors
and contributed substantially
H.C.Y.; data curation, S.L.R.;tooriginal
this study. Individual contributions
draft preparation, are:
S.L.R.; review and
conceptualization, S.R.; methodology,
editing, H.C.Y.; visualization, H.C.Y. S.R.; validation, S.R. and H.Y.; formal analysis, S.R.; investigation, S.R.
and H.Y.; resources, S.R. and H.Y.; data curation, S.R.; original draft preparation, S.R.; review and editing, H.Y.;
Funding: This research was supported by New Staff Settlement Research Fund (K1706171) funded by the College
visualization,
of Engineering,H.Y.
Korea University.
Funding:ofThis
Conflicts research
Interest: The was supported
authors declare by New Staff
no conflict Settlement Research Fund (K1706171) funded by the
of interest.
College of Engineering, Korea University.
References
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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p. 142.
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Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557; doi:10.3390/su11236557 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557 3 of 16

Figure 3. The Sections of cross-beams (source: author’s edit [9]).

Umiryang (cow-tail-shaped beam) is another typical characteristic of wooden architecture in the

Comparing the sectionhas

Figure 7. (a) Songcheomjongtaek’s Sarangchae crossbeam; (b) 3Ryang-jip at SosuSeowon

Chungryang, the perpendicular beam to Daedeulbo, is a common component that is used in

Period of Joseon Early Middle Late

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