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 190 AMPLITUDE (LINEAR) MODULATION

RF amplifier
;f ~ IA;+
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With bandpass Frequency

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IF
fi converter "f "
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Figure4.28 Superheterodyne
..receiver., ;, }
I
andfac!ory,.tune4. Hence,,~e .lFse,ction~an,effectjyely suppressadj~cent-channelinterference'1
becauseof its high selectivity. It also amplifies the signal for envelope detection.
In reality, practically all of the selectivity is realized in the IF section; the RF section
plays a negligible role. The main function of the RF section is image frequency suppression,
As observed in Example 4.2, the mixer, or conyerter, outputconsistg. of component~,of the
difference between the incoming {Ic) and the local-oscillator (/LO) frequencies (that is.
/IF = I/LO -1,,1). Now, if the incoming carrier frequency Ic = 1000 kHz, then ILO =
: ,"fc + fliF == 1000+ 455 = 1455 kHz. But anothercarrier, with I; = 1455 + 455 = 1910kHz,!
will.:also be picked up becausethe difference I: -'-ILO is also 455 kHz. The station at 1910kHz!1
"is said to be th~ image of the station of 1000kHz. Stations that are 2/1F = 910kHz apart are
called image stations and would both appear simultaneously at the IF output if it were not
for the RF filter at receiver input. The RF filter may provide poor selectivity against adjacent
stationsseparatedby 10kHz, but it canprovide reasonableselectivity againsta station separated
by910 kHz. Thus, when we wish to tune in a station at 1000 kHz, theRF filter, tuned to 1000
kHz, provides adequate suppressionof the image station at .1910kHz.
The receiver (Fig. 4.28) converts the incoming carrier frequency to the IF frequency
by using a lOCaloscillator of frequency ILO higher than the incoming carrier frequency (up-
conversion) and, hence; is called a superheterodynereceiver. The principle of superhetero-
dyning, first introduce by E. H. Armstrong, is used in AM and FM as well as in television
re~ivers.. The reasonfor up-conversion rather than down-conversion is that the former leads
to a smaller tuning range {smaller ratio of the maximum to minimum tuning frequency) for
the local oscillator than does the latter. The broadcast-band frequencies range from 550 to
1600 kHz. The up-conversion ILO ranges {rom 1005 to 2055 kHz (ratio of 2.045) , whereas
the down-conversion range of ILO would be 95 to 1145kHz (ratio of 12.05). It is much easier
to design an oscillator that is tunable over a smaller frequency ratio.
The impoi1ance of the superheterodyneprinciple cannot be overstressed in radio and
television broadcasting. In the early days (before 1919),the entire selectivity against aJjacent
stations was realized in the RF filter.. Becausethis filter has poor selectivity, it was necessaryto

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454 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: Analog and Digital

7.1.6 Bandwidth of PAM Signals

Let us assume that we have to transmit n signals, each bandlimited to fM Hz. Then, for eachsigna.l, we have
to take 2fM samples per seecond. Thus, in all, we have to transmit 2nfM samples per second.
Now, according to the sampling theorem, a continuous signal band limited to B Hz can be transmitted by
.2B samples per second. Conversely, it can be stated that 2B samples per second define a continuous signal j
band linlited to B Hz. Therefore, the ~andwidth of the PAM system of n signals, each band limited to f MHz, -
will be nfM Hz, because we are transmitting 2nfM samples per second.

7.1.7 SIN .c:ttatioof PAM System

The noise perfoflllance of PAM is identical to AM-SC signal. The figure of merit v is unity. It has already
been shown that the handwidth of PAM/AM is nf~ where, n is the number of messages multiplexed.
Therefore, the bandwidth per message is fM .Thus, the transmission of sampled signal mes~agereproduces
a bandwidth at the receiver that is equivalent to the messagef (t) .In other words, the transnlission of a
sampled signal is equivalent to the direct transmission off(t) .The signal and noise power at the transmitter
and receiver is expel'ted to be identical. It has been shown in chapter 2 that the power of a sampled signal
and the baseband signal f(t) is the same. (refer Prob. 2.2)
Hence,
So = Si = fW ;
The bandwidth of sampled signal per messageis same as that of the baseband signal f (t). !
Hence, tor white noise ~
N = N. = 11' I
0 I. J,M

where fM is the bandwidthoff(t), and 1]I 2 is the noise powerperunitbandwidth. The figure o.fmerit isgiven
by
(SIN ) ;
(v)PAM = ~J = 1 I

7.2 PULSE TIME MODULATION

The two types of PTM systetns, namely PWM and PPM, are shown in Fig. 7.2.1. The Fig. 7.2.1(a) is the
baseband signal f (t) whereas the Fig. 7.2.1(b) is the carrier pulse train fc(t). The Fig. 7.2.1(c) is the PWM

I
signal where the width of each pulse depends on the instantaneous value of the baseband signal at the
sampling instant. The Fig. 7 .2.1(d) is the PPM signal where the shift in the position of each pulse dependson
the instantaneous value of the baseband signal at the sampling instant. It can be seen that in PWM, the
information about the baseband signal lies in the trailing edge of the pulse, whereas, in PPM, it lies in both
the edges of the pulse. (Although, basically it lies in the leading edge, but since the width of the pulse is same
always, the trailing edge also carries the same information.)
.:

7.2.1 Generation of PTM Signals

IndirectMethod: The scheme of generation of the PTM signals is shown in Fig. 7.2.1.1. Firstly, the flat-topped
P AM signals are generated asexplained in Sec.7.1 [Fig. 7.2.1.1(a»).The synchronized ramp waveform shown
in Fig. 7.2.I.l(b) is generated during ,each pulse interval. These two signals are added as shown in
~ig..7 .2.1.1(c), ~nd the SUIllis applied to a comparator circuit whose reference level is shown by abroken line j
In Fig. 7.2.1.1(l).

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456 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: Analog and Digital

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PAM

(a) t

Sync ramp

(b) Comparator level 't

I ~ I

I I
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I I
I I
I I I
I I II (c) I I t
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I I I I

(e) PWM t

Fig, ~ ,1 Indirect Method of Generation of PTM Signals (a) PAM Signal,

(b) Synchronized Ramp, (c) PAM + Synchronized Ramp,(d) PPM Signal, (e) PWM Signal

A PWM Modulator Circuit: A PWM modulator circuit is shown in Fig. 7.2.1.4. The clock signal of the desired
frequency is applied as sh6wn, from which the negative trigger pulses are derived with the help of a diode
and an Rl -C1 combination which works as a differentiator. These negative trigger pulses are applied to the
pin no.2 of the 555 timer which' is working in the monostable mode. They decide the starting time of thePWM
pulses. The end of the pulses depends on an R2 -C2 combination, and on the signal at pin no.5, to which the
modulating ~ignal is applied.'Therefore, the width of the pulses depends upon the value of the modulating
signal, and thus the output at pin no.3 is the desired pulse width modulated signal.
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458 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: Analog and Digital

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(a) (b)
Fig. 7.2.1.3(a) Synchronized Ramp for Leading Edge Modulation of PAM Signal
(b) Synchronized Ramp for Both Edge Modulation of PWM Signal

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7 3 PWM
R1 output
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C1
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Clock C2

Fig.7.2.1.4 A PWM Modulator

leading edges of the PWM pulses start the ramp of same slope, and the trailing edges of the PWM pulses
tenninate the ramp. The height attained by the ramp is, therefore, proportional to the width of the rWM
pulses.Thc height attained bythc ramp is sustained for some time, thuscreatinga porch, afterwhich the voltage
returns to its initial level.
A silwlar type of synchronized ramp is shown in Fig. 7.2.2.2(b). This is generated with the help of the PPM
pulses shown in Fig.7 .2.2.2(a). Hcre, the ramp is initiated at the beginning of the time slof, and it is temiinated
by the leading edge of the PPM pulse. Thus, the height attained by the ramp is proportional to the displac~m~t
of the leading edge of the PPM pulses from the beginning of the time slot. Here too, the height attained by
the ranlp is sustained for some time, thus creating a porch, and then it is returned to the initial level.
The remaining procedure forboth PWM and PPM issame, A sequenceof locally generated pulses ora fixed
amplitude are added to the synchronized ramp on the porch as shown in Figs 7.2.2.1(c) and 7.2.2.2(c). The
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