CALCULUS THEORY

STANDARD DERIVATES

d dv du
 ( uv )=u + v
dx dx dx
du du dy
 = . (chain rule)
dx dy dx
d x
 ( e ) =e x
dx
d
 log e x =1/x
dx
d
 ( sin x )=cos x
dx
d
 ( tan x )=sec 2 x
dx
d
 ( sec x )=sec x tan x
dx
d −1 1
 dx ( sin x )=
√ ( 1−x 2 )
d
 ( tan−1 x ) = 1 2
dx 1+ x
d −1 1
 dx ( sec x ) =
x √ ( x 2−1 )
d
 ( sinh x )=cosh x
dx
d u v ( du/ dx )−u ( dv /dx )
 ()
dx v
=
v2
d
 ( ax +b )n =n ( ax+ b )n−1 .a
dx
d x
 ( a )=ax log e a
dx
d 1
 ( log a x )= log e a
dx x
d
 ( cos x )=−sin x
dx
 d
 ( cot x )=−cosec 2 x
dx
d −1 −1
 dx ( cos x ) =
√ ( 1−x 2 )
d
 ( cot −1 x )= −1 2
dx 1+ x
d −1 −1
 dx ( co sec x ) =
x √ ( x 2−1 )
d
 ( cosh x ) =sinh x
dx

STANDARD INTEGRALS

n x n+1
 ∫ x dx= (n ≠−1)
n+1
 ∫ e x dx=e x
 ∫ sin x dx=−cos x
 ∫ tan x dx=−log cos x
 ∫ sec x dx=tan x
 ∫ sec2 x dx=tan x
 ∫ a2dx
+x a
2
1 x
= tan−1 ( )
a

 ∫ a2dx =
−x 2 a
2
1
log (
a+ x
a−x )

 ∫ x 2dx =
−a 2 a
2
1
log (
x−a
x+a )

 ∫ ( 1/ x ) dx=loge x
 ∫ ax dx=a x /loge a
 ∫ cos x dx=sin x
 ∫ cot x dx=logsin x
  ∫ cosec x dx=log ( cosec x−cot x )
 ∫ cosec2 x dx=−cot x
dx x
 ∫
√ (a ¿ ¿ 2−x 2
) ()
=sin−1
a
¿

dx x
=sinh ( ) ¿ −1
 ∫
√(a ¿ ¿ 2+ x ) 2 a

dx x
=cosh ( ) ¿ −1
 ∫
√( x ¿ ¿ 2−a ) 2 a

(a ¿ ¿ 2− x2 ) a2 −1 x
 ∫ √( a ¿ ¿ 2−x 2 )dx =x √ 2 ()
+ sin
2 a
¿¿

2 2
( a ¿ ¿ 2+ x ) a
 ∫ √( a ¿ ¿ 2+ x ) dx=x √
x
+ sinh ( ) ¿ ¿
2 −1
2 2 a
2 2
 ∫ √( x ¿ ¿ 2−a )dx =x √
(x ¿ ¿2−xa ) a x
− cosh ( ) ¿ ¿
2 −1
2 2 a
ax
 ∫ eax sinbx dx= a2e+b 2 ( a sin bx−b cos bx )
ax eax (
 ∫ e cos bx dx = a cos bx−b sin bx )
a2 + b2
 ∫ sinh x dx=¿ cosh x ¿
 ∫ cosh x dx=sinh x
LIMIT: Let f(x) be defined over a deleted neighborhood of a, and l be any real number. If to
each positive real number ∈ (however small it may be), there exists a positive real number δ
such that |f ( x ) −1|<∈. Whenever 0<| x−a|< δ. Then we say f(x) tends to 1 as x tends to a l is

called limit of f(x) at x = a. It is denoted by lim

x→ a
f ( x )=l .

One sided Limits:

Left Limit: If x < a and x → a then we write, lim ¿ and if the limit exists, it is called left
−¿
x→ a f ( x ) ¿

limit of f(x) at x = a.
Right Limit: If x > a and x → a then we write, lim ¿ and if the limit exists, it is called Right
+¿
x→ a f ( x ) ¿

limit of f(x) at x = a.

lim f ( x ) ∃⇔ lim ¿
 x→ a −¿
x→ a f ( x ) = lim +¿
¿¿
x→a f (x )¿

 If limit of f(x) at x = a exists; it is then unique.

 If lim
x→ a
f ( x )=l∧lim g ( y )=m then lim [ ( gof ) ( x ) ]=m
y→l x→ a

 If f(x) is a polynomial function, then lim

x→ a
f ( x )=f (a)

 lim f ( x ) need not be equal to f(a)

x→ a

 lim [(x n−an)/ ( x−a ) ]=n . an −1

x→ a

 lim (sin x / x)=1=lim (tanx/ x)

x →0 x→ 0

lim (1+ x ) =e=lim ( 1+1/ x )x

1/x
 x →0 x→ ∞

 lim (1+ kx )1/ x =e k = lim ( 1+ k / x )x

x →0 x →∞

Indetermined forms: 0 /0 ,∞/∞ , 0. ∞, ∞−∞ , 00 , 1∞ , ∞ 0 , 0 ∞

 L. Hospital's Rule: If lim

x→ a
[ f ( x )/g ( x)] is of the form either 0/0 or ∞ /∞ then

lim [ f ( x )/g (x) ] =lim [ f '( x)/ g' ( x) ]

x→ a x →a

Continuity: A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if lim

x→ a
f ( x )=f (a)

 A function f(x) is said to continuous in the interval (a, b) if f(x) is continuous for all
values of x in the interval.
 If f(x) and g(x) are two continuous functions, then f(x) + g(x), f(x) - g(x), f(x). g(x) and
f(x)/g(x) g ( x ) ≠ 0 are also continuous.
 Polynomial functions, Exponential functions, sine and cosine functions are continuous
everywhere.
Differentiability: A function f(x) is said to be differentiable at x = a if lim
[ f ( a+h )−f ( a) ]
h→ 0 h
exists. The limiting value is denoted by f ' (a)

 A function f(x) is said to be differentiable in (a,b) if f(x) is differentiable for all values of
x in that interval.
 If f(x) and g(x) are two differential functions then f(x) + g(x), f(x) - g(x), f(x). g(x) and
f(x)/g(x) g ( x ) ≠ 0 are also differentiable.
 Polynomial functions, Exponential functions, sine and cosine functions are differentiable
everywhere.
 Every differentiable function is continuous but a continuous function need not be
differentiable.

Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem :

If f(x) is continuous in [a,b] and differentiable in (a, b) then there exists atleast one value C in
(a, b) such that

f ' ( C )=[ f ( b )−f ( a ) ] /(b−a)

Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem:

If f(x) and g(x) are two functions such that

(a) f(x) and g(x) are continuous in [a,b]

(b) f(x) and g(x) are differentiable in (a, b)

(c) g' ( x ) ≠ 0 for all x ∈(a ,b)

Then there exists atleast one value C such that

[ f ' (C)/g ' (C)=[ f ( b )−f ( a ) ] / [ g ( b )−g( a)] ]

Properties of Definite Integrals:
 b b

 ∫ f ( x ) dx=∫ f ( y ) dy
a a

b a

 ∫ f ( x ) dx=−∫ f ( x ) dx
a b

 If a < c < b then

b a b

∫ f ( x )dx=∫ f ( x ) dx +∫ f ( x ) dx
a 0 c

a a

 ∫ f ( x ) dx=∫ f (a−x) dx
0 0

a a

 ∫ f ( x ) dx=2∫ f ( x¿ )0dxIf iff (fx( )xis) isodd

even
−a 0

2a a

 ∫ f ( x ) dx=2 ∫ f ( x ) dx if f ( 2 a−x )=f ( x )

0 0

na a

 ∫ f ( x ) dx=n∫ f ( x)dx if f ( x +a ) =f ( x ) 0
0 0

i.e. f(x) is a periodic function with period a

b b

 ∫ f ( x )dx=∫ f (a+b−x) dx
a a

a
a

∫ f ( x ) dx= a
if f ( a−x ) =f ( x)
0
2∫ f ( x ) dx
0

π π
2 2
 ∫ sin n x dx=∫ cos n x dx=¿
0 0

[ ( n−1 ) /n ] . [ ( n−3 ) / ( n−2 ) ] . [ ( n−5 ) / ( n−4 ) ] … … … … ( 23 )if nis odd

[ ( n−1 ) /n ] . [ ( n−3 ) / ( n−2 ) ] . [ ( n−5 ) / ( n−4 ) ] … … … … ( 1/2 ) ( π /2 ) if n is even
 π π
2 2
 ∫ sin m x dx=∫ cos m x dx=¿
0 0

{ ( m−1 ) ( m−3 ) ( m−5 ) … … .. ( 2∨1 ) } . [ ( n−1 )( n−2 ) … … . ( 2∨1 ) ] . k

( m+ n )( m+n−2 ) ( m+ n−4 ) … … … …(2∨1)

Partial Derivatives and Total Derivatives:

If u = f(x, y) then

( ∂ u/∂ x )=lim [ f ( x+ h , y ) −f (x , y) ] /h
h→ 0

( ∂ u/∂ x )=lim [ f ( x+ y+ k )−f (x , y ) ] /k

k→ 0

( ∂/∂ x ) ( ∂u /∂ x )=( ∂2 u /∂ x 2 )=f xx

( ∂/∂ u ) ( ∂ u/∂ y )=( ∂2 u/∂ y 2 )=f yy

( ∂/∂ x ) ( ∂u /∂ y ) =( ∂2 u/∂ u ∂ y ) =f xy

( ∂/∂ y ) ( ∂ u/∂ x ) =( ∂2 u/∂ y ∂ x )=f yx

Euler's Theorem:

If u=f (x , y) is a homogeneous function of degree n then

x . u x + y . u y =nu

 If u = f(x, y, z) is a homogeneous function of degree n then

x . u x + y . u y + z .u z=nu

x 2 . u xx + 2 xy . uxy + y 2 .u yy =n(n−1)u
 If u = f(x, y) is not a homogeneous function but F(u) is a homogeneous function of
degree n then

x . u x + y . u y =n [ F (u)/ F' (u) ]=G(u)

 x 2 . u xx + 2 xy . uxy + y 2 .u yy =G(u) {G' ( u )−1 }

 If u=f ( x , y ) + g ( x , y ) +h(x , y) where f, g, h are homogeneous functions of degrees m,

n ,p respectively then

x . u x + y . u y =m. f + n. g+ p . h

x 2 . u xx + 2 xy . uxy + y 2 .u yy =m ( m−1 ) f +n ( n−1 ) g+ p ( p−1) h

Total Derivative:

 If u = f(x, y) where x and y are functions of t then the total derivative of u with respect t
is given by
( du /dt ) =( ∂u /∂ x ) . ( dx /dt ) + ( ∂ u /∂ y ) . ( dy /dt )
 Taking x = t in the above equation
( du /dx )=( ∂ u/∂ x )+ ( ∂u /∂ y ) . ( dy /dx )
This formula can be used for finding total derivative of u with respect to x , when x and y
are connected by some relation.
 If f(x,y) = C is an implicit function of x and y then

( dy /dx )=−(−f x /f y )

 If u = f(x, y) where x = g(r, s) and y = h(r, s) then

( ∂ u/∂ r )= ( ∂u /∂ x ) . ( ∂ x /∂ r ) + ( ∂ u/ ∂ y ) . ( ∂ y / ∂ r )

( ∂ u/∂ s )=( ∂u /∂ x ) . ( ∂ x /∂ s ) + ( ∂ u/∂ y ) . ( ∂ y /∂ s )

MAXIMA & MINIMA

A function f(x) has a maximum at x = a if there exists some interval ( a−δ , a+ δ ) around 'a' such
that f ( a ) >f ( x) for all x in ( a−δ , a+ δ )

A function f(x, y) has a minimum at x = a if there exists some interval ( a−δ , a+ δ ) around 'a' such
that f(a) < f(x) for all values of x in the interval

Extremum: The term used for both for maximum and minimum
A necessary condition for f(a) to be an extreme value of f(x) is f'(a) = 0

The vanishing of f'(a) = 0is only a necessary but not a sufficient condition for f(a) to be an
extreme value of f(x) .

Stationary Values :

A function f(x) is said to be stationary for x = C and f(C) is a stationary value of f(x) if f' (C) = 0

A stationary value may neither be maximum nor a minimum

Greatest value and least values of a function in the interval [a, b] are f(a) or f(b) or a given by the
values of x for which f'(x) = 0.

Sufficient Conditions for Extrema:

 f(C) is an extremum of f(x) iff f'(x) changes signs as x passes through C

 If f'(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x passes through C then f(C) is a
maximum value of f(x)
 If f'(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x passes through C then f(C) is a
maximum.
 If f'(x) does not change sign as x passes through C then f(C) is not an extremum.

Constrained Maximum or Minimum

To find maximum or minimum of U = f(x, y, z) where x, y, z are connected by ∅ ( x , y , z )=0

Working Rule: a) Write F ( x , y , z )=f ( x , y , z )+ λ ϕ ( x , y , z )

b) Obtain the equations F x =0 , F y =0 , F z=0

c) Solve the above equations along with ϕ=0 to get stationary point