COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD,LAHORE CAMPUS

MEHROZ KHALID (FA19-CHE-003)

SAHAR KHAN (FA19-CHE-009)

SHAFAQ IMTIAZ (FA19-CHE-019)

MARYAM FATIMA (FA19-CHE-083)

SECTION : A

GROUP E

DEPARTEMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT NO 1

COURSE : Engineering materials

SUBMIT TO : DR . JAVED AHMED

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Contents
ELASTICITY:...................................................................................3
TOUGHNESS:................................................................................4
DUCTILITY:....................................................................................4
HARDNESS:...................................................................................5
YIELD STRENGTH..........................................................................6
TENSILE STRENGTH:.....................................................................7
CREEP:..........................................................................................8
Plasticity:......................................................................................9
Stiffness:.....................................................................................10
Malleability:...............................................................................11
Brittleness:.................................................................................12
Impact Strength.........................................................................13
Fatigue:......................................................................................14
Wear resistance.........................................................................15

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Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials.
ELASTICITY:
DEFINITION:
Elasticity is a physical property defined as the ability of a body to resist a distorting influence
and to return to its original size and shape when that influence or force is removed.
EXPLAINATION:
A body with this ability is said to behave (or respond) elastically, can also be said to change and
adapt; adaptability with respect to any force applied or changes occurring. Substances that
display a high degree of elasticity are termed "elastic." The SI unit applied to elasticity is the
Pascal (Pa), which is used to measure the modulus of deformation and elastic limit. It is also
represented by the ratio of stress and strain.
The causes of elasticity vary depending on the type of material. For example rubbers and other
polymers, elasticity is caused by the stretching of polymer chains when forces are applied. Some
Metals may display elasticity as atomic lattices change shape and size, again, returning to their
original form once energy or pressure applied is removed. Rubber bands and elastic and other
stretchy materials display elasticity. Modeling clay, on the other hand, is relatively inelastic and
retains a new shape even after the force that caused it to change is no longer being exerted.
Hooke’s law is mostly used to calculate elasticity Hooke's law is given by F=kΔL, where ΔL is
the change in length

TOUGHNESS:
DEFINATION:
Toughness is a physical property defined as the ability of a material to deform plastically and to
absorb energy in the process before fracture is termed toughness. In material science and
metallurgy, toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without
fracturing. One definition of material toughness is the amount of energy per unit volume that
a material can absorb before rupturing.
EXPLAINATION:

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The emphasis of this definition should be placed on the ability to absorb energy before fracture.
Recall that ductility is a measure of how much something deforms plastically before fracture, but
just because a material is ductile does not make it tough. The key to toughness is a good
combination of strength and ductility. A material with high strength and high ductility will have
more toughness than a material with low strength and high ductility. This value is simply called
“material toughness” and it has units of energy per volume. Material toughness equates to a slow
absorption of energy by the material.
Material which can absorb more energy before failure is considered tougher than another
material which can absorb less energy. Toughness of a material can be measured using a small
specimen of that material. A typical testing machine uses a pendulum to strike a notched
specimen of defined cross-section and deform it. The height from which the pendulum fell,
minus the height to which it rose after deforming the specimen, multiplied by the weight of the
pendulum is a measure of the energy absorbed by the specimen as it was deformed during the
impact with the pendulum.

In the SI system, the unit of tensile toughness can be easily calculated by using area underneath
the stress–strain (σ–ε) curve, which gives tensile toughness value. It is the product of stress and
strain. Unit of toughness is Joules per cubic meter.

DUCTILITY:
DEFINITION:
Ductility is more commonly defined as the ability of a material to deform easily upon the
application of a tensile force, or as the ability of a material to withstand plastic deformation
without rupture. Can also be stated as being capable of being hammered out thin, as certain
metals. Capable of being drawn out into wire or threads, as gold. Able to undergo change of form
without breaking.

EXPLAINATION:
Most metals are good examples of ductile materials, including gold, silver, copper, erbium,
terbium, and samarium. Examples of metals that are not very ductile include tungsten and high-
carbon steel. Nonmetals are not generally ductile.

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Ductility is the percent elongation reported in a tensile test is defined as the
maximum elongation of the gage length divided by the original gage length. The reduction of
area is reported as additional information (to the percent elongation) on the deformational
characteristics of the material.

Ductility is especially important in metalworking, as materials that crack, break or shatter under

stress cannot be manipulated using metal-forming processes such as hammering, rolling, drawing
or extruding.

HARDNESS:
DEFINITION:
Hardness is a physical property defined as a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation,
penetration, indentation, and scratching. Therefore, hardness is important from
an engineering standpoint because resistance to wear by either friction or erosion by steam, oil,
and water generally increases with hardness

EXPLAINATION:
Hardness refers to the mechanical property of a material to resist pressing-in or scratch of a sharp
object. The materials of different kinds of hardness need various testing methods. There are
different methods to test hardness categorized with respect to the characteristic properties of the
material the hardness of steel, wood and concrete is tested by pressing-in method.
Some examples of hard materials are diamond, boron carbide, quartz, tempered steel, ice,
granite, concrete. Ability of material to resist wear, tear, scratching, abrasion cutting is
called hardness

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The hardness tests serve an important need in the industry, these tests are based on experiments
and observation, and they are able to detect certain differences between the materials. The
importance of hardness testing has to do with the relationship between the hardness and other
properties of the material, and the hardness test is preferred because it is simple, easy and
relatively nondestructive.

Hardness is dependent on ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness,

viscoelasticity, and viscosity.
The SI unit of hardness is N/mm². The unit Pascal is thus used for hardness as well but hardness
must not be confused with pressure.

YIELD STRENGTH:
DEFINTION:

The yield strength is defined as the stress at which a predetermined amount of permanent

deformation occurs. The yield strength of a bar of material is the maximum stress that can be
applied along its axis before it begins to change shape. A metal that has a high yield strength can
withstand high stress without permanent deformation. The yield strength of a bar of material is
the maximum stress that can be applied along its axis before it begins to change shape.

EXPLAINATION:
Whether an object is stubborn or malleable is decided by the yield strength. It is the point at
which an object ceases to be elastic and becomes plastic. Steel yield strength is the amount of
stress a piece of steel must undergo in order to permanently deform.
Knowledge of the yield strength is very important when designing components, since it usually
represents the upper limit of the load that can be applied. Yield strength is very important for
controlling many materials' production techniques, such as forging, rolling or pressing
Yield strength helps us choose appropriate materials for the construction based on the
requirement. The graphical portion of the early stages of a tension test is used to evaluate yield
strength. Yield strength is measured in N/m² or Pascal’s. The yield strength of a material
is determined using a tensile test. The results of the test are plotted on a stress-strain curve.
The stress at the point where the stress-strain curve deviates from proportionality is the yield
strength of the material.

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 yield load∈N
yield strength=
cross sectional area

TENSILE STRENGTH:
DEFINITION:
Tensile strength is a measurement of the force required to pull something such as rope, wire, or a
structural beam to the point where it breaks. The tensile strength of a material is the maximum
amount of tensile stress that it can take before failure, for example breaking.
EXPLAINATION:
Tensile strength, maximum load that a material can support without fracture when being
stretched, divided by the original cross-sectional area of the material (which is called tensile
stress). Tensile strengths have dimensions of force per unit area, these measurements are
commonly expressed in units of pounds per square inch, often abbreviated to psi

Tensile strength=loadtaken ¿ break the wire∈N ¿

cross sectional area

When stresses less than the tensile strength are removed, a material returns either completely or
partially to its original shape and size. As the stress reaches the value of the tensile strength,
however, a material, if ductile, that has already begun to flow plastically rapidly forms a
constricted region called a neck, where it then fractures.

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In this graph tensile strength is at the maximum ultimate strength where the material is about to
fracture.

CREEP:
DEFINITION:
Creep may be defined as a time-dependent deformation at elevated temperature and constant
stress. It follows, then, that a failure from such a condition is referred to as a creep failure or,
occasionally, a stress rupture. It is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform
permanently under the influence of persistent mechanical stresses. It can occur as a result of
long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still below the yield strength of the material.

EXPLAINATION:
The rate of deformation is called the creep rate. It is the slope of the line in a Creep Strain vs.
Time curve.
Creep testing is conducted using a tensile specimen to which a constant stress is applied at a
constant temperature, often by the simple method of suspending weights from it. The test is
recorded on a graph of strain versus time.

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Primary Creep: starts at a rapid rate and slows with time.
Secondary Creep: has a relatively uniform rate.
Tertiary Creep: has an accelerated creep rate and terminates when the material breaks or
ruptures.
It is associated with both necking and formation of grain boundary voids.

Plasticity:
It is the ability of material to change shape permanently when subjected to stresses of
intermediate magnitude between those producing temporary deformation, or elastic behavior,
and those causing failure of the material, or rupture (see yield point).
Explanation:
The plasticity of a material is directly proportional to the ductility and malleability of the
material. Ideal plasticity is a property of materials to undergo irreversible deformation without
any increase in stresses or loads.
Plasticity may cause fracture or rupture of material. Plasticity also causes plastic deformation,
which occurs in many metal-forming processes, including:

 Rolling/pressing
 Forging
 Wire drawing
 in geologic processes (rock folding and rock flow within the earth under extremely high
pressures and at elevated temperatures).

In metals and other crystalline materials plastic deformations due to the motion of dislocations
and the migration of grain boundaries.
In sands and other granular materials plastic deformation is due both to the irreversible
rearrangement and irreversible crushing of individual particles, compression of bone to high
stress levels will lead to particle crushing.

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plastic deformations in materials such as rocks is due to microvoids and the development of
micro-cracks.

Stiffness:
It is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The resistance of a
material to elastic deformation or deflection is called stiffness or rigidity.
 The modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
 A material that suffers slight or very less deformation under load has a  high degree of
stiffness or rigidity. For instance suspended beams of steel and aluminium may both be
strong enough to carry the required load but the aluminium beam will “sag” or deflect
further. That means the steel beam is stiffer or more rigid than an aluminium beam.
 If the material behaves elastically with linear stress-strain relationship under Hooks law,
its stiffness is measured by the   Young’s modulus of elasticity (E).
 The higher is the value of Young’s modulus, the stiffer is the material. In tensile and
compressive stress, it is called modulus of stiffness or  “modulus of elasticity”; in
shear, the modulus of rigidity, and this is usually 40%  of the value of  Young’s modulus
for commonly used materials;  in volumetric distortion, the bulk modulus.

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Malleability:
Malleability is the ability of the material to be flattened into thin sheets under applications of
heavy compressive forces without cracking by hot or cold working means.
Malleability of material is temperature dependent. With rise in temperature, the malleability of
material increases.

 It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered into thin
sheets. A malleable material should be plastic, but it is not essential to be so strong.
 The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice in order of diminishing
malleability are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper, and aluminium. Aluminium,
copper, tin, lead, steel, etc. are recognized as highly malleable metals.

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Brittleness:
This is a mechanical property of a material manifested by failure without undergoing any
deformation on application of stress. Materials with this property have elastic proportionality in
stress and strain.

 The materials having less than 5% elongation under loading behavior are said to be brittle
materials.
 Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads, snap off without giving any sensible
elongation. Glass, cast iron, brass, and ceramics are considered brittle material.
 Brittleness in metals helps in determining the critical cooling temperature that transforms
a ductile material into a brittle material.
Basically, all materials will eventually fail when the limits are exceeded, but in the case that
it fails before any change in shape and geometrical size, then the material falls under brittleness.
Cause of Brittleness material failure:
 Stress acting on the surface of the material.
 Surrounding temperatures below the melting point of a material

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Impact Strength: Impact strength – also called impact toughness – is the amount of
energy that a material can withstand when the said load is suddenly applied to it. It may also be
defined as the threshold of force per unit area before the material undergoes fracture

Factors affect impact strength: 

 temperature: impact strength increases with increasing temperature.

 material thickness: increasing the thickness reduces impact strength.
 notch radius: a smaller notch tip radius lowers the impact strength. 

Failure cause by exceeds the impact strength:

 brittle fracture 
 slight cracking
 ductile fracture 
 yielding

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Fatigue: It is defined as the tendency of a material to fracture by means of progressive brittle
cracking under repeated alternating or cyclic stresses of an intensity considerably below the
normal strength.

 This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, gears, springs, etc.
 The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which is usually fine and
of microscopic size.
Factors affecting fatigue
 Frequency of loading
 Loading condition
 Corrosion
 Temperature
 Stress concentration

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Wear resistance:
Loss of material from a surface by means of some mechanical action.
Types of wear resistance:
1. Abrasive Wear: Wear due to hard particles or hard protuberances forced against and
moving along a solid surface
2. Adhesive Wear: Wear due to localised bonding between contacting solid surfaces
leading to material transfer between the two surfaces or the loss from either surface.
3. Erosion: Wear due to mechanical interaction between that surface and a fluid, a
multicomponent fluid, or impinging liquid or solid particles
4. Caviation Erosion: A form of erosion causing material to wear by the action of vapour
bubbles in a very turbulent liquid
5. Fatigue wear: Wear of a solid surface caused by fracture arising from material fatigue
6. Fretting Wear: Wear arising as a result of fretting (Small amplitude oscillatory motion,
usually tangential, between two solid surfaces in contact).

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