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"Concepts without factual content are empty; sense data without concepts are
blind.... The understanding cannot see. The senses cannot think. By their union
only can knowledge be produced."
I. Kant (1724-1804)
OBJECTIVES
To study Faraday’s law quantitatively. To observe the action of a transformer.
THEORY
About 1820 the Danish physicist Oersted noticed that a wire carrying an electric current
produced a magnetic field. It occurred to Michael Faraday to ask the converse question: Is a
current produced by a magnetic field? The answer he found is yes, but only if the field is
changing. Faraday's results can be summarized in a simple form for a loop of wire by the
equation
d" B (t)
V(t) = ! (1)
dt
Here V(t) is the induced voltage measured at a gap in the loop and !B(t) is the magnetic flux
!
through the loop. For a multi-turn loop in a uniform magnetic field B , the flux is given by
!
where A is the area of the loop, N is the number of turns and ! is the angle between B and a
perpendicular to the plane of the loop.
The magnetic flux through a loop might change for a variety of reasons, but in this
experiment we will only be concerned with the effect of a sinusoidally varying current in a
nearby circuit. This will produce a sinusoidally varying magnetic field, which causes a flux of
magnitude
Fig. 1 Circuit diagram of a simplified transformer, including resistance of the wire in the coils.
This expression tells us that the amplitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the amplitude
of the magnetic field variation B, the frequency !, and the cosine of the angle " between the field
and the loop. Since B is proportional to the amplitude of the sinusoidally varying current which
causes the field, we can investigate all these dependencies experimentally.
Transformers are technically important in both power and signal circuits because they can
be used to change voltage and impedance levels as needed. A transformer basically consists of
two coils, the primary and secondary, placed in close proximity as indicated in Fig. 1.
In operation the primary is driven by some sort of signal source, and a voltage is induced
in the secondary. The individual coils are characterized by their inductance and resistance. Since
the field of the primary is not usually uniform over the secondary it is difficult to calculate the
induced voltage, so we simply define the mutual inductance M by the relation
dI p (t)
Vs (t) = !M (5)
dt
where Vs(t) is the induced voltage and Ip(t) is the current in the primary. Mutual inductance has
the same unit, the Henry, as inductance. The relation between the primary and secondary
voltages, Vp(t) and Vs(t), is obviously complicated for the transformer as shown. The situation
simplifies greatly if we can construct the device so that all the magnetic flux that links the
primary also links the secondary and so that the resistances Rp and Rs are small relative to the
inductive reactances at the operating frequency. For such an ideal transformer one can show that
Vs (t) Ns
= (6)
Vp (t) N p
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Basic tests of Faraday’s Law
The circuit of Fig. 2 will allow us to quantitatively determine the induced voltage in a
simple system. The function generator produces a sinusoidal current which causes a varying field
inside one of a pair of large mounted coils. A smaller coil on a pivoting mount is centered in the
larger coil that is being driven. The scope is used to measure the induced voltage Vs(t) and the
voltage across the resistor, VR(t), which is proportional to the current in the large coil and hence
the field.
Wire the circuit as shown, and set the function generator for about 400 Hz sine output.
Use the TTL output as an external trigger signal and adjust the scope to display the signal from
the small coil. By turning the pickup coil on its mount you should be able to see the angular
dependence of the induced voltage.
The assumption of a uniform field across the pickup coil is reasonably satisfied because
the driving coil is substantially bigger than the pickup coil. The amplitude of the uniform field is
approximately that at the center of the driving coil
µ 0 N pI p
B= (7)
2ap
where ap is the average radius of the driving coil. The peak current in the driving coil, Ip, is
related to the peak voltage across the resistor by VR = IpR, so Eq. 4 can be written in terms of
measurable quantities as
! 2 µ0 N p Ns as2 fVR
Vs (t) = cos"t cos # (8)
a pR
Transformers
The model transformer consists of two identical coils mounted coaxially on a small box,
along with two resistors. Two pieces of magnetic material, a solid iron bar and a bundle of iron
wires, are also provided.
CH 1
350 350
red turns turns
Function
generator CH 2 GND
black
45Ω 45Ω
GND
Fig. 3 Wiring diagram for the model transformer, with plug connectors as indicated. The 45 !
resistors are provided for current measurement. The effective coil resistance is not shown.