Photogrammetry

VARUN SINGH
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, CED
MNNIT ALLAHABAD
E-mail : vsingh.ce@gmail.com,
varun@mnnit.ac.in
Introduction
Definition of Photogrammetry: the art, science, and
technology of obtaining information about physical
objects and the environment by photographic and
electromagnetic images.
Mapping from aerial photos is the best mapping procedure yet
developed for most large projects.
Used successfully for maps varying in scale from
1:1,000,000 to 1:120 with contour intervals as small as 3
meters.
Topographic mapping is the most common form. SOI
updated and done this way.
Used to reconstruct a scaled 3-dimensional optical model
of the lands surface using a stereoplotter.
Basic Information
Basic Information (Contd..)
Uses: Aerial photos
Aid: geological investigations, soil surveys, land
surveys, tax mapping, reconnaissance and
military intelligence, urban and regional
development, transportation system
investigations, quantity estimates, shore erosion,
etc.
Mathematical methods have been developed to
make precise 3-dimensional measurements from
photos.
Phototriangulation: 3-dimensional positioning of survey
stations.
Basic Information (Contd..)
Photo has been used to take geometric measurements of
human bodies, artificial human hearts, ships, dams,
buildings and very accurate reproductions.
In general it is not economical for small projects the cost
break even point is somewhere between 30 100 acres
depending on the situation.
Basic Information (Contd..)
Photogrammetry can not be used successfully over
the following types of terrain.
Desert or plains areas, sandy beaches, and snow the
photograph as uniform shades with little texture.
Deep canyons or high buildings that conceal ground
surface.
Areas covered by dense forest.
Basic Categories
Metrical photogrammetry obtaining measurements from
photos from which ground positions, elevations, distances,
areas, and volumes can be computed and topographic or
planimetric maps can be made
Photo interpretation evaluation of existing features in a
qualitative manner
Types of Photogrammetry
Aerial series of photographs of an area of terrain in
sequence using a precision camera.
Terrestrial photos taken from a fixed and usually
known position on or near the ground with the
camera axis horizontal or nearly so.
Close range camera close to object being
observed. Most often used when direct
measurement is impractical.
History
The first use of photogrammetry was by Arago, a
French geodesist, in 1840. This included
topographic and terrestrial.
The first aerial photogrammetry was by the French
in 1849 using kites and balloons.
Laussedat (French) father of photogrammetry.
1
st
in N. America Deville, Surveyor General of
Canada.
SOI and GSI adopted photogrammetry as mapping
process
History
Airplanes brought great change to photogrammetry.
1
st
used in 1913.
Used extensively in WWI photo interpretation.
Used in WWII mapping for recon and intelligence.
WWII 1960 used often, expensive and accuracy
problems for engineering design.
After mid 60s advent of computer and plotting has
made photogrammetric mapping accurate and
affordable.
Photogrammetry for Engineering
Defined: Photogrammetry is the process of
measuring images on a photograph.
Modern photogrammetry also uses radar imaging,
radiant electromagnetic energy detection and x-ray
imaging called remote sensing.
Basic Categories of Photogrammetric Interpretation
Metrical Photogrammetry obtaining measurements from
photos from which ground positions, elevations, distances,
areas can be computed and topographic or planimetric maps
can be made.
Photo interpretation evaluation of existing features in a
qualitative manner timber stands, water pollution, soils,
geological formations, crops, and military interpretation.
Camera System
Aerial Camera
A camera used for vertical aerial photography for mapping
purposes is called aerial survey camera.

At present there are only two major manufacturer of aerial survey
cameras

Leica-Helava System(LH System)- RC 30 camera
Z/I Imaging-(RMK-TOP) Camera

Modern aerial survey cameras produce negatives measuring
23cmsx23cms(9 x 9in) Up to 600 photographs may be recorded in a
single film roll.
Lens Cone
The most important and expensive single component within the camera is the
lens. This is interchangeable, and the manufacturers produce a range of cone,
each of different focal length.

Focal Length is the most important property of the lens since, together with the
flying height it determine the scale of the photograph. It also determines the angle
of view of the camera. The longer the focal length, the narrower the angle of view.
Lens are generally available in the following standard focal lengths.

Narrow angle (f=610mm)
Normal angle (f=305mm)
Wide angle (f=210,152mm)
Super wide angle (f=88mm)
The lens is responsible for projecting an optical image on to the film. In an
ideal lens all the light rays passing through one central point. Hence the
projection is called the Central Projection
Camera classifications
Camera Lens
Lens distortion and
errors cause the light
rays to deviate
IMAGE or EXPOSURE PLANE
lens of high geometric quality
capable of exposing in rapid succession a large
no. of photographs while moving in an aircraft
at high speed
must have short cycling times, fast lenses and
efficient shutters.
Single lens camera classified according to field of
view :
Normal angle camera
Wide angle camera
Super wide angle camera
Requirements of aerial mapping camera
Types of Aerial Photography
Vertical Photographs:
This photograph is taken with the optical axis of the camera in truly
vertical or very nearly vertical (with tilt < 3
o
to 5
o
)

Tilt :
The angle formed between the optical axis of the camera
and a plumb line.



Types of photographs
90
0


Lens

Film

VERTICAL
PHOTOGRAPH
Plumb Line

Types of photographs

Oblique Photographs:

This photograph is taken with the optical axis of the camera
intentionally tilted at an angle >5
o
.Oblique photographs can be
categorized into
Low Oblique : These photos are tilted to such an angle so as not
to allow the horizon to be seen on the photo.
( angle about 30
o
)
High Oblique: These photos are tilted at such an angle so as to
allow the horizon to be seen on the photo.
( angle about 60
o
)


Panoramic photograph

30
o
Plumb line
LOW OBLIQUE
PHOTOGRAPH
HIGH OBLIQUE
PHOTOGRAPH
Plumb
line
Horizon
60
o

3/4/2014
sidelap
endlap
STEREOSCOPIC COVERAGE
Sensor Attitude/Orientation
Oblique
More Oblique
Vertical
2
3
1 1
Camera System
Cameras used for air survey, as with all other survey
equipment, are precision-built, and their lenses are of such
high quality that aberrations are practically negligible

From the engineering point of view the most popular lens is
the wide-angle combined with a photograph format size of
230 mm230 mm
Map Vs Scale
Map is the orthographic projection whereas an aerial
photograph is a central projection i.e. perspective projection
Map has a single constant scale whereas it varies from point
to point depending upon their elevations on an aerial
photograph.
The amount of details on a map are selective but in an aerial
photograph a wealth of detail is there.
Due to symbolic representation the clarity of details is more
on maps than on a photograph.
Photogram
A photogram is a photographic image made without a camera
by placing objects directly onto the surface of a light-sensitive
material such as photographic paper and then exposing it to
light. The usual result is a negative shadow image that shows
variations in tone that depends upon the transparency of the
objects used. Areas of the paper that have received no light
appear white; those exposed through transparent or semi-
transparent objects appear grey
Photogram (Contd..)
Photogram (Contd..)
Generation of a photogram: A spatially extended light source (1) illuminates
objects (2 and 3) that are placed directly in front of a sheet of photosensitive
paper. Depending on the object's distance to the paper their shadows look
harder (7) or softer (5). Areas of the paper that are in total shadow (6) stay
white; they become grey if the objects are transparent or translucent; areas
that are fully exposed to the light (4) are blackened.
Geometry of Vertical Photograph
Geometry of Vertical Photograph
33
Geometry of Photographs
Photo axis: the right-angled xy-axis formed by joining the
opposite fiducial marks of the photograph. This is the axis
from which photo coordinates are measured. The x-axis
approximates to the direction of flight
Optical axis: the line LpP from the lens centre at 90

to the
plane of the photograph.
Geometry of Photographs
Principal distance: the distance Lp = f , from the lens to the
plane of the photograph. The principal distance may be
referred to as the focal length.
Vertical axis: the line LvV in the direction of gravity, so 90
to a level datum plane.
Tilt: the angle between the vertical and optical axes (see
also principal line).
Geometry of Photographs (Contd..)
Principal point (PP): the point p where
the optical axis cuts the photograph, and
coincides with the origin of the photo
axes.
Plumb point: the point v where the
vertical axis cuts the photograph.
Isocentre: the point i, where the
bisector of the angle of tilt cuts
the photograph.
Geometry of Photographs (Contd..)
Plate parallels: the lines at 90 to the principal line; they are level lines.
Isometric parallel: the plate parallel passing through the isocentre and
forming the axis of tilt of the photograph.
Flying height: the vertical height of the lens above ground at exposure.
It is the height of the lens above datum (e.g. MSL) minus the mean
height of the terrain.
Swing: the angle s measured in the plane of the photograph,
clockwise from the +y axis to the plumb point. It defines the direction
of tilt relative to the photo axes.
Geometry of Photographs
The photographic nadir is defined
by the intersection with the
photograph of the vertical line that
intersects the ground nadir and the
center of the lens (i.e. the image of
the ground nadir)

The ground nadir is defined as the
point on the ground vertically
beneath the center of the camera
lens at the time the photograph
was taken.
Perspective geometry of vertical photographs
points v and V (ground and photo
nadir point),
i and I (ground and photo
isocentre)
p and P (ground and photo principal
point)

photographic plane
horizontal plane
principle plane
Principle line
(UP)
Perspective geometry of vertical photographs
* The figure shows camera
axis SP of a camera,
perpendicular to the
photographic plane ABCD,
tilted at angle from the
vertical at exposure so that
the plane of the photograph
itself is inclined by an angle
to the horizontal plane
CDEF, representing a level
ground. S represents
perspective center as
defined by the inner or rear
node of the lens system.
Perspective geometry of vertical photographs
Perspective Axis: Line
CD where the two
plane meet is called
the perspective axis or
horizontal trace.
Perspective geometry of vertical photographs

Horizontal lines drawn
in the photo plane are
called plate parallels
or plate horizontals.
Line iI is the bisector
of tilt angle . It meets
photo plane at i and
ground plane at I.
These points are
known as photo
isocentre and ground
isocentre respectively.
Perspective geometry of vertical photographs
Principal plane: A
plane containing P, V,
and S is called the
principal plane. Photo
principal line (VP) and
ground principal lines
(vp) are contained in
this plane.
Perspective geometry of vertical photographs
Isomertric Plate
Parallel: For a truly vertical
photograph taken from exposure
station S, various photo plate
parallels are lines I'I", P'P", etc.
The plate parallel through I is
also called isometric plate
parallel.

Exterior Orientation
Exterior Orientation
Details on Aerial Photographs
48
Details on Aerial Photographs
Scale and its variation due to ground relief
Ground Coordinates from vertical photograph
Ground Coordinates from vertical photograph
Image displacement due to ground relief
Image displacement due to ground relief
Image displacement due to ground relief
Image displacement due to ground relief
Image displacement due to ground relief
Amount function of:
Flying height
Distance from nadir point to image point
Elevation of ground point
Position of point w.r.t. principal line and axis of tilt
Relief displacement
Will be less on upward side of photo
Identical along axis of tilt
Greater on downward half of photo
Image displacement due to ground relief
Image displacement due to ground relief
FLYING HEIGHT OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH
FLYING HEIGHT OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH
FLYING HEIGHT OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH
Tilted Photograph
Tilted Photograph
Tilt angle (t) : It is the angle
between the optical axis
and the vertical axis

Principal Plane: It is the
vertical plane through the
optical axis. Since the plane
of the photograph is normal
to the optical axis, it is
normal to the principal
plane.
Tilted Photograph
Principal Line: The line of
intersection of the principal
plane and the plane of the
photograph, which is line no
prolonged, is termed the
principal line.

X-Axis and Y-Axis
In the photograph, the x axis is
placed on the line at which this
vertical plane intersects the
plane of the photograph, with x
values increasing in the
direction of flight. The y axis is
normal to the x axis, and the
origin lies at o. The y axis is
normal to the x axis, and the
origin lies at o.
Tilted Photograph
Vertical Aerial Photographs
Tilt Displacement
Ground
N
a
d
i
r

I
s
o
c
e
n
t
e
r

P
P
o
i
n
t

X-axis tilt:
wings up
or down
Ground
N
a
d
i
r

I
s
o
c
e
n
t
e
r

P
P
o
i
n
t

Y-axis tilt:
Nose up
or down
FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements
Definitions
Link
Link1
Link2
Auxiliary Coordinate System
In tilt-swing-azimuth system, auxiliary coordinate
system required for some computations
Two stages:
Rotate about principal point through an angle
Translate along principal line from principal point
to nadir point
Origin at nadir point, y axis coincides with the
principal line, x axis is perpendicular to principal
line at the nadir point, clockwise 90
o

= Amount of rotation = s-180
o

s = swing angle
u u
u u
cos sin
sin cos
a a
a a
y x y
y x x
+ =
' '
=
' '
Auxiliary Coordinate System
s =180 u
Note: if rotation angle defined as
t f y x y
y x x
tan cos sin
sin cos
+ + =
'
+ =
'
u u
u u
Then auxiliary coordinate system can be
expressed as
In previous figure
wk is perpendicular to line Ln and is therefore a
horizontal line
wp is perpendicular to the principal line and is
also a horizontal line
Plane kwp is horizontal plane
Plane NWP is horizontal plane
Scale of Tilted Photograph
Link
Scale of Tilted Photograph
Scale between planes kwp & NWP found by
similar triangles
Because Lk = Ln kn = f sec t y sin t
h H
t y
t
f
h H
t y t f
S
h H
Lk
LN
Lk
NP
kp

= =
sin
cos
sin sec
'
'
Link
GROUND COORDINATES FROM TILTED PHOTO
h H
t y
t
f
X
x
WP
wp

'

=
'
=
sin
cos
x
t y
t
f
h H
X
'
'

=
sin
cos
On ground, the Y-axis lies principal plane
In figure, wp = x and WP = X, then from
scale:
Link
GROUND COORDINATES FROM TILTED PHOTO
h H
t y
t
f
Y
t y
Y
t nw
Y
kw
NW
kw

'

= = = =
sin
cos
cos ' cos
t y
t y
t
f
h H
Y cos
sin
cos
'
'

=
Similarly
Tilt Displacement
Tilt Displacement
f
t y
d or
y
t
f
y
d
sin ) (
sin
) (
2 *
*
2 *
~
|
.
|

\
|

=
Parallax and Stereoscopic vision
Parallax is defined as the apparent shift in the position of
an object, caused by a shift in the position of the viewer.

Stereoscopic vision is that particular application of
binocular vision (simultaneous vision with both eyes) that
enables an observer to view two different perspective
photographs of an object (such as two photographs taken
from different camera stations) and get the mental
impression of three dimensions.

A stereoscope permits each eye to see as one a pair of
photographs that shows an area from different exposure
points and thereby produces a three-dimensional
(stereoscopic) image (model).
STEREOSCOPIC DEPTH PERCEPTION
STEREOSCOPIC DEPTH PERCEPTION
Stereo Model
Stereo Model

The parallactic angle, also known as the convergence angle, is formed by the
intersection of the left eye's line of sight with that of the right eye. The closer this
point of intersection is to the eyes, the larger the convergence angle. The brain
perceives the height of an object by associating depth at its top and its base with the
convergence angles formed by viewing the top and base.

The X parallax and the parallactic angle are related. As X parallax increases, so too
does the parallactic angle.

As the eyes scan overlapping areas between a stereo image pair, the brain receives
a continuous 3-D impression of the ground. This is caused by the brain constantly
perceiving the changing parallactic angles of an infinite number of image points
making up the terrain. The perceived 'virtual' 3-D model is known as a stereomodel



Stereo Model
If the negatives are now printed as
photographs and viewed
simultaneously, so that the left eye
sees only the left photograph and
the right eye only the right
photograph, then a three-
dimensional image will form in the
mind. The above condition can be
most easily obtained by viewing the
photographs under a stereoscope.
The three-dimensional image
formed is termed a stereo model.
stereo pair
The stereo model is usually exaggerated and this can be useful in the
heighting process, particularly where the terrain is relatively flat. This
effect can be increased or reduced when planning the photography.

If the value of f is fixed, then from the base/height ratio, it can be seen
that to halve the flying height would double the impression of height.

Increasing the viewing distance of the stereoscope produces a
proportionate increase in the impression of height.
Stereo Model
VIEWING PHOTOS STEREOSCOPICALLY
Parallax Measurement
parallax of A (P
A
).
Parallax
A appears at a
1

when viewed from
L1; and at a
2
when
viewed from L2.
By overlapping the two
photographs, the apparent
movement of A is shown
as a
1
a
2
, (L
1
a
2
is parallel to
L
2
a
2
)
Parallax Equation
Parallax Equation
Parallax Equation
Parallax Equation
Parallax Equation
Parallax Equation
X Parallax
X parallax, which is also known as stereoscopic parallax, is
caused by a shift in the position of observation. To generate a
stereo pair of aerial photos, a camera on board an aircraft
takes pictures of the Earth at different times and thus from
different positions.

Satellite image stereo pairs are generated when a satellite
collects data with two different look angles or two different
beam positions. The change in observation points causes an
apparent shift in the position of an object with respect to the
image frame of reference.

X Parallax
Two fundamental aspects of stereoscopic parallax are:

the parallax of any point is directly related to the elevation of
that point; and
the parallax is greater for higher than lower elevations
provided the viewing angle is constant.

These two relationships allow height measurements to be
made from a stereo pair.

Stereo photographs
Stereo photographs
Vertical exaggeration is present in all stereo pairs. It exists because of
disparity between the vertical and horizontal scales of a stereo model.
Under normal conditions, the vertical scale will appear greater than the
horizontal. Image interpreters must take this effect into consideration
when estimating heights of objects and rates of slopes.

Vertical exaggeration is best understood by considering the
relationship between the imaging geometry and the viewing geometry
of a stereo model.

Vertical exaggeration is the difference between the imaging base to
height (Bn/Hn) and the stereo-viewing base to height (Bs/Hs) ratios.
Bn/Hn is the ratio of the air base (distance between the two exposure
stations) to the flight altitude above average ground. Bs/Hs is the ratio
of the eye base to the distance from the eyes at which the stereo-
model is viewed.
Stereo Model: Vertical Exaggeration
Stereo Model: Vertical Exaggeration
Stereo Model: Vertical Exaggeration
Stereo Model: Vertical Exaggeration
Stereo Model: Vertical Exaggeration
ELEVATION BY PARALLAX DIFFERENCES
ELEVATION BY PARALLAX DIFFERENCES
ELEVATION BY PARALLAX DIFFERENCES
ELEVATION BY PARALLAX DIFFERENCES
Stereoscopic Parallax
Absolute Stereoscopic Parallax
Differential Parallax (dp)
Pseudoscopic Effect
Pseudoscopic Effect
Another illusion we might encounter is accidentally
reversing the two photos so that the right eye views
the left photo and the left eye views the right photo.

The result is a pseudoscopic view, or reversal of
relief, a phenomenon illustrated in Figure in next
slide
Height Calculation
STEREOSCOPES
Simple instruments to enable stereo vision and
magnification: see each photo separately through a lens
They can be:
a) Pocket stereo scopes
- the simplest
Note that because of the small base, the photographs must be
on top of each other.
Does not enable viewing of the entire stereo coverage
at the same time.


STEREOSCOPES
This part of stereo coverage cannot be seen unless if the
photographs are separated more.
For any stereo scope, to provide a stereo model, the two photos must cover a
common area taken from two different locations, in addition, the scale of the
two photographs must be equal and the line that connects the center of the
photos should be in the direction of the air base
b) Mirror Stereoscope

The eye base is increased by a system of mirrors
Thus, the entire stereo model can be viewed.
In general, the eyebase, the direction of flight, and the line joining
the centers of the lenses should be parallel.
Measurement of Parallax
Parallax Bar
Parallax determination using a Parallax Bar
The parallax bar is a measuring device to measure the x
parallax of points in a fast and precise manner.
Since x parallax is a function of relief or heights of points
above datum, elevations of points can be computed by
measuring their parallax.
Other values can also be derived if unknown such as the
flying height, or air base.
To measure parallax of a point you can :
a) Either measure in mono: measure the value of the x
coordinate of the point on each photograph and subtract
the left from the right value. For example, if point a
appears on Left and right photos then:
p
a
= x
aL
x
ar
Parallax determination using a Parallax Bar (Contd..)
Or measure in stereo using a parallax bar. Put the
photos on a table under a stereoscope, move them right
and left up and down until you see comfortably in stereo,
in this case: air base B as photo base b: o1 o2, and the
center of the lenses of the device must be in the same
direction

Parallax determination using a Parallax Bar (Contd..)
The image of each photo nadir, P.P in a vertical photo (o
1
and o
2
)
appears on the other photo
Parallax of b = D d
b
= x
b
x
b
note that x
b
is negative)


L Photo
base b
R Photo
base b
p
a
= x
a
x
a
= D (C r
a
) = (D C) + r
a
Assume that k = (D C)
Since D and C are constants, then k is a constant, called the parallax bar
constant for the setup, then,
p
a
= k + r
To calculate the parallax of a point, you measure the value r for it
with a parallax bar and multiply it by the constant K, you can do that
in stereo for a set of points in few minutes.
Now, how to compute the constant K??
It is computed only once by measuring the parallax of two point
monoscopically by measuring their x coordinate on each photo and
subtract: p = x- x
1
Now measure the value (r) for each point and apply the equation:
k = p r
You get two values for k, take the average.
You can use photo centers for this process since the x value of each
one on its own photograph is 0, you just need to measure its x value
on the other photo

Parallax determination using a Parallax Bar (Contd..)
Without the bar, using a precise ruler measure the values
of x of two points a and b on both photos, well distinctive
points
Calculate the parallax of the two points, where:
pa = x
a
x
a
and p
b
= y
b
y
b

Use the parallax bar to measure r
a
and r
b
fro the same
points.
Compute k
1
= p
a
r
a
and k
2
= p
b
r
b

K is the average = (k
1
+ k
2
)/2
For any point measure r with the bar and multiply by k to
get the parallax
Parallax determination using a Parallax Bar : Summary
Example
A pair of overlapping vertical photographs were taken from a flying
height of 4045 feet with a 152.4 mm focal length camera. The air base
was1280 feet and parallax bar readings of 12.57 and 13.04 mm were
obtained with the floating mark set on principal points (o
l
) and (o
2
)
respectively. If b and b ( left and right photo bases) were measured as
93.73 and 93.30mm. Parallax bar readings of 10.96 and 15.27 mm were
taken on points A and B. Also the x and y photo coordinates of points A
and B were Xa = 53.41 mm, Ya = 50.84mm , Xb= 88.92mm and Yb=-
46.69mm Calculate the elevations of points A and B
and the horizontal distance between them.
Solution:
Parallax of Point 0
1
=P
o1
= b'= 93.30mm .
Parallax of Point O
2
= P
o2
= b = 93.73mm
Equation of parallax bar: P =K+r K = P - r

For point 0
1
: k1=P
o1
- r
o1
=93.30 -12.57 = 80.73mm
For Point 02 : k2=P
02
-r
02
=93.73 -13.04 = 80.69mm



For point a: P
a
= k + r
a
= 80.71+ 10.96= 9l.67mm.
For point b : P
b
= k + r
b
= 80.71+ 15.27= 95.98mm ,
Elevations of points:








Stereoscopic Plotters
Stereoscopic plotters are instruments used to measure
ground coordinates of points in the overlapped area
by measuring their photo coordinates in stereo mode.
Two overlapping photos are used, either placed in
projectors as the case in early models, or displayed in
digital format as current technology.
Such plotters allow for the removal of the Y parallax,
the effect of different of scale between the photos, tilt
of photos,
Stereo plotters may be classified into three categories:
1- Analogue Optical
Film or transparent photos are positioned on the
projectors, light is projected through them, their
relative positions are adjusted to form a model to
scale.
Points are measured as they are traced on the tracing
table (4) in the graph above, a pencil at (11) will draw
a map as the tracing table is moved.
Such a device is used to illustrate the idea, but not
for production today.
2- Analytical Plotters
Still uses photographs, but the model is
mathematical,
Two comparators are used to precisely measure
photo coordinates, which are recorded digitally.
The stereo-model is seen through optics as a
computer adjusts the photos for stereo viewing and
measurements as the mouse is moved by driving
servo motors.
A point is digitized by clicking a mouse when the
floating mark rests on it to store the coordinates.
The digital output is stored and a CAD system can
be used to produce a map, on he fly if needed
Zeiss P3 analytical plotter
3- Softcopy Photogrammetric Workstations

Softcopy workstations employ digital images, a
software, a stereovision system, installed on a
powerful computer.
The output is totally digital, and many operations are
automated.
Softcopy is the current technology used for
photogrammetric measurements.
Images are captured by a digital camera, or scanning
photographs.

Ortho-photos
Orthographic projection of photographs.
Uniform scale, no relief displacement.
Serve as maps, what is difference between a
map and a photograph.
now mainly through digital image processing.
If tilt displacement is also removed, you get
ortho-rectified image
Advantage of orthophoto maps
Orthophoto of Washington, DC
Parallax Summary
Interior Orientation
146
Exterior Orientation
Y Parallax
Y parallax is present in many stereo pairs. It is the difference in
perpendicular distances between two images of a point from the
vertical plane which contains the air base. It can be caused by one or
both images being tilted with respect to an exterior coordinate system.
Tilt can occur as a result of roll, pitch and yaw of an aircraft. Y parallax
can also be caused by a variation in flying heights, or if images are
printed at slightly different scales. Finally, Y parallax can occur if the
viewer lines up the images incorrectly.
In small amounts, Y parallax can cause eyestrain, however, the brain
compensates and the 3-D stereo-model remains viewable. In large
amounts, Y parallax makes stereo viewing of an image pair
impossible..

Y Parallax (Contd..)
The Y-parallax is caused due to the following reasons:
Unequal flying height
Photographic tilt
Misalignment of flight line
Misalignment of stereoscope
Great difference in parallax between adjacent images (in highly
mountainous/rugged terrain)
Y Parallax (Contd..)
Y Parallax (Contd..)
Y Parallax (Contd..)
Aerial Photography mission
When a mapping project requires aerial photographs, one of the first tasks
is to select the photo scale factor, type of the lens to used, type of the to be
used and the desired overlap for stereo viewing. Forward overlap usually
around 60%, while sideways overlap is around 20%. Furthermore, the date,
time and season of photography should be considered for light condition
and shadow effect.
If the required scale is defined, the following parameters can be
determined.
Flying height required above the terrain.
Ground coverage of a single photograph.
Number of photo required along a flight line.
Number of flight lines required.
Mission Planning:
Inputs for Flight Planning
1. Area extents (lat / long)
2. Scale of photography
3. Focal length
4. Format size
5. Forward and lateral overlaps
6. Average terrain heights
Software used for Flight Planning
- World Wide Mission Planning
Navigation
- Computer Controlled Navigational System with GPS
Aerial Photography mission
Flight Planning
Success of photogrammetric project depends on acquisition of
good quality pictures
Due to weather and ground conditions, time frame for
photography is limited
Reflights are expensive and causes long delays on project
Mission must be carefully planned and executed according to
flight plan
Consists of flight map, (where photos should be taken) and
specifications
Each photo covers partially the same area

Stereo pair
Neat Model: Area of the overlap bounded by
the principal points of the consecutive
photographs
Overlaps
Common area covered by two successive photos of the
same flight line or strip Usually 60% 5%
Lateral overlap or Sidelap
Common area covered by two adjacent flight Lines.
About 25-30% 10% (generally 30%)
Forward overlap or Endlap
Overlap
Direction of
flight
Forward
overlap/Endlap

Lateral
overlap/Sidelap

Flight lines
Flight Plan
What the aircrew has to do as indicated
by flight lines

The design of aerial photography flight in order
to obtain desired photos at a certain scale, i.e.,
how the air crew will fly (where to put the flight
lines, how high, etc.)
Where is project area?
How many photos needed to cover the area at
desired scale and resolution.
When is the target in desirable condition?
Is stereo viewing necessary?
Are quantitative reflectance standards
necessary?
Flight Planning: Critical Issue
Rules in determining flight line direction
Generally follows four cardinal directions East-
West (E-W) or North-South (N-S)
Should be along the longer dimension of the area
If over mountain ridges or valleys, go along the
direction of the features to maintain an almost
constant scale; if a flight line crosses mountains,
scale will be smaller in the valley than in the
mountains
Drift and Crab
Drift
Crab
Drift
Drift is the lateral shift of the aircraft from the
flightline; this may be caused by pilot error or the
effect of wind on the aircraft.
Crab
Crab occurs when the aircraft is not oriented with
the flightline; photo edges are not parallel to the
flightline and it usually occurs when the pilot is
trying to compensate for a cross wind and orients
the plane into the wind to maintain the flightline.
wind coming from the South will require an
airplane flying East to use a crab angle into the
wind in order to fly due East.
For example, the crab angle may be determined
to be 3 degrees, and the airplane will need to fly a
heading of 93 in order to achieve a course along
90 East.
This will affect the camera on board the aircraft.
The crab angle will need to be compensated for in
order to photograph along straight lines on the
ground
Crab (Contd..)
Direction of Flight Lines
A
B
Flight lines along the valley
Required Data for Flight Planning
Project area boundary
Camera focal length 3.5, 6, or 12
Photoformat size standard is 9 or 23 cm
Photoscale
Overlap requirements (in percentage)
percentage of endlap or sidelap
To be more
economical
Least number of exposures
Least number of flight lines













Flight Planning Computations











Flying height
Distance between exposures or Airbase
(B)
Distance between flight lines
Total number of exposures
Flying height above mean sea level of
each flight line
Total time needed for photography
Typical Flight Plan
Flying Height
Hmge = f - sp
Distance Between Exposures
Distance Between Exposures
Example:
Given:
scale = 1:15,000
f.o. = 60%
s.l. = 30%
s = 9 = 23 cm
Required: De
Distance Between Exposures
Solution:
De =(15,000)( 23)(1- 0.60)
De =138,000 cm =1,380 m
De =1.38 km
Distance Between Flight Lines
Dfl = Df = S(1 s.l.)
Where:
S = equivalent ground length of the photoformat
size (s)
S = (sp)(s)
s.l. = sidelap (in decimals)
s = photoformat size
sp = photoscale factor
Distance Between Exposures
Example:
Given:
scale = 1:15,000
f.o. = 60%
s.l. = 30%
s = 9 = 23 cm
Required: Df
Distance Between Exposures
Solution:
Df =(15,000)( 23)(1 0.30)
Df = 241,500 cm = 2,415 m
Df = 2.42 km
Total Number of Exposures
total number of exposures
=( number of exposures per flight line) -
( number of flight lines)
Total Number of Exposures
Flying Height of Each Flight Line
(above Mean Sea Level)
Hmsl = Hmge +m.g.e
Total Time of Photography
Total Time of Photography
Example:
Given:
scale = 1:15,000
f.o. = 60%
s = 9 = 23 cm
average velocity of aircraft = 300 kph
20 exposures per flight line
10 flight lines
Required: t
Total Time of Photography
Solution:
De =(15,000)( 23)(10.60)
De =138,000 cm =1,380 m =1.38 km
No. of Photographs
No. of Photographs
No. of Photographs
No. of Photographs
It is an array of overlapping aerial photographs
systematically assembled to form a continuous
pictorial representation of a terrain
Planning purpose.
It provides the overview of the terrain- nature and
distribution of the materials and features occupying
the terrain.
Scale variation from photo to photo will be known
causing gap in the overlap
A mosaic annotated with local information on
rivers,villages etc helps in knowing about the
geographic position of the area interpreted.
AERIAL MOSAICS
Types of mosaics
Uncontrolled mosaic : The photographs are
oriented in to a position by matching corresponding
images on adjacent photos.
Semi-controlled mosaic : This is a compilation of
photographs without using rectified photographs
but using control for positioning of each
photograph.
Controlled mosaic : It is a compilation of scaled
and rectified photographs assembled to fit plotted
controlled points.
Mosaics

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