90 CHAPTER 5.

ELASTICITY

5.2. The constitutive equation for isotropic linear thermoelasticity, when expressed as the strain in terms
of the stress and the temperature change is,
1+ν ν
ij = σij − σkk δij + α∆ϑδij .
E E
Invert this relation to give σij as a function of strain and temperature change.

Solution 5.2. One way to solve this problem is to invert the relation using a volumetric-deviatoric
split of the expression:
1 − 2ν
kk = σkk + 3α∆ϑ,
E
1+ν 0
0ij = σ .
E ij
Hence,
E
σkk = (kk − 3α∆ϑ) ,
1 − 2ν
0 E 0
σij =  ,
1 + ν ij
which gives

0 1 E 0 E
σij = σij + σkk δij =  + (kk − 3α∆ϑ) δij ,
3 1 + ν ij 3(1 − 2ν)
= 2µ0ij + κ (kk − 3α∆ϑ) δij ,

where we have used

E E
µ= , κ= .
2(1 + ν) 3(1 − 2ν)
 91

5.3. Write the strain energy density of a linear elastic isotropic body in terms of the invariants of the stress
tensor.

Solution 5.3. The strain energy density is given by

1 1
ψ= ij Cijkl kl = ij σij .
2 2
By noting that
1+ν ν
ij = σij − σkk δij ,
E E
we can write  
1 1+ν ν
ψ= σij σij − σkk σjj .
2 E E
Note that the first invariant I1 (σ) = σii and twice the second invariant 2I2 (σ) = I12 − σij σji . Thus
we can write that σij σij = σij σji = I12 − 2I2 . Therefore,
 
1 1 2 1+ν
ψ= I −2 I2 .
2 E 1 E

(Why doesn’t it depend on I3 ?)

92 CHAPTER 5. ELASTICITY

5.4. Consider a uniaxial stress of magnitude σnn in the direction n (unit vector),

σ = σnn n ⊗ n,

and let the component of the strain tensor in the direction n be given by
def
nn = n · n,

and the component of strain in a direction s which is perpendicular to n be given by

def
ss = s · s.

Then the Young’s modulus (the directional modulus) in the direction n may be defined as
def σnn
E = ,
nn
and let
def ss
ν = − .
nn
define a corresponding Poisson’s ratio.
Starting from the isotropic linear elasticity tensor in the form
 
1 1
C = 2µ Is − 1 ⊗ 1 + (3λ + 2µ)1 ⊗ 1,
3 3
find an expression for the Young’s modulus E and Poisson’s ratio ν in terms of µ and λ.

Solution 5.4. To solve the problem we need to invert C to get the compliance tensor S = C−1 .
Since
1
σ = C = 2µ0 + (3λ + 2µ)(tr )1,
3
we have
σ0
= 0 ,
2µ
and
tr σ
= (tr ) ,
(3λ + 2µ)
and hence
1
 = 0 + (tr )1,
3
σ0 1 tr σ
= + 1,
2µ 3 (3λ + 2µ)
   
1 1 1
= Is − 1 ⊗ 1 + 1 ⊗ 1 σ.
2µ 3 3(3λ + 2µ)

Therefore
 = Sσ,
with the compliance tensor given by
1 s 1 1
S= (I − 1 ⊗ 1) + 1 ⊗ 1.
2µ 3 3(3λ + 2µ)
 93

Using this result, for σ = σnn n ⊗ n we have

 
1 1 1
 = σnn (n ⊗ n − 1) + 1 ,
2µ 3 3(3λ + 2µ)

and hence  
σnn 1 1 λ+µ
nn = + = σnn ,
µ µ (3λ + 2µ) µ(3λ + 2µ)
which implies
σnn µ(2µ + 3λ)
E= = .
nn λ+µ
Further  
σnn 1 1 λ
ss = − + = −σnn .
µ 6µ 3(3λ + 2µ) 2µ(3λ + 2µ)
Hence,
ss λ µ(3λ + 2µ)
ν=− = ,
nn 2µ(3λ + 2µ) λ + µ
or
λ
ν= .
2(λ + µ)
94 CHAPTER 5. ELASTICITY

5.6. For cubic materials we may write the stress-strain relation in matrix form as
    
σ11 C1111 C1122 C1122 0 0 0 11
σ22  C1122 C1111 C1122 0 0 0   22 
 
  
σ33  C1122 C1122 C1111 0 0 0   33 
 
 = ,
σ23   0 0 0 C1212 0 0  223 
 
  
σ13   0 0 0 0 C1212 0   213 
σ12 0 0 0 0 0 C1212 212
or equivalently in the Voigt notation as
    
σ1 C11 C12 C12 0 0 0 1
σ2  C12 C11 C12 0 0 0  2 
    
σ3  C12 C12 C11 0 0 0  3  ;
 
 =
σ4   0
   0 0 C44 0 0 

4 

σ5   0 0 0 0 C44 0  5 
σ6 0 0 0 0 0 C44 6
a cubic material has 3 independent elastic constants
{C11 , C12 , C44 } .

Plot the variation in the effective Young’s Modulus Ed for iron, tungsten, silicon, and niobium as a
function of sample orientation d with respect to the crystal lattice basis {e1 , e2 , e3 }. Note Ed = σ/,
where the applied uniaxial stress is σ = σd ⊗ d and  = d · d is the normal strain induced by σ in
the d-direction.

C11 C12 C44

GPa GPa GPa
Fe 231.4 134.7 116.4
W 522.4 204.4 160.8
Si 166.2 64.4 79.7
Nb 240.2 125.6 28.2

Solution 5.6. One way of doing this problem is to consider all tensor components to be given in
the axes aligned with the cubic crystal directions. Then σ = σd ⊗ d can be expressed by noting
that in a spherical coordinate system, with d in the same direction as er ,

d = sin θ cos φ e1 + sin θ sin φ e2 + cos θ e3 , with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and 0 ≤ φ < 2π.

Then the strains which are given by  = C−1 : σ can be computed using matrix vector concepts
(Voigt notation) in the crystal basis:
   −1  
1 C11 C12 C12 0 0 0 σ1
2  C12 C11 C12 0 0 0  σ2 
     
3  C12 C12 C11 0 0 0  σ3 
 
 =
4   0
   0 0 C44 0 0  σ4 
 
5   0 0 0 0 C44 0  σ5 
6 0 0 0 0 0 C44 σ6
The strain components can be re-assembled in tensor form and  = d · d can be computed and
Ed = σ/.
The plots of the Young’s Modulus Ed for iron, tungsten, silicon, and niobium as a function of
 95

sample orientation d with respect to the crystal lattice basis {e1 , e2 , e3 } are given below along
with the MATLAB code which produced them.
Iron Young's Modulus (GPa) Tungsten Young's Modulus (GPa)
280

411
260
200 500
410.5
150 400
240
300
100
200 410
50
220 100
0 0
c

409.5

c
-50 -100
200
-200
-100 409
-300
-150
180 -400
-200 -500 408.5
200 500
160
100 200 500
408
100
0 0
0 0
140
-100
-100 407.5
b a b a
-200 -200 -500 -500

Figure 5.1: Young’s modulus/directional modulus (left) Iron, (right) Tungsten.

Silicon Young's Modulus (GPa) Niobium Young's Modulus (GPa)

185 150

180
150 200 140
175
150
100
170 100 130
50
165 50

0 0 120
c

c
160
-50
-50
155
-100 110
-100
150 -150

-150 -200 100

145
150 200
100
150 140 100 200
50 100 90
100
0 50 0
135
-50 0 0
-50 -100
-100 -100
b -100 b
-150 -150 a -200 -200 a

Figure 5.2: Young’s modulus/directional modulus (left) Silicon, (right) Niobium

clear all;
% Set up Elastic Moduli in a coordinate system aligned with the
% cubic axes of the material in GPa. (ie in the crystal axes)
c11 = 240.2;
c12 = 125.6;
c44 = 28.2;

C = [c11 c12 c12 0 0 0;

c12 c11 c12 0 0 0;
c12 c12 c11 0 0 0;
0 0 0 c44 0 0;
0 0 0 0 c44 0;
0 0 0 0 0 c44];

% Invert moduli to get compliances

S = inv(C);

% Create a grid of specimen orientations according to their

% polar and azimuthal angles wrt to the crystal axes

phis = linspace(0,2*pi,100);
thetas = linspace(0, pi, 50);
96 CHAPTER 5. ELASTICITY

% Loop over the grid computing the Young’s Modulus for each direction d

idxp = 0;
for phi = phis

% Set up looping counters

idxp = idxp + 1;
idxt = 0;

for theta = thetas

% Set up looping counters

idxt = idxt + 1;

% Set up some direction vector d aligned with the specimen

d = [sin(theta)*cos(phi); sin(theta)*sin(phi); cos(theta)];

% Convert the uniaxial stress state from the coordinates aligned

% with the specimen into the crystal coordinate system;
% store in Voigt form. Assume magnitude 1 stress.

sigv= [d(1)*d(1); d(2)*d(2); d(3)*d(3);

d(2)*d(3); d(3)*d(1); d(1)*d(2)];

% Compute strains in Voigt form in the original coordinate system

epsv = S*sigv;

% Set strains in tensor form

eps = [epsv(1) epsv(6)/2 epsv(5)/2;

epsv(6)/2 epsv(2) epsv(4)/2;
epsv(5)/2 epsv(4)/2 epsv(3)];

% Extract needed strain component

epsd = d’*eps*d;

% Compute Young’s modulus and store for plotting

Ed(idxp,idxt) = 1/epsd;
rho = Ed(idxp,idxt);
x1(idxp,idxt) = rho*sin(theta)*cos(phi);
y1(idxp,idxt) = rho*sin(theta)*sin(phi);
z1(idxp,idxt) = rho*cos(theta);
end
end

% Plot Young’s modulus

surf(x1,y1,z1,Ed)
xlabel(’${\bf e}_1$’, ’Interpreter’, ’latex’,’FontSize’,16);
 97

ylabel(’${\bf e}_2$’, ’Interpreter’, ’latex’,’FontSize’,16);

zlabel(’${\bf e}_3$’, ’Interpreter’, ’latex’,’FontSize’,16)
colorbar
title(’Young’’s Modulus (GPa)’,’FontSize’,16)
 99

5.8. Consider a linear elastic orthotropic material where the coordinate basis {ei } is aligned with the
material axes. The components of the material moduli can be expressed in this basis using Voigt
notation as  
100 50 60 0 0 0
 50 110 70 0 0 0 
 
 60 70 200 0 0 0 
  MPa .
 0 0 0 25 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 35 0 
0 0 0 0 0 45
√ √
Suppose that one now introduces a new basis e∗1 = (e1 + e2 )/ 2, e∗2 = (e2 − e1 )/ 2, e∗3 = e3 . What
is C2233 in the {e∗i } basis?

Solution 5.8. The desired modulus value is given by

C2233 = C(e∗2 , e∗2 , e∗3 , e∗3 )

√ √
= C((e1 + e2 )/ 2, (e1 + e2 )/ 2, e3 , e3 )
1 √ 1 √
= √ C(e1 , (e1 + e2 )/ 2, e3 , e3 ) + √ C(e2 , (e1 + e2 )/ 2, e3 , e3 )
2 2
1
= [C(e1 , e1 , e3 , e3 ) + C(e1 , e2 , e3 , e3 ) + C(e2 , e1 , e3 , e3 ) + C(e2 , e2 , e3 , e3 )]
2
1
= [60 + 0 + 0 + 70] = 65 MPa
2
100 CHAPTER 5. ELASTICITY

5.9. Consider a single crystal of Silicon with cubic elastic constants

C11 = 166 GPa, C12 = 64 GPa, C12 = 80 GPa,
with respect to an orthonormal basis {ec1 , ec2 , ec3 } for the cubic crystal. The crystal is oriented with
respect to a global Cartesian coordinate system with orthonormal basis {e1 , e2 , e3 } such that
√ √
ec1 = e2 , ec2 = (−e1 + e3 )/ 2, ec3 = (e1 + e3 )/ 2.
If the single crystal silicon in this orientation is subjected to a homogeneous stress state given in the
global basis {e1 , e2 , e3 } by  
0 10 50
[σ] = 10 3 9  MPa ,
50 9 −3
find the matrix of components the homogeneous strain  in both the cystal basis {eci } and the global
{ei }.

Solution 5.9. % Cubic Analysis

C = [166 64 64 0 0 0;
64 166 64 0 0 0;
64 64 166 0 0 0;
0 0 0 80 0 0;
0 0 0 0 80 0;
0 0 0 0 0 80]*1e3;

% Components of the transformation matrix Q_{ij}=\bfe_i^c\cdot\bfe_j:

s = 1/sqrt(2);
Q = [0 1 0;
-s 0 s;
s 0 s];

sig = [0 10 50;
10 3 9;
50 9 -3];

% Convert stress matrix from the \{\bfe_i\} basis to the {\bfe_i^c}

% basis
sig = Q*sig*Q’;

% Convert to the Voigt vector notation

sigv=[sig(1,1) sig(2,2) sig(3,3) sig(2,3) sig(3,1) sig(1,2)]’;

%Calculate the strain in the Voigt vector notation

epsv = inv(C)*sigv;

%Convert the strain into the tensor notation in the {\bfe_i^c} frame
eps_c = [epsv(1) epsv(6)/2 epsv(5)/2;
epsv(6)/2 epsv(2) epsv(4)/2;
epsv(5)/2 epsv(4)/2 epsv(3)];

disp(’Matrix of strain in crystal basis’)

eps_c
 101

% Convert the strain into the tensor notation in the {\bfe_i} basis

eps_g = Q’*eps_c*Q;
disp(’Matrix of strain in global basis’)
eps_g
Matrix of strain in crystal basis {eci }:
 
0.0294 −0.0044 0.0840
[] =  −0.0044 −0.5049 −0.0094  × 10−3 .
0.0840 −0.0094 0.4755

Matrix of strain in global basis {ei }:

 
−0.0053 0.0625 0.4902
[] =  0.0625 0.0294 0.0562  × 10−3 .
0.4902 0.0562 −0.0241