1

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY "ODESSA MARINE ACADEMY"

DEPARTMENT OF VESSEL MANAGEMENT

SUMMARY OF THE LECTURE ON THE SUBJECT

«MANAGEMENT OF MARINE OPERATIONS OF SHIPS»
ON THE TOPIC «VESSEL MANEUVERING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM»

Author: Dtr., Professor Maltsev AS

Odessa 2020
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Contents

№№ The name of the section.. page

Introduction…………………………………………………….. 3

1. Basic information from the theory of systems…………………….. 5

Terminological definitions of the basic concepts and subject of 9

2.
research of system theory…………………………………………….
3. Generalized system diagram……………………………………….. 11
4. Classification of systems…………………………………………….. 14
5. Diagram of the control system for maneuvering course and 17
position………………………………………………………………
….
6. Movement control methods …………………………………………. 20
7. System of guaranteed safety of ship maneuvering 27
control……………
8. Theoretical substantiation of methods of planning curvilinear
movement 40
……………………………………………………………...
9. The system for assessing excessive proximity of ships and the
choice of the type of maneuver for its prevention ……………… 48

Introduction

The main means for carrying out the transportation of goods and economic
activities at sea is a marine vessel. Its purpose in the transport process is to ensure the
safe transportation of goods from the sender to the recipient or to safely perform
production operations.
The art of navigating a ship is formed over a long period of time as a navigator
on the bridge, mainly by trial and error method.
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Organization of ship operation management is continuous and systemic. An
indicator of the quality of system management is accident rate. Depending on which
element of the system a failure occurred and which functional connections do not
work, navigation and seafaring emergencies arise.
A navigational accident mainly occurs due to: improper control of the vessel’s
movement in a storm, conditions of limited visibility and when sailing in ice; gross
errors of participants in the transport process during maneuvering in areas of heavy
shipping and cramped conditions; collisions with unknown objects; improper
maneuvering in a limited space (in the port, anchorage areas, in the harbour).
A marine accident is the result of loss of stability during the displacement of
goods, their spontaneous combustion and explosion, violation of the watertightness of
the hull and the failure of marine technical means of transportation and control.
The maneuvering process control system is an information and energy resource
system, the control object of which is the hull of a vessel moving on the water
surface.
Control over the movement process is accompanied by the need to perform
redevelopment in case of deviations from the given path and to set the settings to the
controls to bring the vessel to a given direction of movement. An increase in the total
duration of such procedures greatly complicates navigation, which can lead to an
excessive delay in deciding on the moment the maneuver begins. It is under such
conditions that the prerequisites for emergency situations arise. Therefore, we have to
confine ourselves to a survey - comparative assessment of the position of the vessel
by visually determining the place and adjusting the movement.
In addition to information about the state of the control object and the
parameters of external influences, the operator is busy processing a significant
amount of other information related to the navigation process. This requires the
perfect organization of the work of the bridge operators.
An attempt to reduce the human impact on accidents by automating the
performance of individual functions does not exclude him from the control sphere,
but leads to an even closer connection with devices and systems. The decisive
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influence on his functions in the management process was exerted by the separation
of the human - operator (HO) from the control objects and the transition to
information models. This led to indirect control of the vessel by the readings of
instruments and indicators, which increased the psychophysiological load on the
operator.
The traditional elements of the navigational method for determining the position
of a ship by astronomical and visual methods, calculating corrections for wind drift
and drift by the current, maintaining graphical and written numbers, solving the
problem of diverging ships on a maneuverable tablet and a number of others are
rarely used, as a result of which their skill level decreases. Therefore, the
requirements for the stability of the skill to use navigation systems that ensure the
safe management of maneuvering of the vessel are increasing, which requires a clear
understanding of their principles.
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1. Basic information from the theory of systems

The introduction of cybernetic devices and computer technology into the
practice of shipbuilding led to the formalization of the concept of a navigation system
and made it possible to strictly define it.
The system’s features are the appearance of new properties in it, in comparison
with the elements of which it consists of: optimality properties, since it is designed
and functions taking into account the optimal plans built in advance; purposefulness,
since it is built to solve certain problems; integrity; relative isolation from the
external environment; obligatory connection with the environment; structuring, that
is, the existence in the system of certain parts and the relationships between them.
Since the used definitions of the concept of “system” do not clearly establish its
boundaries and characterize the composition, it is necessary to supplement the
proposed definitions with classifications and refinements.
Guaranteed safety of maneuvering control can be ensured by increasing the level
of awareness and speed of information processing systems with the subsequent
development of operator activity algorithms by: structuring tactical and operational
tasks, developing algorithms for intelligent operator actions when planning and
controlling the movement of the vessel; development of algorithms and programs for
calculating the predicted safe speed in various navigation conditions; planning of
marine operations by the inverse method; creating a decision support system for
maneuvering; development of algorithms for the current control of the discrepancy
and methods for adjusting the initially specified trajectory; development of
algorithms for current location control, including curvilinear movement, and
visualization of the current situation of divergence from dangerously maneuvering
vessels.
Based on the above requirements for the list of navigation systems that provide
the maneuvering process, we can give the following definition of the concept of a
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system. A maneuvering process control system is called the totality of a finite set of
elements of various nature designed to guide the ship's center of gravity along a line
defined by straight and curved sections.
Among the elements of the system, it is necessary to distinguish one whose
operation is controlled and we will call it the control object. In the existing theory of
systems, it is not clearly distinguished, which leads to a misunderstanding of the
content of some concepts in the theory of control systems. Its clear selection
introduces certainty into the construction of functional relationships between system
elements to transfer information between them and clarify the subject of research of
the control object.
The selection of the basic concepts that are used in the theory of systems will be
made as follows: the terms must be correct from the point of view of the algebra of
logic; have established values that can only be clarified; terminological orientation
should be made on the concepts of fundamental sciences (mathematics, cybernetics,
mechanics, etc.); the use of established international names and definitions is
desirable.
Understanding the processes occurring in science from a single point of view
leads to an understanding of the need to modify a single theoretical and
methodological base, in which cybernetics plays a central role. The concepts
“management”, “system”, “information”, “communications” and others used in it are
used in many branches of science and technology.
The fundamental principle of cybernetics is the synthesis of knowledge gained
in various disciplines, the unifying principle of which is mainly the general theory of
systems and philosophy.
The dynamism of human activity and the fundamental possibility of using a
systematic approach to solving any scientific and technical problems have led to the
fact that in the different branches of science the same concepts have received
different names, from a single point of view, the content of which does not exist. This
creates difficulties and problems in the methodological support of the formulation
and solution of scientific and technical problems. It is noteworthy that in many cases
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a discussion of ways to solve problems is made without first determining the content
of the concepts used, which violates the basic formal logical laws.
In some cases, this leads to erroneous statements and the use of concepts that do
not correspond to the essence of the phenomena under consideration, as a result of
which formalized models of control processes are created, the content algorithms of
which have not been studied. As a result of this approach, the problem is formulated
incorrectly and the methods for solving them are selected. In our opinion, this
phenomenon is most clearly seen in the theory of automatic control, for this reason it
is advisable to discuss some issues of the semantics of the terms and concepts used.
The process of synthesis of knowledge is implemented in the form of sciences
about the very general properties of nature, which include, first of all, philosophy. It
reveals and displays the general properties of all forms of the existence of matter. As
a methodological approach, the dialectic method is used, which considers the system
as a complex of interacting and interconnected elements. The results of cognition
have the property of system, which is implemented in technical sciences by
constructing meaningful and formalized models that adequately describe the behavior
of material objects.
There are general principles based on formal logical laws that apply to concepts
and specific systems to eliminate inaccuracies and uncertainties in certain areas of
systems science in general and in automatic control theory in particular.
In the 70s it became obvious for specialists in the field of philosophy and
methodology of science that a group of concepts arose that, although not
philosophical, was successfully used in various subject areas of scientific knowledge.
Among them, it should be noted: algorithm, system, element, information,
communications, probability, parameters, management, formalization and several
others. In contrast to the concepts used in individual branches of knowledge, general
scientific categories play the role of methodological principles for the study and
description of processes of any nature. The recognition of these concepts as general
scientific has led to the fact that at the same time qualitatively new general scientific
approaches have been formed to understand the processes and phenomena of the
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world around us - systemic, structural, functional, informational, model, probabilistic,
deterministic, and a number of others.
The central category of a systems approach is the concept of “system”. By the
term "system" we mean a set of interconnected elements of various nature,
interconnected by communication lines for the transmission and processing of
information that is intended to achieve the goal. This is a generalized definition of the
concept of “system”, and its constituent parts “element”, “communication”,
“management”, etc. are subject to detail for each subject area, however, in the process
of reflection and inference, the internal essential connection is lost and the main
logical law of identity is violated. An attempt to express the introduced concept with
various verbal expressions makes it possible to replace one and the same thought with
another, which leads to ambiguity and the appearance of uncertainty.
The generalized concepts of “system”, “regulation” and “management” are given
in the work (Polytechnical Dictionary, Ch. Editor Artobolevsky, 1977). A system is a
set of elements with relationships and relationships between them, forming a certain
conventionality and subordinate to a certain guiding principle. As elements of the
system can be nodes of aggregates, devices, content concepts, norms, etc.
Regulation is the maintenance of changes according to a given law or within
certain limits of the state parameter of the control object that characterizes the process
of its operation. In this case, the principles of regulation are used for the deviation of
the state parameter from the set value, for the disturbance (external and internal) and
combined. Depending on the method of forming the control action, a proportional
control law, a differential law, or a combination thereof, are distinguished.
Management is a set of actions selected on the basis of certain information and
aimed at organizing and coordinating the work of several control objects (regulators)
to maintain or optimize the functioning of a technical object in accordance with a
given algorithm (program) to achieve the goal. Management is the basis for the
functioning of many technical systems, living organisms or social structures.
Management of technical systems is carried out by influencing the regulatory bodies
of the control object.
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2. Terminological definitions of the basic concepts and subject of research

of system theory
The main limitation, in our opinion, in the conceptual framework of systems
theory is the lack of emphasis among the elements of the system of the main thing -
"control object". The control object is an element of the system that implements the
goal. Depending on the set goal and type of object, the system can be informational,
energetic or informational-energetic.
After the concept of “control object” is introduced, the concepts of “direct
connection” and “feedback” acquire meaning. If information about the state
parameters of system elements is transferred from them to the control object, then
this is a “direct connection”, and when transmitted from the control object to other
elements, we will call it “feedback”. If information is transmitted between elements
of the system, then such communications will be called local.
If the system includes two elements - the control object and the regulator, and
also has two connections - direct and inverse, then it will be simple. The complexity
of the system is determined by the presence of several control objects, the structure of
relations and relations, the work of which must be coordinated.
Once the elements of the system and the functional relationships between them
are identified, it is necessary to begin controlling the operation of the system. Based
on the law of logic on the sufficiency of the basis, it is necessary to clarify the
concepts of “management” and “regulation”.
Both of these concepts are usually introduced at the very beginning of the
presentation, and they are not clearly defined, and are subsequently used alternately,
without any justification. Management usually means the organization of the
system’s process of evaluating the state parameters of the control object, comparing
them with the prescribed values and, when deviating from the set value, generating an
effect to bring the system to the set state. At its core, regulation performs the same
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functions as control, but the fundamental difference is the presence of one control
parameter. Therefore, regulation can be defined as one-parameter control. The
tracking system is not control, therefore, does not require direct communication.
The above judgments and introduced concepts allow to call into question the
term “control without feedback”. Yes, the system can exist without feedback, but it is
impossible to manage its work in this case. In closed systems, when feedback breaks,
an accident occurs.
The introduced concepts and the use of the point of view of the algebra of logic
allow us to reconstruct the concepts of the theory of automatic control and the theory
of artificial intelligence, which do not reflect the essence of the tasks.
The concept of “theory of artificial intelligence” used does not reflect the
essence of the tasks being solved. The main content of the tasks to be solved is that
researchers automate intellectual functions using cybernetic devices using algorithms
of natural intelligence. For this reason, it is more logical to consider two theories - the
theory of intelligence and the theory of automation of intellectual functions (the
theory of building cybernetic devices). In this case, we will distinguish three types of
intelligence - natural, hybrid and artificial.
Natural intelligence is a combination of declarative and procedures-
knowledge in the subject area, realizing the intellectual functions of man, designed to
achieve the goal.
Hybrid intelligence is a combination of declarative and procedural knowledge in
the subject area that implements intellectual functions partly by a cybernetic device,
partly by a person, designed to achieve the goal.
Artificial intelligence is a set of cybernetic devices that implement intellectual
functions in the subject area under consideration, the solution of which has already
been made by natural intelligence, designed to achieve the goal.
This approach eliminates the errors that exist when considering the principles of
creating robots. They are self-tuning and self-learning according to the algorithms
and programs that are created by man on the basis of the principles of the theory of
natural intelligence.
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The concept of “theory of automatic control” used does not reflect the essence
of the tasks that arise during the automation of control processes. If you follow the
essence of the tasks to be solved, then you need to consider the "theory of manual
control" when all the functions of organizing and controlling the system are
performed by the operator, the "theory of semi-automatic control" when some of the
functions are performed by the operator, and part of the cybernetic devices and the
theory of automatic control, when all functions are performed by cybernetic devices.
When establishing the subject of research, it is not clear what is solved during
automation the development of a control method or automation of a known method.
Therefore, it is advisable to separate the tasks solved in the synthesis of control
systems and consider the concepts of "control theory" and "theory of automation of
control processes."
The inclusion of the concepts justified above in the totality of fundamental
provisions provides for an internal reconstruction of the theory of which they are
elements.
Elements of the system form a set that can be finite or infinite. A system is a
collection of elements of a finite set. The element of the system whose operation is
controlled will be called the control object.
Depending on the direction in which energy is transmitted or information, we
will distinguish between direct, inverse and internal (local) inter-element
communications. If the information is transferred from the elements to the control
object, then these will be direct communications, from the control object to the
elements feedbacks, and if between the elements, then these are internal
communications.
If the system is open and interacts with the external environment, then the
concepts of input and output are used to indicate the direction of transmission of

information or energy. Entrance is an external t relationship “environment →

system”, and the way out is the relationship “system → external environment”.
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3. Generalized system diagram
The state of the system at any time is characterized by a multitude of parameters
that describe any essential feature (parameter) of the elements, and together give an
idea of the properties of the system. A generalized model of the system is shown in
Fig. 1.
For normal functioning, the system must have sufficient speed, stability and
adaptability, which will optimally adapt to perform its functions when external
constraints and internal conditions change.
A formalized description of the
Direct connections Enter
Control system will be produced by a set of
object
Set of times of operation T, however, let us
elements
pay attention to the fact that it is
External possible to talk about the state and
env.
control of its operation only when its

Border initial state at the time t0 is specified

systems Exit and the state parameters of the control
Feedback Local connections
object are controlled at discrete
Fig.1. System model diagram
intervals Δt at times time t1,t2,…,ti,…tn.
The set of these quantities form the set t  Т.
Among the parameters that are used to describe the functioning of the ship's
motion control system are:
 Xs – set of set values of the controlled parameter;
 xact – the actual current value of the controlled parameter;
 y – system output;
 z - parameters of external disturbance acting on the control object;
 u – control action designed to bring the object of maneuvering to a given state

uV  u 
(by speed and rudder angle );
 xerr = xs – xact – error signal representing the difference between the actual and
specified system states.
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The mapping of the sets x3,x ,z , xp, u to the set of states in time is denoted by
x3(t), x(t) , z(t), xp(t) and u(t).
The elements of these sets in the course of time will be denoted as:
x3(t0), x3(t1), x3(t2), …, x3(ti), …, x3(tn);
x(t0),x(t1),x(t2),…, x(ti),…,x(tn);
z(t0),z(t1),z(t2),…, z(ti),…,z(tn);
xp(t0),xp(t1),xp(t2),…, xp(ti),…,xp(tn);
u(t0),u(t1),u(t2),…, u(ti),…,u(tn);
y(t0),y(t1),y(t2),…, y(ti),…,y(tn),
where the initial state is marked by time t0.
If the sets x3, x ,z , xp and u defined on the interval [ t1,t2 ], then their elements
are also defined on this interval.
If elements u1(•) belong to the set u(•), then there is always u(•), such that u(t1,t2)
= u1(t1,t2) and u(t2,t3) = u2(t2, t3) for t1<t2<t3. If there is a transformation η: ТХ → Y,

then for any time in a generalized form we can write: y (t k )=η(t k , x (t k ), u(t )) ,

where the function η is called the function of observation or display of the output.
For the maneuvering control system, the principle of determinism in its behavior
is observed. This means that the state of the system at time t > τ is uniquely
determined by its state at time τ by all control inputs u(τ,t), that were used during the
time interval [τ,t]. This means that for any states х(•) and inputs u(•),if at time

moment τ system was in state х(τ) and used input u(•), there is a mapping σ , that
connects the state of the system of time intervals x(t) и х(τ)

x(t )=σ τ ,t [ x( τ )⋅u(⋅)] =σ [ τ ,t , x ,u(⋅)] . (1)

Let the states х0, x1, x2 for the input u(•)  U(•) be known for the times t0 < t1 < t2
< Т. Then for each state it is possible to write the mapping:

x1 = σ (t0, t1 хо, u(•)); х2 = σ (t0, t2 хо, u(•)); ⃗x 2 = σ (t1, t2 х1, u(•)).

Taking into account that х2 = ⃗x 2 , we have

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σ (t0, t2 х1, u(•)) = σ [t2, t1, σ (t0, t1 хо, u(•)), u(•)]. (2)

Expression (2) is called the analytical record of the axiom of determinism.

The transformation σ is called the transition mapping, and the functions η and
σ characterize system connections.

Obviously, if х = σ (t, tK, x, u(•)), then this means that the system cannot be in
two different states at the same moment of time tK. This statement is called the axiom
of consistency. In this case, the transient mapping should not depend on the control
actions that will be used in the future, and this is called the axiom of causality.
Analytically, it can be written as:
t0 < t, t0, t  T, x(t0); y(t0) and u(t0), then for t there exists x(t),..., u(t) and
σ (t0, t, x(t0), u(t0)) = σ (t0, t, x(t0), u(t)).
In view of the above, we can give the following definition: the system is defined
if a set of values Т, u, у, х, a set of inputs u(•), outputs у(•) and states х(•),a transition

mapping σ (t, t0 х, u(•)),that satisfy the axioms of determinism, consistency, and

causality, and the output mapping η such that for any output element у(•)  Y(•)
there exists a state х(•) and u(•) U(•), for which at any moments of time τ, t  Т for
τ < t the following relation is fulfilled:

y(t) = η (t, x(t), u(•)) = η (t, τ (t, τ, х(τ)), u(•)), (3)

and vice versa, any output y(t) for t > τ, which is obtained from expression (3),
belongs to Y(•).
When using systems theory, three types of problems are solved: analysis,
synthesis, and black box. The task of the analysis is that for a given structure of the
system, it is necessary to study its functioning. The task of synthesis is to build a
structure and select functional connections that would allow achieving the goals set
by the nature of its functioning and the requirements. The task of the black box is to
determine the nature of its functioning and, if possible, the structure for a given
system, based on a known input and output.
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4. Classification of systems

Since the definitions of the concept "system" used do not clearly establish its
boundaries and characterize the composition, it is necessary to supplement the
definitions with classifications and clarifications.
Systems can be classified:
 by the nature of the elements;
 by the nature of behavior;
 on interaction with the external environment;
 by the complexity of structure and behavior;
 by the degree of organization;
 by the type of scientific direction used for their modeling.
By the nature of the elements, natural, artificial and mixed are distinguished.
Natural arise as a result of natural processes and are: inorganic nature (technical,
physical, geological, chemical, etc.); living systems - organisms, microorganisms,
populations, ecological, social, socio-economic, etc. Artificial ones are usually
created by man to achieve a specific goal, these include theories, hypotheses,
scientific knowledge, linguistic, logical, automata, robots, computers, etc.
By the nature of their behavior they are deterministic, probabilistic and playful.
A system is called deterministic, the state of which in the future is uniquely
determined by its state at the present moment in time and the laws describing the
transition of the system from one state to another. Elements in the system interact in a
precisely known way.
Probabilistic (stochastic) are those whose state parameters are described by the
laws of probability theory. Knowledge of the current state and interconnection is
insufficient to predict the future behavior of the system.
A playful system is a system that makes a reasonable choice of its behavior in the
future. The basis for the choice is the assessment of the situation and the proposed
methods of action, selected on the basis of pre-formed criteria and considerations of
an informal nature. Only a person who is an element of the system can be guided by
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such considerations.
In terms of interaction with the external environment, two types of systems are
distinguished - closed and open. The external environment is everything that does not
belong to the system and can affect it. Distinguish between direct and indirect
influence. Direct influence is the direct effect on the state of the system. Indirect
influence includes environmental factors that may not have an immediate and direct
effect on state parameters, but may require control adjustments. An example of a
direct influence on the traffic control system is the effect of wind, waves, currents.
An example of a mediated influence is the appearance of other vessels that can
influence a pre-selected path.
A closed system has fixed boundaries, and its operation is characterized by a
high degree of independence from the external environment. For example, the exact
time system on a ship is a chronometer.
An open system is characterized by interaction with the external environment.
The objects of exchange with the external environment are energy, information,
matter, materials, etc., which are objects of transfer across the boundaries of the
system. In order for an open system to exist, it must be adapted to changes in the state
of the external environment, by compensating for such influences or taking into
account the ongoing changes in the organization of its work.
Structures and behaviors are distinguished by complexity - simple, complex and
very complex. Simple systems are characterized by a small number of elements,
connections and possible states, and their behavior is easily described within the
framework of one or another formalized model.
Complex systems have a significant number of various connections, the presence
of several control objects, however, various methods and sections of mathematics are
used to describe them.
Very complex systems are characterized by a large number of elements, the
work of which requires the presence of many direct, reverse and local functional
connections, when studying their work, it is not always possible to establish the
composition and structure of the order of information transfer.
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According to the degree of organization, there are well-organized, poorly
organized and self-organizing.
A well-organized system is a system in which all the elements are defined,
functional connections between them are established and the purpose for which it was
created is determined. In such a system, the relationship between elements and goals
can be described by analytical dependencies. The problem of making a decision in it
is described in the form of a mathematical expression, a criterion of efficiency and
quality of functioning, which are represented by a complex equation, a system of
equations, complex models, inequalities, etc. Research and solution of the problem is
carried out by analytical methods using models of a formalized representation of the
system.
When an object is presented as a poorly organized system, the task is not set to
determine all the elements taken into account, their properties and relationships
between themselves, as well as with the goals of the system. For such a system, a set
of macro parameters and functional laws are formed that will characterize them. The
estimates obtained have limited reliability and can be used with some reservations.
A self-organizing system has the property of adapting to changing
environmental conditions, by restructuring the structure, choosing the best
composition and functional connections, while maintaining its integrity. These
qualities are determined by the presence in the system of active elements that analyze
the parameters of the external environment, plan a new predetermined functioning
algorithm and optimize its work.
By the type of scientific direction used for their modeling, they are distinguished
between mathematical, chemical, technical, social, etc.

5. Diagram of the control system for maneuvering course and position

Depending on the composition of the elements, the organization of functional
links and the structural diagram, there are two ways to control the movement during
maneuvering: control of the direction of movement of the planned course; control of
the deviation of the ship's position relative to the earth's surface, specified by the pass
 18
points. The object of control is the hull of the ship 1 (Fig. 2), connected by direct
information links with the controls 2, which is the rudder while the ship is moving.
The command to the controls comes from the information-control device 3, the input
of which is the value of the course deviation ± "∆CC", according to the value of
which the command to the steering wheel is generated, to bring it to the set value.

Z(t)
command
4 CCgiv  CC 3 2 1
CCcurr(t)

CCcurr

Fig. 2. Diagram of the existing course control system

The value ± "∆CC" is generated in the comparison device, which receives the
current value of the course along the feedback lines and the set value of the course
along the lines of local communication from element 4, which is generated by the
navigator during the preliminary study of the transition. Element 4 receives
information from the control object on the parameters of external influences via
feedback lines, on the basis of which the navigator develops corrections for wind
drift, waves and current during preliminary study of the transition and takes them into
account when assigning.
The algorithm of the course control system (Fig. 2.) is as follows. System
element 4 (hull) is affected by hydrometeorological forces and cops who change his

state. The task of the control system is to maintain a given direction of travel
CC giv .
The setpoint 4, based on the coordinates of the previous and subsequent waypoints,

selected taking into account strict restrictions, generates a value

CC giv that

is fed to the comparison device . Here, through the communication channels from the

heading indicating device, the value of the current heading

CC curr is received and at

the output, the error signal ±ΔCC is fed to the information control device 3, which
generates a command to the control means 2 to bring the vessel 1 to the line of the
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given heading. The command to the steering wheel ends the information part of the
system and its energy begins.
The operation algorithm of the position control system (Fig. 3) differs from the
above in that three elements are added: 5 - the system for planning a given trajectory;
6 - device for evaluating current coordinates; - a device for comparing current
and specified coordinate values.

Z(t)
±ΔCC command
CCcurrr(t)
4 CCgiv 3 2 1
CCcurr
dcur giv Zt(t)
curr
giv curr
5 6

Fig. 3. Diagram of the existing position control system

Legend: 1 - control object, 2 - control facility, 3 - information and control

device, 4 - heading generator, 5 - trajectory planning system, 6 - current coordinates
estimator.
The system has two control loops. One of them, consisting of elements 1 - 4,
works in course control. The second loop starts to work when a deviation
appears, the error signal is sent to element 4, where a new value of CCgiv2 is
calculated, which is fed to the course control loop and remains unchanged until a new
deviation appears.
Considering the process of regulation in a deterministic model, you can take a

given value of the course constant

CC giv=CC 0 , hydrometeorological influences in

Z (t )  1 t 
the form of a stepwise unit function , and the properties of the control
system in the form of a well-known differential equation. Then the output signal of
the ship's heading is represented as a specific function of time
as a result of the transformation by a deterministic control system of two input signals
 20
x2 (t )  1 t  .
and

Based on the four main laws of logic - identity, excluded third, contradiction and
sufficient reason, it is proposed to introduce into the set of fundamental provisions
the concept of "control object", which allowed to clarify the connections in the
control system, justify the inaccuracy of the meaning "control without feedback", to
clarify the concepts of "control" and "regulation" and the concepts of "simple
system", "complex system".
The internal reconstruction of the concepts of "automatic control theory" into
two concepts, "control theory", which previously existed and "the theory of
automation of control processes" which expresses the essence of the tasks being
solved, allows to more clearly define the subject of research.
Internal reconstruction of the concept of "theory of artificial intelligence" into
two concepts - "theory of intelligence" and "theory of automation of intellectual
functions" allows to reasonably determining the range of tasks to be solved when
considering the "human factor" and creating robotic systems.
The research carried out and the proposals put forward can serve to unify
interdisciplinary concepts and clarify the range of tasks to be solved in the synthesis
of systems and the creation of models of processes of various nature.

6. Movement control methods

At present, the algorithms for the operator's intelligent actions during

maneuvering have not been sufficiently developed, so the navigator controls the
movement process based on practical experience by trial and error. To build and
select the structure of the control system, it is necessary to determine the list of
functions that the operator performs and the adopted control method. To minimize the
composition of the elements of the control system and increase its speed, it is
necessary to select a control algorithm, determine the method of maneuvering and the
range of tasks that must be solved to ensure guaranteed safety.
To study the maneuvering process, it is sufficient to track and control the
 21
movement of only the center of gravity G, since the position of the remaining points
the vessel is determined by the parameters of movement. They are monitored during
maneuvering, and the parameters of external influences are measured with
appropriate instruments.
The purpose of the operation of the maneuver control system is to guide the
vessel along the track, set by straight and curved sections in the form of coordinates
of path points (PP). Then it is necessary to agree on the possibility of achieving the
set task, taking into account the presence of water area restrictions for maneuvering
and the magnitude of the control actions that are necessary to bring the system to the
required state.
A maneuvering accident occurs when the control action is insufficient to bring
the system to a predetermined state. After choosing a goal and taking into account the
limitations, the third task arises - the implementation of the way to achieve the goal.
In this case, it is necessary to choose the best option from a large number of possible
ones, i.e. to optimize the maneuvering process by choosing the value of the
permissible deviation of the coordinates of the center of gravity from the given ones,
at which it is necessary to apply a control action to correct it.
Any system consists of elements, each of which has a functional purpose; to
perform its tasks, it is connected by communication channels with the control object
and other elements. Information circulates through the communication channels,
which can be divided into two types - procedural and declarative. Declarative
information carries information about the parameters of the system state. The
procedural one determines the algorithm of the boatmaster's actions, which he must
implement.
The combination of such types of information forms the knowledge of what,
when and how to do, to ensure the normal functioning of the system. When
considering the process of maneuvering, we will consider two types of restrictions -
on the water area for maneuvering and the amount of control actions. Restrictions of
the first kind on the water area for maneuvering are of two types - hard and variable
(soft). Hard limits are known a priori and do not change during movement. Soft types
 22
of the first kind arise and disappear sporadically, and require adjustment of the given
control algorithm. Constraints of the second kind on the magnitude of control actions
are known a priori, and they do not affect the given control algorithm of the
maneuvering process, but only determine the time of its course.
When considering maneuvering issues, two gradations are introduced - strong
and weak control action. When choosing the operating mode of the main power plant,
we will refer to the full front, middle, rear full as strong control actions, and for the
steering wheel - the shift angle of more than 15⁰. Weak control actions include small
and smallest forward travel, small and medium reverse travel, and for a rudder - a
shift angle of less than 15⁰.
The choice of control actions when planning maneuvers and their practice
technical implementation must be carried out taking into account the fact that they are
necessary reserve in case the planned maneuver is unsuccessful, or an unforeseen
situation arises and a movement correction is required. By for this reason, when
planning, it is necessary to choose only weak controls impacts and shape the course,
as shown in Figure 4.

Calculation of TC Gyrocompass GC
Yes GC correction
given CCgivCalculator

by WP GC calculator
coordinates
Determination of No MC correction Magnetic compass MC
current calculator
coordinates
Calculation of the angles MC Yes
of drift from wind and SC correction Satellite compass SC
current No calculator

Heading CC giv=TC +ΔC CCcurr

CCgiv
By distribution CC giv=TC +ΔC+α +β Motion Comparator and
Indication documentation
By deviation CC giv=TCgiv + ΔC
motion planning
indicator CCcurr device CCcurr, V system
Combined CC аgiv=TC1+ΔC+α+β
Fig. 4 Functional diagram of the heading formation device
The way to control the maneuvering process is determined by the number of

factors taken into account when assigning a given compass heading CC giv .
In this case, four control methods can be used - heading, heading taking into
 23
account the deviation from the line of a given path, heading taking into account
external disturbances and heading combined.

With the heading method CC giv=TC +ΔC (see fig. 5) the ship is controlled by
a compass, without taking into account external disturbances and according to the
planned course, the movement of the ship between waypoints is not corrected.
В
А

Fig. 5. The scheme of movement in the heading method

This method works as follows. According to the coordinates of the point of

departure A and arrival B, the course is calculated manually or in the device for
forming a given control algorithm, correcting it with compass corrections.
The set and actual heading is fed to the controls. Then value is maintained
(adjusted) automatically or manually. For this, information from the device for
indicating the course along the inner contour is sent to the controls. In them, it is
compared with the preset one and an error signal is generated, according to the value
of which the control action leads the control object to the preset course, as shown in
Fig. 2.

By deviation method
CC giv=TC 1 + ΔC (see fig. 6) the ship's heading changes
whenever positioning is made and it is determined that an unacceptable offset has
occurred relative to the planned track.

В
А В

Fig. 6. The scheme of movement with the directional deviation control method

The heading TC1 is recalculated according to the current value of coordinates

and the subsequent waypoint, and the more often the location is determined, the more
A given algorihm for the functioning System
of the maneuvering
for determining maneuverability
Maneuver planning system
system
24
accurately the ship will go to the intended point. The structure of the control system
Control
Means ofdeviation object Device
for Device for comparing
maneuvering by the directional method will havedirection
the formguidance
оn Fig. 7.
handling and speed
Fig.7. Functional diagram of directional deviation control
Usually, when considering the process of maneuvering, four control methods are
used, depending on the initial data, this movement is considered relatively flat and
stationary Earth.
This method works as follows. According to the coordinates of the departure
point A and arrival B, the course is manually or automatically calculated, correcting it
with compass corrections, and determining the specified coordinates of the track line.
The set course is sent to the controls and the maneuver control system operates along
the inner loop. The characteristics of the coordinates of the specified path of the PP
and the actual position from the satellite are fed along the outer contour to the
comparison device, which ensures the operation of the system, as shown in Fig. 3.
When soft constraints appear, the system evaluates the approaching situation and
generates a new value for the given operating algorithm, including changing direction
and speed.

In the heading of the disturbance-based control method

CC giv=TC +ΔC+α +β
(see Fig. 8.), the course is assigned taking into account the influence of external
disturbances, the influence of which is taken into account by introducing corrections

В
А

B’
Fig. 8. Scheme of movement in the heading of the disturbance-based control method

for the wind drift α and drift angle by the current β

.
The deviation from the planned path occurs due to inaccurate knowledge of
the drift angles from the action of external factors and corrections of the guidance
devices. The structure of the control system for maneuvering course by disturbance
 25
method has the form shown in Fig. 9. This method works as follows. The coordinates
of the departure point A and the arrival point B are used to calculate corrections for
external disturbances and heading. To do this, determine the true course from the
point of departure to the point of arrival (or from the previous waypoint to the next)
and corrections for the action of external and internal disturbances. Correct it by
correcting the compass, and determine the given compass heading. In the future, the
control system works along the inner contour without determining the position of the
vessel at the transition between points.

A given algorihm for the functioning of the Heading

maneuvering
correction calculator External Hard restrictions
system
influences

Device
Means of Control object
direction guidance
handling
and speed

Fig. 9. Functional diagram of control of the heading by disturbance method

In the heading combined method, the ship's course from the point of departure to
the point of arrival (or from the previous point to the next) is assigned taking into
account external disturbances and is periodically corrected taking into account the
location of the vessel, changes in the parameters of external influences and the
location of the destination.
The movement pattern when controlling the heading combined method is shown
in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10. The scheme of movement in the heading combined method

It is characterized by the fact that it has a full set of elements, which, due to
functional links, ensure guaranteed safe maneuvering.
The existing ship motion control systems do not include subsystems for
 26
calculating the maneuvering properties of the ship, planning maneuvers, calculating
corrections for external influences and adjusting the given algorithm for the
functioning of the motion control system when soft constraints appear.
When sailing in the open ocean, the most widespread is the directional control
method and the directional control method by deviation, when the position is
estimated by technical (mainly satellite) means. When sailing in cramped conditions,
the most widespread method is deviation, when the position is estimated by
comparative methods.
The considered four methods of motion control - heading, heading with
deviation, course with distribution and course with deviation and distribution, allow
to minimize the composition of the control system elements to increase its speed. The
choice of the control algorithm determines the method of maneuvering and the range
of tasks that must be solved to ensure guaranteed safety.
When performing offshore operations and sailing in confined waters, it is
necessary to use a combined method, since it is not always possible to identify a
deviation from the intended path by determining the location of the vessel, due to the
transience of the processes occurring and the delay of such information by the time of
decision making.
Correction of the deviation arising from inaccurate knowledge of the drift angles
can be made by weak control actions. If the drift angles are determined visually,
while steering the vessel, without preliminary calculation, the errors that occur can be
significant, and the use of strong control actions is required, which significantly
complicates the work.
The choice of the method of maneuvering control is determined by the number
and structure of the training system for a given control algorithm. At present, such a
system practically does not exist as part of the navigation devices of the vessel, while
it is believed that the navigator knows how to perform the corresponding elementary
actions and applies them in his work.

7. System of guaranteed safety of ship maneuvering control

 27

Depending on the sailing conditions, the type of tactical and technological tasks
of maneuvering to be solved, a method of motion control is chosen. The choice of the
method is made by changing the composition of the elements of the control system
and turning on the corresponding devices of the navigation complex, which ensure
the determination of the corresponding parameter. The heading method uses the
principle of heading deviation from the set value.
In the heading method with observations, the control principle is used according
to the deviation of the actual place from the given one, the information of which is
transmitted along the outer contour, and according to the deviation of the course
along the inner one.
Coursework with external influences uses the principle of control by deviation
of the path, introducing corrections to the course for the impact of
hydrometeorological geological conditions, and control occurs only along the inner
loop.
In the heading combined method, three parametric control is used, and both
control loops of the system operate.
In order to describe the elements of the system, it is necessary to synthesize their
structural diagram and show functional connections within the system, its inputs and
outputs. To synthesize a system of guaranteed safety of maneuvering control, it is
necessary to use the following navigation devices: planning a given optimal path by
path points; device for calculating corrections for external disturbances; indication of
course and speed; mismatch signal generation; information control device; prevention
of ship aground; determining the position of the vessel using high-precision methods;
solving the problem by discrepancies.
Typically, all elements of the maneuvering control system are located in the
wheelhouse and navigator's cabin. Those that are designed to control the movement
process are located in the wheelhouse and on the bridge wings.
The navigation device for planning a given optimal path with the coordinates of
the TP of straight and curved sections requires information about the maneuvering
 28
characteristics.
For a high-precision automatic procedure for planning a sailing trajectory in
confined conditions and for automatic control over the movement of a vessel, a
navigation device "Trajectory planning" was developed whose functional diagram is
shown in Fig. 11.
The navigation device operates as follows. From the control panel 12, the
coordinates of the waypoints (WP), which were obtained during preliminary
preparation for the transition, are entered into block 1 and the value of the permissible
deviation. into block 10. The speed of movement of the vessel in block 4 is
determined according to the sailing conditions, and the shift angle according to the
magnitude of the angles of rotation and their value is entered into blocks 5 and 7
respectively.
According to the data received from block 1 in block 5, the coordinates are
calculated movements, including curved sections, in the form of TP through 0.2 kbt
in
free conditions.
The obtained data are fed to block 6, where a high-precision trajectory is
graphically plotted, and to block 10 for indicating a given path, which is a given
algorithm for controlling the movement of the vessel. This also receives information
about the actual position of the receiving antenna of the ship from block 2, which is
preliminarily recalculated to the center of gravity of the ship in block 3 and the data is
sent to block 10. From the plotter, the data is sent to the movement indicator 13.
If it is established in block 10 that the deviation from the path is greater than
the allowable one, then the alarm block 9 is triggered. By the deviation, the block 12
generates data for correcting the movement and bringing the vessel to the line of the
specified path.
The peculiarity of the PP path planning is as follows. Initially, planning is done
as usual by the WP, an example of which is shown in Table 1. The starting point of
planning the passage is the coordinates of the place of disembarkation of the pilot,
and the end point is the place of receiving the pilot to proceed to the port. The
 29
sections from the berth of the port of departure to the point of disembarkation of the
pilot and from the point of embarkation of the pilot to the berth of the port of arrival
should be planned separately, according to a special method. The existing IMO
recommendations for drawing up a pilotage plan for the pilotage of a vessel cannot be
used for navigation purposes.
In the future, the trajectory of the transition between the WP will be divided
into straight and curved track sections. In this case, the coordinates of the WP are
excluded from the control ones, and it is replaced by a curved section in the form of a
rotation matrix. The calculation of the coordinates of points of rectilinear sections is
carried out through the path interval ΔS kbt, and the coordinates of curved sections

through an angle of ΔΔΘ = 50 at an angle of rotation to

Δθ i =600 or ΔΔΘ =100
at an angle of rotation of more than 60 degrees. The specified path interval must be
chosen taking into account the error in determining the place and area of navigation -
open sea or confined waters. It is recommended to appoint in the open sea

ΔS=1 kbt , and in confined conditions up to ΔS=0,2 kbt . In this case, the
choice of a given interval can be selected at the discretion of the boatmaster.
Taking into account the above, the algorithm of the navigator's work when
planning the PP path through a given path interval ΔS cables in cramped conditions
will be as follows.
1. The WP of the area of confined waters is applied on the map and the results
of the laying are entered in table 1.

2. Determine the angles of rotation  Θ і and select the angles of the rudder

shift δ for each waypoint:

 calculate the angle of rotation

Δθ i by the formula:
ΔΘi=TC i+1−TC i . (4)
Table 1.
Waypoint planning in tabular form
 30
№ S,
TC  
WP miles
1 - - 38О06,8I S 144О23,3I E
2 1470 0,8 38О07,5I S 144О23,8I E
3 83 2,6 38О07,2I S 144О27,2I E
4 102 3,7 38О07,9I S 144О31,7I E
5 55 4,0 38О05,7I S 144О36,1I E
- choose a rudder angle
δ вх taking into account the following
recommendations:

50 at Δθ before 300
δ вх = 100 at Δθ = 300 - 600 (5)

150 at Δθ more 600.

 select the sampling interval ΔΔΘ and calculate the number of intermediate

points on the circulation by the formula

n=ΔΘi /ΔΔΘ .

 the system for calculating the maneuvering characteristics receives

information about the characteristics of agility

ℓ 1 , ℓ2 ,Dт , D y , by which the
coordinates of the points of the curvilinear trajectory are determined and the received
data are sent to the display and memory.
3. Subsequently, matrices of straight sections are formed from the initial point
to the point of circulation beginning. Then the circulation matrix follows, the last
point of which is the starting point of the next straight section. Due to the fact that the
defining points dividing the sections of the path into straight and curved will be the
points of the beginning and end of the turn, then first of all the calculation must be
made with the coordinates of the curved sections. As an example, the calculation will
be performed for 3 WP given in Table. 2.
Table 2
Fragment of the starting leg of waypoints
№ TC Distance   Δθ i
WP S, miles
0 1020 3,7 38О07,9I S 144О31,7I E -
 31
1 550 4,0 38О05,7I S 144О36,1I E 470
2 670 0,7 38О05,5I S 144О36,9I E 120

Further calculation algorithm will be as follows:

 determine the angle of rotation from the 1st to the 2nd point
Δθ i =470;

 choose the steering angle by the formula (5)

δ вх =100 and angle
0
ΔΔΘ=5 ;
 determine the number of points of the curved trajectory n= 47/5 =9;

 calculate values for rudder angle 100 values

ℓ1 =4,22 cables and

Dт =6,79 cables;
 calculate the values of the segments MN and MK by the formulas:
Dт Dт ΔΘi
МN =ℓ 1− 2
+ tg =4 ,22−3 , 395+3 ,395⋅tg23 . 50 =2,301 cables
2 2 . (6)
Dт ΔΘi
МК = 2
tg =3 .395⋅tg 23 . 50 =1 , 476 cables
2 . (7)
The calculation of the segments must be made up to the third sign of the cables, from
subsequent rounding to the second.
 according to the coordinates of the 1st WP, the direction
opposite to from the 0th point and the segment MN, the coordinates of the
point of the beginning of circulation are calculated, according to the written
reckoning formulas NC1:

LatD == МN⋅cos(TC1 +180 0 )=0 , 2301'⋅cos(102 0 +180 0 )=0 , 04784' to N (8)

ω=МN⋅sin(TC1 +1800 )=0 , 2301⋅sin(1020 +1800 )=−0 ,22507 (9)

0 '
LonD=ω⋅sec ϕm=−0 ,2250⋅sec38 .1 =−0 ,28593 (10)
- calculate the coordinates of the point of the beginning of circulation
' ' 0 '
ϕ Nc1=ϕпт1 +LatD=2285 .7 −0 , 04784=2285 , 65216 =38 05 .6522 S (11)
 32
' ' ' 0 '
λ Nc1=λпт1 +LonD=8676. 1 −0 ,2859 =8675 ,7141 =144 35 , 7142 E (12)
- according to the coordinates of the 1st WP, the direction of TC2 from the 1st
point and the MK segment, the coordinates of the circulation end point are calculated
Кc1
' 0 '
Latd == МК⋅cos TC 2 =0 , 1476 ⋅cos55 =0 , 08466 to N (13)
0
ω=МК⋅sinTC 2 =0 ,1476⋅sin 55 =0 , 1209 (14)
0 '
LonD=ω⋅sec ϕm=0 , 1209⋅sec 38. 1 =0 . 15364 (15)
- calculate the coordinates of the end point of circulation
' ' ' 0 '
ϕ кc1=ϕпт1 + LatD=2285. 7 −0 ,1209 =2285 , 65216 =38 05 .54636 S (16)
' ' ' 0 '
λ кc1=λ пт1+ LonD=8676 . 1 +0 ,2859 =8676 , 3859 =144 36 , 3859 E (17)
The trajectory points of the curved trajectory are calculated according to the
method described in [9], and the matrix of the curvilinear trajectory of the turn is
formed in WP 1.
Similarly, the PP rotation matrix of the given algorithm is formed for each
waypoint Мп12 , Мп23,… Мпі(і+1)…, Мп(m-1)m, for all і{1, …, m }, where m value of
waypoints.
The matrix PP turning from the first WP to the second can be written:

М п12 =¿ ¿ ,
(18)
for all і{1, …, n }, where n the value of PP curvilinear trajectory of a given WP.
According to the coordinates of the 0-th WP о=38О07,9IS, о = 144О31,7I E, the
direction of TC1=1020 from the 0th point and the sampling distance of 0.1 miles in the
open sea and 0.02 miles in cramped conditions are calculated , according to the
formulas of writing reckoning, coordinates of subsequent points of the trajectory of
motion according to the following formulas:

LatD= ΔS⋅cosTC 1=0,1'⋅cos1020 =0 , 02079' to N (19)

 33
0
ω=ΔS⋅sin TC 1=0,1⋅sin 102 =0 , 0978' (20)
0 '
LonD=ω⋅sec ϕm=0 , 0978⋅sec38 .1 =0 , 12428 (21)
- calculate the coordinates of the trajectory point:
ϕ011=ϕ0 + LatD=2287 . 9' +0 , 02079' =2287 , 92079' =380 07. 92079' S . (22)
λ011=λ 0 +LonD=8671 ,7 ' +0 ,12428' =8671 , 82428' =144 0 31 ,8243' E . (23)
In the future, the coordinates of the points of the straight-line trajectory from the

|ϕ |¿
¿|ϕ0 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿ нц1 ¿ ¿
initial ¿ to the first point of the beginning of the turn ¿ are calculated and the
PP array is formed in the form of the first path matrix. The points are calculated
according to the written reckoning formulas, up to the fifth decimal place of a
fraction of a minute and subsequent rounding up to four. Such accuracy is necessary
due to the small distance between the points determining the position of the center of
gravity and the high accuracy of determining the ship's position by satellite systems

in differential mode, when the radial RMS error reaches a value ±2 m , and
sometimes even less.
In the future, when organizing calculations, the description of data arrays will be
performed in the form of path matrices М 01 , М12 …Мj(j+1) ….М(m-1)m for all j{1, …,
m }, where m is value of WP. The matrix of PP a straight section from the starting
point to the first track can be written:

М 01 =¿ ¿ , (24)
for all і{1, …, к }, where к is value of PP straight trajectory.
4. Form an array of waypoints matrices and turn PP matrices for all track points in the
following sequence:
М01 , Мп12 , М12 , Мп23, М23… Мпі(і+1) , Мі(і+1),… Мп(m-1)m, М(m-1)m, (25)
where М01 – matrix PP of the linear section from the initial 0-th WP to the
feed point to the rudder shift;
Мп12 – rotation matrix from the first WP to the second from the beginning Nc1
 34
to completed Кc1 of curved line; М12, М23, Мі(і+1), М(m-1)m – corner section matrices;
Мп23, Мпі(і+1) , Мпі(і+1) - PP matrices of straight sections.
The transition matrices do not contain information about the trajectory of the
route from the berth to the place of disembarkation of the pilot at departure and from
the place of the pilot's reception to the berth in the port of arrival. This information
should be formed in the form of a ship's sailing plan under pilotage.
After the plan of the transition path is formed in the form of coordinate matrices
PP is necessary to determine the structure of devices that form the parameters.
The heading and speed indicating device consists of (see Fig. 12): propeller
speed dial (machine telegraph); tachometer (propeller speed indicator);
indicator of the ship's speed relative to the water; calculator (indicator) of the ship's
speed relative to the ground; pointer gyroscopic, magnetic and true courses.
In this case, the tachometer, heading and speed indicator are intended for visual
control of the driving mode and the correct execution of the commands tire
compartment and steering (autopilot). Their values are fed to the control system to
ensure the operation of other elements and to the device for documenting the
maneuvering process.

Gyrocompass

From the object of control

Magnetic compass Pointing indicator CCcurr
Compass correction calculator

Setelite compass
Motion documentation device CCcurr, V
CCcurr

Main engine control panel Engine telegraph Comparison device and motion planni
From info control
Vтек
devices

Rudder Tachometer Absolute

lag

Lag sensor Relative lag Speed indicator

Fig. 12. Functional diagram of the heading and speed indicating device
 35

This device is purely measuring; it allows you to observe the process of

maneuvering and gives the vector of the current movement of the vessel. Since it is
very important for safe sailing, there are backup methods for determining course and
speed. The magnetic compass is used as a reserve for determining the course. The
reserve for determining the speed is a method of determining it by the number of
propeller revolutions according to a special table, which is available on the bridge.
Control object. The properties of the vessel as a control object will be detailed
below. We only note the fact that the course change occurs with a lag in relation to
the command time, which depends on the rudder shift angle and travel speed.
The information control device generates a command for the control means (see
Fig. 13). Its content depends on the management method.
With the exchange rate method, the given algorithm does not change. Therefore,
the error signal is formed in the form of a deviation of the current course from the

given ΔС=СС giv −СС сurr . In accordance with the deviation, the rudder is shifted to
bring the vessel to a given compass heading. Autopilot is used on the high seas,
manual control in confined areas.
When using the exchange rate method with external influences, the mismatch

signal ΔC=CC giv1 −CC curr will be in the form of a deviation of the current course

from the set one CC giv1 , assigned taking into account the calculated corrections for
drift, current, and waves.
Its value will be sent to the input of the error shaping device for the internal
control loop.

Navigation devices for calculating corrections for disturbances

Controls

1 4 No
2
Internal control loop No External
control circuit
Planning system
Device
trajectory of movement definitions
Yes CCgiv ship location

Heading device
 k  
DПМП   aП  bПtg П   MM '   R;
 2 
Device Device
comparisons comparisons

Trajectory correction system Command on controls

 Fig. 13. Functional diagram of the information control device
1 –heading; 2 – heading with deviation; 3 – heading with distribution; 4 – combined heading

36

In the course with observations method, the error signal will be in the form of a
deviation of the actual position of the vessel from the specified one, and through the
trajectory correction system leads to a change in the specified course, and the new

value CC giv2 is fed to the error signal generator.

With the course combined method, the error signal will be three-parameter - in
the form of course deviation, location and corrections for external influences, while
the displacement from the track line will be minimal, due to a more complete
consideration of all types of information about the effects.
The device for solving the discrepancy problem, its block diagram is shown in
Fig. 14. It operates at the second level of the hierarchy as part of the maneuver
planning system and leads to a change in the specified control algorithm. The device
works as follows. When variable constraints (other vessels) appear, the parameters of
the approach situation are determined, which are the initial data for entering the
catalog for solving the divergence problem. These characteristics are:
 location relative to the course line - right / left; heading angle
0 0 0
α<90 , α=90 and α >90 ;
 the location of the boat in relation to the ship's position - crosses the course
forward, passes through us or crosses the course line aft.

Ship radar, Approach situation classifier Excessive proximity Yes

AIS receiver, visual observation

No

Possible types of maneuversCatalog

of ownof
orapproach В
situations
other vessel and divergence maneuvers
ommendations for maneuvering taking into account the requirements of the rules and the availability of water area for maneuver

Maneuvering control system for maneuvering with

Recommendations Cybernetic collision
visualization avoidance maneuver selection device
of the situation

Fig. 14 Functional diagram of the device for solving the discrepancy problem

Based on this data, the situation is analyzed, and if a dangerous approach is

 37
observed, then the collision warning device is activated, which generates a
recommend
dation for maneuvering and issues a visualization of the approach pattern.
Otherwise, the data goes to the log, which generates recommendations for the
divergence maneuver, and they are sent to the course generator, and the system
receives a new control algorithm.
The error shaping device compares the current and setpoint values of the
corresponding controlled parameter and provides information on the basis of which a
decision is made to correct the movement by sending a command to the controls. The
functional diagram of the device is shown in Fig. 15.
When sailing in cramped conditions and when performing marine operations,
the information and control device includes a person - an operator torus, which
allows you to combine technical means with the intellectual capabilities of a person,
however, it is necessary to coordinate his psychophysiological characteristics with the
parameters of the movement process.
When performing control with the arrival of the observed point from the
navigation complex, it is necessary to calculate the distances and bearings from the
observed points to the points of the planned trajectory according to the known
formulas:

TBi=arctg[( λ 0− λi )⋅cos ϕ 0 /( ϕ0 −ϕi )] ,

(26)
Di=1852⋅(ϕ0 −ϕi ) /cosTBі . . (27)

CCgiv
CCcurr Parameters of external influences
C = CCgiv – CCcurr Command to controls

C1 = CCgiv1 – CCcurr 1
2 Information control device
3
4

C2 = CCgiv2 – CCcurr
Location device
о, о

C3 = CCgiv3 – CCcurr
Specified current position parameters giv, giv

TBi,Di
38
Fig. 15 - Diagram of the error signal generation
1 –heading; 2 – heading with deviation; 3 – headingDwith distribution; 4 – combined
D heading
Then the minimum value is determined
.
min and if it is less giv , the ship's

heading remains unchanged until the next observation. If Dmin >Dgiv , then
depending on the position of the observed point relative to the planned one, the
course is changed to enter the planned trajectory.
The specified algorithm of the control system functioning is developed in the

motion planning subsystem. It is different for different control methods: CC giv at

heading; TA and CC giv1 at heading with deviation; CCgiv2 ,ϕgiv и λgiv at heading with

distribution; at combined heading TA , CC giv3 ,ϕзgiv и λgiv . For the formation of high-
precision coordinates, they must be determined in the form of matrices of PP
coordinates of straight and curved sections.
The position determination device serves to assess the position of the vessel in
various ways. The peculiarities of the requirements for the operation of the device are
that information about the position of the vessel must be obtained as soon as possible,
otherwise the information may turn out to be useless if it is late by the time a decision
on control is made. The functional diagram of the positioning is shown in Fig. 16.
 39
The choice of the method for determining the position of the vessel depends on
the availability of navigation equipment on the vessel and the area of navigation. If
От ИСЗ The usual ways Coastal visual landmarks Astronomical ways
by satellites

High-precision satellite methods Using the ship'sOphthalmic,

radar overview on a comparative method

Data matching block о, о Motion documentation device

To motion planning system and comparison device о, о

Fig. 16. Functional diagram of the ship position determination system

sailing takes place away from the coast, then it is possible to use astronomical
methods and satellite systems. When sailing in coastal areas and in confined areas
conditions, the position must be monitored visually using radar and the data must be
analyzed to eliminate errors.
The device for calculating corrections for external influences calculates the drift
angles from wind drift, currents and other factors and determines the ССgiv, TA аnd
corrects them when the velocity vector and parameters of external influences change.
The functional diagram of the device is shown in Fig. 17.
A comparative analysis of the existing and future traffic control systems makes it
possible to determine the ways to ensure guaranteed navigation safety. The
collision hazard detection device operates at the second level of the hierarchy as part
of the motion planning system and leads to a change in the specified control
algorithm during maneuvering.
The given motion control system allows you to adapt the composition of the
necessary means and methods of planning the process to ensure guaranteed safety of
maneuvering when solving tactical and operational tasks during the performance of
W, q
TC,V Drift angle calculator Calculator GC, МК
Speed and direction sensor ветра
CCgiv1
Cт Vт To the error signal evaluato
TC,V Speed sensor and Current drift angleMovement
calculator process documenting device CCgiv1
direction of flow

Fig. 17 - Functional diagram of the device for calculating corrections

 40
sea operations.

8. Theoretical substantiation of methods of planning curvilinear

movement

When planning a curved trajectory, it is necessary to transfer the corresponding

section from the turnability data presented in the ship's documents in graphic form to
the map. Currently, there are three ways to construct a curvilinear trajectory: graphic
in the form of segments; analytical in the form of segments and analytical by the
ellipse method. For practical use by navigators, it most clearly represents a graphical
method in the form of segments. To perform such work, it is recommended to plot the
circulation curves that are available in the ship's documents on maneuvering plate as
shown in fig. 18.

To calculate the rotation, use the following procedure.

1. By the value of the angle of rotation, the side of the rotation and the angle of
the rudder, the endpoint of the rotation is drawn К.
2. Apply a parallel ruler to the center of the tablet and the point on its
circumference corresponding to the angle of rotation. Move the ruler to point K and
draw a straight line from it until it intersects with the initial radius of the tablet, get
the point M of intersection with the path line before turning.
 41

Fig. 18 - Curves of circulation of m / v "Andante" in ballast

3. On the scale of the tablet, the values of the segments MN and MK are taken,
which are plotted to scale from point M on the map, which gives the points of
the beginning and end of the ship's trajectory when turning as shown in Fig. 19.

К(к ,к) )) М М1 К1

С1
С
А(0 ,0 ) Н1
Р

Н(н ,н)
Fig. 19. Plotting a turn using line segments on the map
4. The bisector of the NMC angle is drawn on the tablet, the MC segment is
removed and transferred to the card. Connect points N, C and K with a smooth curve.
Get the trajectory of the ship at the turn. They take the coordinates of points N and K,
receive data for turning (bearing and distance).
5. The duration of the turn is determined by the table, which is usually found in
the ship's particulars.
 42
So that every time when it becomes necessary to determine the point of the
beginning and end of the rotation, do not perform graphic constructions, all it is
advisable to perform the described actions on the tablet once, for rotation angles
every 10 °, and the results are summarized in a table. The disadvantage of this
method is the reduced accuracy of the trajectory at angles of rotation of more than
120 degrees.
There is another way of plotting the trajectory graphically by using segments in
the form of perpendiculars NP and PK, which does not have the indicated
disadvantage. However, it requires the use of the line segment first to plot the start
and end of the rotation, and then the intermediate points.
When taking into account the characteristics of agility in automated systems, it is
advisable, instead of using the tabular form, to program the calculations of all three
necessary values of MN, MK, MC, which we denote by the letter d according to the
approximating formulas common to themе:
θ
d = a +b⋅tg
2 , (28)
where а and b – turn factors;  - angle of rotation.
The coefficients a and b included in formula (28) can be determined by the least
squares method, or more simply, and with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes
of navigation, by the method of selected points. For this, the graphs of the
dependence of d on θ. For this, the graphs of the dependence of d on θ are plotted
from the table of segments. Two further spaced points are selected on the graph and
the corresponding values of d and θ are written out.
Substituting these values into formula (28), a system of linear equations is
obtained with two unknowns a and b, from which they are determined. The values of
the coefficients are given in the right part of the table. 3.
For an approximate calculation, you can use the following formulas:
DT DT
a=l 1− b=
for calculation МN: 2 , 2 ;
 43

for МК: a=0 ,

b=l 2 ; (29)

for МС: , a=0 b=√ ℓ22 + R2T −R T ,

where Rт– tactical circulation radius.
The obtained coefficients can be used to calculate the coordinates and bearing of
the points of the beginning, end of the turn and intermediate point. The calculation
procedure will be as follows, as shown in Fig. 18.
According to the coordinates of the point M, taken from the map and from the
value of the magnitude of the segment MN and its direction, the coordinates of the
starting point of rotation are calculated:
LatD= МN⋅cos K 1 , ϕ N = ϕ М + LatD ,
LonD= DMP⋅tgK 1 , λ N = λ М + LonD ,
(30)
Table 3 - Turning elements of m / v "Andante" in ballast in the form of segments
elementsRotation

The
Rudder angle

values
- angle of rotation, degrees coefficien
Turn

ts
а b
10 11 12 13 14 15
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 0 0 0 0 0

0
МN, 15 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.7 4.1 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.3 7.3 8.8 11.3 1.8 2.53
cbl 350 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.2 5.0 5.8 7.1 9.5 0.7 2.4
Starboard

0
МК, 15 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.6 4.3 5.0 6.2 8.5 0.5 2.09
cbl 350 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.4 4.1 5.0 6.6 0.4 1.64
0
МС, 15 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.8 4.3 5.7 0 1.46
cbl 350 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.3 3,0 3,8 4.8 0 1.26
0
МN, 15 0.9 1.3 1,6 2,0 2,3 2,7 3,0 3,4 3,9 4,3 5,1 6,1 7,0 9,2 12,0 1.02 2.96
cbl 350 0,9 1,5 1,7 1,9 2,2 2,5 2,8 3,0 3,2 3,9 4,3 4,9 6,2 7,3 9,8 1.02 2.23
МК, 150 0,6 0,7 0,8 1,2 1,4 1,7 1,9 2,3 2,7 3,2 3,8 4,6 5,7 7,4 10,1 0.15 2.61
Port

cbl 350 0,4 0,6 0,8 0,9 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,9 2,2 2,7 3,2 3,6 4,3 5,6 7,5 0.15 1.97
МС, 150 0,1 0,3 0,3 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,5 2,0 2,2 2,8 3,4 4,3 5,4 6,5 0 2.01
cblт 350 0,1 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 0,9 1,1 1,4 1,5 2,0 2,3 2,9 4,1 5,3 0 1.41
where К1 – heading before turning; LatD - difference in latitude of point M and
point of turning start; LonD - the difference between the longitudes of the point M
and the point of the beginning of the turn; DMP – difference meridian parts.
The turning bearing is calculated from the coordinates of the turning points and
 44
the landmark. The advantage of the method of segments is that it allows you to
determine the start, end and intermediate points by the values of geometric circulation
elements. The disadvantages of this method include the deterioration of accuracy
during rotation at an angle of more than 150⁰.
The method of perpendiculars is that each point of circulation is represented as
two mutually perpendicular segments (see Fig. 18):
 NР, from the beginning of the circulation, to the base of the
perpendicular lowered to the line of the initial course;
 РК, distance from the original heading line to a point on the
circulation curve.
The value of the perpendiculars can be calculated using the formulas:
D D
N P=ℓ 1− T + T⋅t g ( θ/2 )+ℓ2⋅t g ( θ/2 )⋅cosθ
2 2 ; (31)
K P=ℓ 2⋅t g (θ /2 )⋅sinθ . (32)
The advantage of this method is the absence of uncertainty when turning up to
360 degrees. It is very convenient to use it for manual graphic construction of the
trajectory, at a time when the method of segments loses its accuracy and errors appear
at angles of rotation more than 120⁰. The disadvantages include the impossibility of
obtaining the starting point of the rotation.
Thus, with manual graphic construction of the trajectory, which is characteristic
of navigational work, it is more convenient to use the method of segments and
perpendiculars. Using the obtained dependences (29) - (32), the construction of the
trajectory can be performed analytically in automated traffic planning systems.
The main elements of circulation: extension l1, forward displacement l2, tactical
diameter DТ and the diameter of the steady circulation Dу are calculated according to
the following empirical formulas (in the lengths of the ship's hull):
F 0
l 1=6. 41⋅ +0 .70⋅Y −0 .93 ,
√ d..0 (33)
Φ
l2=5 . 84⋅ . .0 +0. 68⋅Ψ 0 −2. 15 ,
√δ (34)
 45
F
D T =11. 75⋅ .. 0
+1 . 45⋅Y 0 −3 . 90 ,
√d (35)
F
D—=11 . 61⋅ .. 0
+1 .20⋅Y 0 −4 . 31 .
√d (36)
0
where F− rudder body factor; Y − trim angle of the ship in degrees;
..0
d - rudder angle in degrees;
The hull and rudder factor is a combination of the characteristics of the vessel
that affect turnability and is determined by the formula
L⋅s 2K B
F=
√ S P +λ P ,
(37)
where
sK - coefficient of completeness of the ship's DP; S P% - relative

rudder area as a percentage of the submerged part of the ship's DP; λ P - rudder

elongation.

The coefficient
sK determined by the expression:

f
σ K =1−
L⋅T CP , (38)

where f - stern undercut area.

The relative elongation of the rudder can be obtained from the expression:
2
hP
λ P=
SP , (39)
where h p - steering wheel height on baller.

The relative rudder area can be found as follows:

S P⋅100
S P 00=
L⋅T CP . (40)

The obtained values of the circulation parameters are converted into miles to
perform calculations of geographic coordinates.
 46
As recommendations, we will consider the procedure for performing the
computational - graphic work "Building a curved trajectory by the method of
segments" and an example of an algorithm for performing the necessary calculations.
The initial data of the vessels for the calculation are given in Table 4. The
calculation will be performed for the same section of the map when turning to the
entrance to the Yuzhny port. TC1=250.40; TC2= 13.00. Rotation angle =122.60. We

choose a steering angle δ вх =150 accordance with the recommendations:

50 at Δθ before 300
δ вх = 100 at Δθ = 300 - 600 …. (41)
150 at Δθ
morе 600
When calculating the coordinates, the distance should be taken in miles, while
calculations are made to the fourth decimal place of a minute, and rounding to the
third. We make a detailed calculation in the following sequence for the selected
variant of the vessel "Leninogorsk".
1. Using formulas (33) - (39), calculate the parameters of circulation in the cargo
and convert them into miles, as shown in Table 4.
Table 4 - Calculated circulation parameters
Angle Designatio In cargo In ballast
transfer Parameter n
Extension , cbl ℓ1 3.32 3.19
Forward displacement, ℓ2 2.11 2.02
cbl
0
15 Tactical diameter, cbl Dт 4.73 4.53
Diameter of the steady 4.86 4.53
Dу
circulation, cbl
We calculate the coefficients for MN in cargo:
а=ℓ 1−Dт /2=3. 32−2 . 37=0. 95 cbl=0 , 095 nm;в=Dт /2=2 . 37=0 . 237 nm

Coefficient for MK in cargo а=ℓ 2=2 . 11 cbl=0 ,211nm .

2. We calculate the segments for the angle of rotation =122.60 , and after 100
within the limits of rotation according to the formulas:
122 . 6
МN =а+в⋅tg Θ2 =0 . 095+0 . 237⋅tg =0. 528 nm
2
 47
122 . 6
MK =ℓ 2⋅tg Θ2 =0 . 211⋅tg =0 .211⋅1. 827=0 .386 nm
2
The calculation results are summarized in table 5.
Table 5. - Results of calculating the turning segments
Rudder
angle 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
МN, cbl 1,373 1,600 1,833 2,078 2,339 2,622 2,936 3,290 3,7
МК, cbl 0,227 0,458 0,697 0, 946 1,212 1,501 1,821 2,182 2,6
Rudder
angle 1000 1100 122,60
МN, cbl 4,189 4,792 5,808
МК, cbl3,099 3,713 4,749
We calculate the perpendiculars by the formulas
NР=NМ +МК cos Θ ; KP=MK sin Θ and summarize in table 6.
Table 6 - Results of calculation by segments of perpendiculars
Angle
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
поворот
NР, cbl 1,597 2,03 2,437 2,803 3,118 3,373 3,559 3,669 3,7
РК, cbl 0,039 0,157 0,349 0,608 0,928 1,3 1,711 2,149 2,6
Rudder
angle
1000 1100 122,60
NР, cbl 3,651 3,522 3,249
РК, cbl 3,052 3,489 4,001
3. Graphically plot the circulation curve in the following sequence, fig. 20:
 On a piece of paper using a protractor, we build two straight lines
intersecting at point M;
 From point M with segments MN and MK, from Table 5 for a rotation
angle of 122.6⁰, on a scale we plot the start and end points of rotation N and K;

МК90

МК10 N

М90
М100
М110
М
Figure 20.- Construction of a curved path with path points
 48

 From point H, we postpone the segment MH along the line of the

original path and draw a line from its end, at an angle of 10⁰ on which we postpone
the segment МК10 and get a point when turning by100.
Similarly, for all values of the turning angles from Table 5, we construct path
points (PP) and obtain the planned path at the turn. If necessary, connect the PP with
a piece and get a graphical plan of the rotation. Analytically, the coordinates of the
path turning points are determined by the coordinates of the turning point and the
length of the segments for all points.

9. The system for assessing excessive proximity of ships and the choice of
the type of maneuver for its prevention.

Upon detecting the presence of another vessel using radar alone, the master must
determine if an over-approach situation develops. In this case, we will consider three
situations of approach, depending on the availability of a collision avoidance method:
full astern (FA); hard to starboard; hard to port. If the master has three alternatives for
collision avoidance, then this is excessive approach. Если остается две
альтернативы, то наступает опасное сближение. If there is only one way to avoid
a collision, then it is an emergency approach. If this is so, then in the future it is
necessary to solve the problem of determining the type of maneuver for its
prevention.
Currently, three methods are used to determine the dangerous approach of ships:
by the nature of changes in the observed polar coordinates of echo signals on the

radar screen; by the value of the calculated values of the distance Dкр and time t кр
of the closest point of aprroach; on the heading angle of the line of relative motion
α .

The assessment of the risk of collision by the observed polar coordinates can be
made by the navigator visually, by assessing the nature of the change in bearing and
distance. This method is feasible only with continuous monitoring of the situation on
 49
the screen (in accordance with the requirements of rules 5 and 7 COLREGs-72),
using a mechanical direction finder and a moving range circle (MRC) of a radar or an
electronic sight. The correctness of the further solution of the problem on the
maneuverable or situational tablets completely depends on the first step - the correct
choice of echoes of dangerous ships for further processing. Incorrect execution of this
operation makes further information processing meaningless.
The navigator makes a similar assessment of the danger of excessive proximity
in conditions of good visibility, visually using optical direction finder, observing the
change in direction to the dangerous vessel and an eye estimate of the distance to it.
An approaching vessel, the bearing of which does not change or changes slightly, will
be dangerous. Visual situational models for assessing the divergence of ships on the
radar screen, as well as the use of a direction finder, have insufficient accuracy to
create calculation schemes for determining the risk of collision.
The assessment of the collision hazard by the calculated parameters is based on

the calculation of the value Dкр and t кр by two readings of the polar coordinates
at a time interval Δt (when solving the problem manually, it is taken equal to 6

minutes) and comparing the values obtained with the permissible value D зад and
t зад , which are set by the navigator.

A ship is considered dangerous if Dкр  D зад (dangerous by the linear factor)

and t кр  t зад (dangerous by the time factor). If a vessel is dangerous in terms of

the linear factor and not dangerous in terms of time, this means that it is at a
considerable distance and the navigator has enough time to collect information about
the movement of the oncoming vessel, process it, make a decision on the choice of
maneuver and perform it. If it is dangerous due to the time factor, then this means
that the discrepancy must be performed without solving the problem, based on
personal experience, knowledge of the laws of relative movement and maneuver of
the last moment.
 50
When two vessels diverge, there are 288 divergence situations and types of
maneuvers. With 20 ships, the number of combinations of two ships is 190, and the
total number of situations and maneuvers is 54720. The navigator cannot process
such a large amount of information and he needs help. For this, it is necessary to
automate the data processing and issuance of recommendations.
The introduction of satellite systems to determine the position has significantly
increased the accuracy of determining the location of the receiving antenna on ships
up to 3-5 meters. This led to the fact that the navigator stopped using other methods
and lost the skill in performing dead reckoning calculations, determining the place by
astronomical and radar methods.
The process of approaching and diverging is fleeting. For this reason, there is
practically no time to analyze the situation, make calculations and make a decision. In
such a situation, it is necessary to pre-calculate maneuvering and give the operator
recommendations in such a form that would make it possible to understand the
situation and have time to give commands to the controls to prevent excessive
approach.
In the process of approaching ships, the time comes when the problem of
divergence is practically impossible to solve. This situation occurs when a target is
detected visually or by radar suddenly at close range, due to an unforeseen maneuver,
due to low reflectivity or lack of proper observation.
It is not possible to make any calculations in such a situation, and delay in a
maneuver is fraught with grave consequences. Such a maneuver, the emergency
execution of which is necessary to prevent collision, in theory and practice of ship
control is called the "maneuver of the last moment". Its distinctive feature is the need
to apply strong, maximum possible control actions. In addition, in accordance with
Rule 2 of the COLREGs 72, there is no need to comply with any rules that apply
under normal conditions, except for one thing: to choose a maneuver that would
avoid a collision, and if this is not possible, then minimize damage.
 51
The variety of situations and a large number of alternatives at first glance do not
make it possible to solve the problem unambiguously. To solve the problem, it is
necessary to introduce two axioms, which are obvious and do not require proof.
Axiom 1. If there is a possibility of collision, then these targets are dangerous and
the condition is (dП/dt) =0, (dD/dt)<0 .
Axiom 2. The optimal roll-back course for collision avoidance is the parallel or
countercurrent of a dangerous vessel. If our ship turns to such a course, then the
dependence of the dangerous approach on the probable maneuver of the oncoming
ship immediately decreases.
Increasing or decreasing the speed and turning it away from our vessel improve
the situation of rendezvous, and turning in our direction is unlikely, but it can be
foreseen and taken into account by introducing a navigational margin.
By introducing axiom 2, certainty is introduced into the solution of the problem
and it is possible to calculate in advance the maneuver of the last moment for a
dangerous ship. It is convenient to calculate the time of the onset of the maneuver by
the observed parameter - the distance between ships and the heading angle q.
To obtain analytical dependencies, consider the AMB triangle shown in Fig. 21,
from which we obtain relations taking into account the fact that the bearing of the
target does not change:

k⋅sin P
sin q= and Dн =V А⋅t cros √ 1−2⋅k⋅cos P+k 2 ,
√1−2⋅k⋅cosP+k 2 (42)

where Р - relative course, which varies from 0 to 180°; tcros - time from the
beginning of observations to arrival at the point of intersection of courses; k –
velocity ratio VA/VB; Dн- initial ship-to-ship distance; q- heading angle.

VB

VО
M
•
P
Sнз М’
•
DпмпDпмт
Dпмл
Нп
Dн
Нт

q
Нл
 VА
А

52
Figure 21 Excessive approach of vessels with navigational margin

To obtain analytical dependencies and take into account the characteristics of

the vessel for performing a maneuver with an excessive approach, it is necessary to
determine what is the distance between the ships it is necessary to start maneuvering
and the time comes when a collision can be prevented.
Taking into account dependencies (42), and Fig. 21 we get:

D пмт =H т M √ 1−2⋅k⋅cos P+ k 2 , (43)

D пмп = H п M √ 1−2⋅k⋅cos P +k 2 , (44)

D пмл =H л M √ 1−2⋅k⋅cos P+k 2 , (45)

where НтМ – distance that own ship will travel from the moment of giving the
command to reverse to full stop;
НпМ – distance traveled by own ship from the moment the command “hard to
starboard” is given to the moment of divergence;
НлМ – distance that own ship will travel from the moment the command "hard
to port" is given to the moment of divergence.

Let us denote the expression under the root by the symbol R  1  2k cos P  k .
2

Taking into account the measurement error, the geometrical dimensions of the

ships and the probable unfavorable maneuver in our direction of the oncoming ship, it

is necessary to enter the navigation margin Sнз=f(L,mD,Вц, ℓ 2ц ). aking into account

dependences (42) and formulas (43) - (45) have the form (Fig. 21) :
 53
DПМТ =(S TPM + ММ ' )⋅R ; (46)

Δk Л
[(
D ПМЛ = a Л +b Л tg
2 )
+ ММ ' ⋅R ;
] (47)
Δk П
[(
D ПМП = a П +b П tg
2 )
+ MM ' ⋅R ;
] (48)

where Sтрм - braking distance for operating mode Full Astern;

ал , вл - steering

coefficients when turning to the starboard;

а п , вп - steering coefficients when
turning to the port; Δk - flap angle, which is determined by the formulas:

Δk л= P at qпб; Δk п =180−P at q . (49)

пб

Δk л=180−P at q ; Δk п =P at qлб. (50)

лб

ММ- distance from the point of intersection of courses to the line of safe
movement, which can be determined from the expression:
S нз  R
MM ' 
k  sin P , (51)
where Sнз – navigation margin.
Taking into account dependencies (42) - (51), the moment of time when it is
necessary to perform the maneuver of the last moment by braking is determined by
the formula:
T пмт =( D н −Dпмт )/V 0⋅R . (52)
The time of the onset of the last moment maneuver to the port

T пмл=( D н −D пмл ) /V 0⋅R . (53)

The time of the onset of the last moment maneuver to the starboard

T пмп=( Dн −Dпмп )/V 0⋅R . (54)

The resulting dependencies make it possible to develop the necessary
recommendations for performing the last-minute maneuver, as well as automate the
process of choosing its type.
 54
Thus, the navigator has three maneuvers at his disposal: braking in reverse full
speed; shifting the rudder to the hard to port; transfer to the hard to starboard. In this
case, we will consider the "last-minute maneuver" the one that comes last.
To improve the reliability of maneuvering in case of excessive approach, it is
necessary to introduce a margin, which will also take into account the safety zone, as
shown in Fig. 21.

Taking into account the above, the value

S нз can be calculated by the
formula:
P Вц sin P P
S нз = L рлс⋅ctg + +m D +ℓ 2ц⋅ctg ,
2 2 sin ( P +q ) 2 (55)
where LРЛС - distance from the radar antenna to the extreme point on the bow of
the ship;
mD- mean square error of distance determinationй;
ℓ 2ц - direct displacement of the target when shifting the rudder on board.
For convenience, all cases of the onset of the moment of excessive convergence are
summarized in Table. 7. for excessive convergence on the right and left in Table 8.
Table 7- The order of the onset of the type of maneuver with marks on the
starboard side
Heading angle Relative
q course Р Maneuver type
stop engine hard to port hard to starboard
more 90 hard to port stop engine hard to starboard
hard to port hard to starboard stop engine
stop engine hard to port hard to starboard
Less then
90 hard to port hard to starboard stop engine
90
hard to starboard hard to port stop engine
stop engine hard to starboard hard to port
less 90 hard to starboard stop engine hard to port
hard to starboard hard to port stop engine
stop engine hard to starboard hard to port
90 less 90 hard to starboard stop engine hard to port
hard to starboard hard to port stop engine
More then stop engine hard to starboard hard to port
90 less 90 hard to starboard stop engine hard to port
 55
hard to starboard hard to port stop engine

Table 8
The order of the onset of the type of maneuver with marks on the port side
Heading angle Relative
Maneuver type
q course Р
stop engine hard to starboard hard to port
more 90 hard to starboard stop engine hard to port
hard to starboard hard to port stop engine
stop engine hard to port hard to starboard
Less then
90 hard to port stop engine hard to starboard
90
hard to starboard hard to port stop engine
stop engine hard to port hard to starboard
less 90 hard to port stop engine hard to starboard
hard to port hard to starboard stop engine
stop engine hard to port hard to starboard
More then
less 90 hard to port stop engine hard to starboard
90
hard to port hard to starboard stop engine
stop engine hard to port hard to starboard
больше 90 less 90 hard to port stop engine hard to starboard
hard to port hard to starboard stop engine
Taking into account the above analytical dependencies, a block diagram of the
algorithm for calculating the parameters was developed, Fig. 22.
Based on the value of three parameters - the relative course Р, the ratio of the
speeds k and the heading angle q we perform a situational analysis of the approach
and determine the analyzer number, which allows us to establish the sequence of the
onset of the divergence maneuver - excessive, dangerous or emergency.
The results of calculating the approach parameters are transmitted to the
situation analyzer, the structural algorithm of which is shown in Fig. 23.
1

S трм , t трм , 1 , 2 ,
TCц , Vц , TC н , Vн ,

R  1 2  k  cos P  k 2

k  sin P
 1  2  k  cos P  k

Р, К, q 56

No No
q пб q лб
Yes Yes

q>900 q=900 q<900 q>900 q=900 q<900

No No No No No No
Yes Yes Yes Да Да Да
No No No No No
P<900 P<900 P>900 P=900 P<900 P<900 P<900 P>900 P=900 P<900
No No No No No
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Analyzer 1 Analyzer 2Analyzer 3Analyzer 4Analyzer 5Analyzer 6Analyzer 7Analyzer 8Analyzer 9Analyzer 10

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Fig.23. Structural Situation Analysis Algorithm

After choosing the approach situation, the results are transmitted to the analyzer
for choosing a maneuver, the design diagram of which is shown in Fig. 24.

Fig. 24. Calculation diagram of the analyzer 1, for the sequence of the onset of maneuvers
 57
The block diagram of the analyzer 1 will be built after considering the design
0
diagram for starboard ships at the heading angle q>90 and relative heading
P<900 shown in Fig. 25.
As the parameters that determine the sequence of the onset of the time of the
corresponding action and the type of "last moment maneuver" wearing between the
braking distance for the Full Astern mode, the extensio when the rudder is shifted to
the starboard / port and the distance to the point of intersection M from the moment
the command was given.
To determine the type of "last-minute maneuver", it is necessary to calculate and
compare these types of maneuvers and determine the distance to another ship and the
time when the last opportunity to prevent collision comes by maneuvering own ship,
taking into account the navigation margin. Such calculations can be performed in
advance for the mode of movement of own ship and other, which is dangerous. No

In this case, we will consider three types of rapprochement: excessive,

2
No No
НтМ  НПМ  НЛМ Н П М  НЛМ  НТМ
S трм , t трм , 1 ,  2 , TC ц ,
Vц , D т , D у , Dзадн , Dзадц ,
 2 ц , Вц , m D , TC н , Vн , YesCalculator Yes
, , CCgiv1 Calculator
1) Full astern 1) Hard to starboard
2) Hard to starboard
TBi,Di,
2) Hard to portCCgiv2
3) Hard to port 3) Full astern

R  1 2  k  cos P  k 2
COMPLETE
kП  180  Р Н П М  НТМ  НЛМ No
k Л  Р Yes

Yes
Calculator
k П 3) Hard to starboard
TBi,Di, , , CCgiv3
Н П М  aП  bПtg
' 2) Full astern
3) Hard to port
2
Fig. 25. Block diagram of analyzer 1 for ship on the starboard side
dangerous and emergency. Excessive rapprochement occurs when the first alternative
 58
appears, in analyzer 1 this is a full astern, a dangerous rapprochement is a hard to
starboard and an emergency approach is the time of the onset of the command hard to
port. It should be noted that these alternatives are not constant, but depend on the
mode of movement and circulation characteristics. Therefore, the onset of the latter
alternative is a signal of a pre-emergency situation.
These algorithms are the initial data for building a decision support system for
choosing the type of maneuver.
Below is an example for calculation. The initial data are given in table. 9.

Table 9 - Initial data for an example of calculation

№ The value of the
Parameter parameter and its
symbol
1 Displacement D = 19500 т
2 Overall length of the vessel Lмах = 160 м
3 The true heading of our vessel TCн= 300
4 The speed of our vessel Vн = 12 узлов
5 True heading of target at starboard side TCц = 3000
6 Target speed Vц = 11.5 узлов
7 Start distance Dн = 16,3 миль
8 Rear full braking distance S трм =7,3 кбт
9 Extend at rudder angle 350 ℓ 1=3,2 кбт
10 Tactical circulation diameter at 350 Dт =2.9 кбт

An example of performing calculations is given below.

1. Calculate the value of the relative speed

к=V н /V ц = 12/11.5= 1.04.

2. Determine the value of the relative heading with another vessel to the right by

the formula Р=TC н +(360−TC ц )=30+(360−300 )=90 .

3. Determine the value of the relative speed

V 0 by formula

V 0 =√ V 2н +V 2ц −2⋅V н V ц ⋅cos P = √ 122+11.5 2−2⋅12⋅11.5⋅cos90=16.6 knots.

4. Determine the value of the coefficient R by formula
 59

R= √1+k 2−2⋅k⋅cos P=√ 1+1.04 2−2⋅1.04⋅cos900 =1.44 nm.

5. Determine the value of the heading angle of the target q (рис.21) by formula

0
sin q=(V ц⋅sin P)/V 0 =11 . 5/16 .6=0 . 693. q=43. 9 .

6. Calculate the starboard flap angle ΔК п and port ΔК л for vessels with
starboard heading angles
0
ΔК П =180−Р=180−90=900 , and ΔК л=Р=90
7. Select from the tables of inertial-braking characteristics the value of the braking

distance for a given speed Vн full astern S трм and determine the value of the
distance of the last moment by braking to another vessel
Dпмт =S трм⋅R=0 . 73⋅1 . 44=1. 07 мили .

Assuming that the circulation curve is symmetric when turning to the starboard

and port, calculate the value of the turnability coefficients ап = ал = ℓ 1 + Dт / 2 and вп

= вл = Dт /2 according to the table of options, determine the value of the segments

from the point of intersection of the courses to the point where the turn starts to the
starboard МNцп and port МNцл using the formulas:
ΔK п 90
МN цп=ап + вп⋅tg =3 . 2+1. 45+ 1. 45⋅tg =6 . 1cbl
2 2
ΔK л 90
МN цл =а л +в л⋅tg =3. 2+1 . 45+1. 45⋅tg =6 . 1 cbl
2 2
9. Calculate the values of the distance to the target at the moment of the beginning of
turning to the port and to the starboard by the formulas:

DПМЛ=МН цл⋅R=0.61⋅1.44=0.9 nm
DПМП= МН цп⋅R=0.61⋅1.44=0.9nm .

10. Calculate the time value from the moment of reaching the distance
Dн to
the moment of the beginning of the corresponding maneuver, according to the
formulas:
 60
T пмт =( Dн −Dпмт )/V о⋅R=(16 . 3−1 .1 )/16 . 6⋅1. 44=0 . 636⋅60=38 .2 min .

T пмл=(D н −Dпмл )/V о⋅R=(16.3−0.9)/16.6⋅1.44=15.4/23.9=0.644⋅60=38.6 min .

T пмп=( Dн −Dпмп )/V о⋅R=(16.3−0.9)/16.6⋅1.44=15.4/23.9=0.644⋅60=38.6min . .
11. Graphically depict the maneuvering process based on the calculation.
Conclusion: Excessive approach occurs at a distance of 1.07 miles and can be
prevented by full astern (fig. 26). An emergency and dangerous approach occurs at a
distance of 0.9 miles and can be prevented by shifting the rudder to the starboard side
or port side.
Using the above technique, you can automatically calculate the distance to
another vessel in the event of an excessive, dangerous or emergency approach and
determine the type of maneuver to prevent it. This makes it possible to create an
automatic navigation collision avoidance system.

Dпмп
Dпмл

Dпмт

Рис.26. Схема аварийного сближения

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Г.Г. Ермолаев и др. Под ред. Г.Г. Ермолаева. - М: Транспорт, 1988. - 248 с.
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Справочник судоводителя по навигационной безопасности мореплавания. -
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