Aerial Camera Systems
Basic Types of Aerial Cameras
Film cameras
• Single lens frame camera (most common)
• Multilens frame camera (specialized applications)
• Strip camera (rarely used)
• Panoramic camera (specialized applications)
Non-film cameras (electronic imaging)
• Digital camera (direct digital recording)
• Video camera (analog or digital recording)
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Film Sizes for Aerial Photography
Cameras for small
area analysis
35 mm film
(24 x 36 mm image)
70 mm film
(55 mm image)
Aerial mapping cameras
240 mm film
(230 x 230 mm image)
Original photo:
• 230 x 230 mm image
(9 x 9 in.)
• NAPP series 1992
• 1:40,000 scale
• Panchromatic film
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• Project ID, date,
and frame number.
•Side fiducial marks
•Corner fiducial marks
Film Resolution
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Figure 2.33 Resolving power test chart.
Line spacing
GRD
(when lines are projected to the ground)
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The effects of scale and resolution can be combined to express
image quality in terms of a ground resolution distance (GRD).
This distance extrapolates the dynamic system resolution on a
film to a ground distance. We can express this as
reciprocal of image scale
GRD = (2.13)
system resolution
For example, a photograph at a scale of 1:50,000 taken with a
system having a dynamic resolution of 40 lines/mm would have
a ground resolution distance of
50,000
GRD = = 1250 mm = 1.25 m
40
Resolution Example
A series of parallel docks protrudes into a lake. The width of each dock
is equal to the spacing between the docks, as shown in the figure below:
water
water
water
water
water
dock
dock
dock
dock
2m 2m 2m
GRD
A camera system in a Learjet is being used to photograph an
area at a scale of 1:250,000 and a system resolution of 80
lines/mm. Can this system resolve the docks shown above?
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Resolution Example:
Solution
1/scale 250,000
GRD = =
system resolution 80
= 3125 mm = 3.125 m
GRD required = 2 m + 2 m = 4 m
Docks can be resolved because 3.125 m < 4 m
Typical Aerial Film Resolution
(at 1:1000 contrast)
Kodak Plus-X Aerial Film (B/W) 160 lines/mm
Kodak 2448 (normal color) 75 lines/mm
NEW Kodak 2444 (normal color) 125 lines/mm
Kodak 2443 (color infrared) 63 lines/mm
NEW Kodak 1443 (color infrared) 100 lines/mm
(A good lens for a 35 mm camera will typically have a
resolution at the center of the image of 70 lines/mm)
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Electronic Imaging:
Digital Cameras
Electronic Imaging
Electronic imaging instruments typically use two-
dimensional detector arrays for image acquisition,
with each detector in the array sensing one pixel in
the image field.
array of detectors
film
Photography Electronic imaging
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Digital Cameras
• The detector locations in the two-dimensional array
are called “photosites.”
• Each photosite uses one of the following:
° CCD (charge-coupled device)
° CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-
semiconductor)
• Electric charge produced at each photosite is
proportional to scene brightness.
35mm Digital Cameras:
Typical Array Sizes
Low resolution
• 1024 x 1542 (various) “1.5 megapixel”
Intermediate resolution
• 2048 x 3084 (various) “6 megapixel”
High resolution
• 2704 x 4064 (Canon EOS-1Ds) “11 megapixel”
• 2848 x 4288 (Nikon D2X) “12 megapixel”
• 3024 x 4536 (Kodak DCs 14n) “13 megapixel”
• 3328 x 4992 (Canon EOS-1Ds Mk.II) “16 megapixel”
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Kodak DCS 14n
• 3024 x 4536 CMOS array
(13.7 million pixels)
• Nikon F80/F100 body
• B&W or color images
• Exposure times as short as 1/4000 second
• 400 images per battery charge
• Approximate cost (2004): $4400
Photosites vs.
Silver Halide Grain Clusters
Photosites:
• Uniform size
• Uniform shape
• Uniform spatial arrangement
• Linear response over entire dynamic range (12-bit
or 4096 gray levels common)
Silver Halide Grain Clusters:
• Random size
• Random shape
• Random spatial arrangement
• Non-linear response along toe and shoulder of
characteristic curve
General Rule:
A 35 mm array of 6 to 11 million photosites has about
the same resolution as 35 mm film.
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Status of Digital Camera Technology
Used today for applications previously done using
35mm or 70mm film camera (e.g., precision farming).
Major advantages:
• Rapid turnaround
• Computer compatible format
• Amenable to digital image processing
• Greater dynamic range than film
• Resolution now comparable to film
Major disadvantage:
• Data volume
Color Imaging:
Bayer Pattern
Most common method:
• Use a single array, with individual
color filters over each photosite
(“Bayer pattern”)
Advantages:
• Low cost
• No need to co-register images
Disadvantages:
• Need to interpolate images
• Color images have reduced resolution
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Color Image Formation by Interpolation
Calculate color values for a given pixel based on values in
adjacent pixels, using spatial interpolation.
From “Image Sensors,” Chapter 2 of A Short Course in Digital Photography.
http://www.shortcourses.com
Interpolation using
nearest neighbors
Interpolation
using a 9 x 9
window
From “Image Sensors,” Chapter 2 of A Short Course in Digital Photography.
http://www.shortcourses.com
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Color Imaging:
Other Approaches
3 (or more) separate arrays (B, G, R, NIR, …)
Advantages: High resolution
Disadvantages: High cost, need to co-register images
Examples: Z/I Imaging Digital Mapping Camera (DMC);
Emerge Direct Digital Imagery system
Color Imaging:
Other Approaches
Multi-layer detectors (Foveon X3)
Advantages: No interpolation or co-registration needed
Disadvantages: Uncommon, low resol. (max 3.4 megapixels)
Example: Sigma SD10 camera
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