ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION

A.THENDRAL
Department of ECE
Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engineering College
Madagadipet, Puducherry – 605 107
thendralganeshh@gmail.com
Aperture and Slot Antennas: Radiation from rectangular apertures,
Feeding structures, Horn antenna, Reflector antenna, Cassegrain
UNIT II
reflector and Aperture blockage, Babinet‘s principle, Slot antennas, Lens
antenna, Microstrip antennas – Radiation mechanism – Application.

2.1 RADIATION FROM RECTANGULAR APERTURES:

Antenna aperture, effective area, or receiving cross section is a measure of how

effective an antenna is at receiving the power of radio waves. The aperture is defined as the
area, oriented perpendicular to the direction of an incoming radio wave, which would intercept
the same amount of power from that wave as is produced by the antenna receiving it. At any
point, a beam of radio waves has an irradiance or Power Flux Density (PFD) which is the
amount of radio power passing through a unit area of one square meter. If the field is uniform in
amplitude and phase across the aperture, it is referred to as a uniform rectangular aperture. An
example for rectangular aperture is rectangular horn antenna.

2.2 FEEDING STRUCTURES:

The radiator that illuminates the parabolic antenna, i.e. the feed system should direct all of
its energy substantially against the reflecting surface. It is apparent that only less than half
of the energy will be intercepted by the reflector. Such loss of power in other words, loss of
gain is ordinarily prevented by shaping the parabolic reflector so that the focus lies
somewhat outside the mouth and then giving the radiator a simple directional pattern such
that all the radiated energy is substantially directed against the surface of the parabola a
shown in the fig. below, At the same time the directivity of the antenna must not be so high
that only the centre part of the parabola receives appreciable illumination. Then the outer
edges of the parabola could just as well be removed and the lobe width will be
unnecessarily large. Typical arrangements of illuminating a parabolic antenna are shown in
the fig below.
 Fig.2.1 Types of feed

2.2.1 Cassegrain feed

In this feed arrangement the primary feed radiator is positioned around the opening near the
vertex of the paraboloid, instead of at the focus. This system employs a hyperboloid
secondary reflector, whose focii coincide with the focus of the paraboloid. The source is
aimed at the secondary hyperboloid reflector or the sub reflector. The radiations from the
feed radiator are reflected from the cassegrain secondary reflector, illuminating the main
paraboloid reflector and then the latter reflects rays parallel as usual.

Advantages:

a. Reduction in spill over and minor lobe radiation.

b. Ability to get an equivalent f>> L.
c. Ability to place the feed in a convenient location.
d. Capability of scanning and broadening of the beam by moving one of the reflecting
surfaces.

Disadvantages:

a. Some of the reflected waves are obstructed (blocked) because of the presence of sub
reflector along the path of parallel rays.
b. The aperture blocking defect can be avoided by an offset reflector.

2.3 HORN ANTENNA :

By different ways of flaring a waveguide, we can get different shapes of horn antennas.
 Fig. 2.2 Various shapes of horn

If flaring is done both long both the E and H walls of a rectangular waveguide, then a
pyramidal horn is obtained. A conical horn is obtained by flaring the walls of a circular
waveguide. Both pyramidal and conical horn produce pencil beams that have directivity in
both vertical and horizontal planes. When flaring is done in only one direction, then sectoral
horn is produced. By flaring in the direction of electrical vector and magnetic vector, sectoral
E plane and sectoral H plane horns are obtained. Sectoral horns produce fan shaped
beams. Biconical horns produce pancake shaped beam, thin in vertical direction and
uniform in horizontal direction.

2.3.1 H-Plane horn

If a rectangular waveguide is flared in H plane as shown in figure below h plane horn is

obtained.

Fig.2.3 H-plane horn

2.3.2 Pyramidal horn

For a given length of horn the greatest gain is obtained by flaring the waveguide in both H
and E plane to obtain pyramidal horn.
 Fig.2.4 Pyramidal horn

ab
Directivity F= 6.4
λ0

Where λ 0=free space wavelength∈meters

Pyramidal horns are used for determining the gain of the antennas and they are used as
feed horns for paraboloidal reflector.

2.3.3 E- Plane sectoral horn

A sectoral horn is a horn of rectangular cross section that is flared in only one plane. By
flaring in the direction of Electric vector, E plane sectoral horn is obtained.

In an E Plane sectoral horn considerable reflection takes place both at the mouth and at the
throat discontinuity. The two reflected waves add in different phase as the horn length is
changed at constant flare angle. The driving point admittance rapidly changes with length.
The admittance locus of the E plane sectoral horns of constant flare angle but different
length is a spiral on a smith chart. The center of the spiral is determined by the constant
reflection at the throat. As the horn is lengthened, the radius of the spiral decreases
because of the reduced reflection at the mouth. There s a series of discrete lengths at which
the two reflections are 180o out of phase and best match is obtained.

Fig. 2.5 E plane sectoral horn

Where θ=Flare angle ; L= Axial length ; A= Aperture.

OB L
∠COB, cos θ= =
OC L+ δ

h/2 h
tan θ= =
L 2L

h L
θ= tan-1( ) = cos-1( )
2L L+ δ

h 2
From ∠OBC, (L+ δ)2= L2 +( ¿
2

h2
L2 + δ2 + 2L δ = L2 + (δ is small it can be negleted)
4

h2
2L δ=
4

h2
L=
8δ

Here θ and L are the design parameters of the horn antenna. If the flare angle (2 θ) is very
large, the wave front on the mouth of the horn will be curved rather than a plane. This
results in non uniform phase distribution increased beam width, decreased directivity and if
flare angle is small it is vice versa.

The maximum D is achieved at the largest flare angle for which δ does not exceed 0.2,
0.32, 0.4 for E plane horn, conical horn and H plane horn respectively. Directivity with
pyramidal or conical horn antenna increased as they have more than one flare angle.

There is no resonant element,

56 λ
HPBW in E direction, θE = degree
h

67 λ
HPBW in H direction, θH = degree
ω
 7.5 h ω 7.5 A
Directivity, D= = where A= area of the horn mouth opening
λ2 λ2

A= h xω

4.5 h ω 4.5 A
Power gain, Gp= =
λ2 λ2

2.4 REFLECTOR ANTENNA:

Reflector antennas:

Reflector antennas are widely used to modify the radiation pattern of a radiating element.
For example, the backward direction radiation from an antenna may be eliminated with a
plane sheet reflector of large dimensions.

Types:

(i) Flat reflector

(ii) Corner reflector
(iii) Parabolic reflector

(i)Flat reflector:

The flat reflector has a large flat sheet near a linear dipole antenna. It reduces backward
radiation. It provides substantial gain in the forward direction by reducing the spacing
between the antenna and the sheet. The desirable properties of the sheet reflector may be
largely preserved with the reflector reduced in size. The properties of large sheet reflector

λ
are insensitive to small frequency changes. The directivity of dipole can be increased by
2

λ
placing it in front of a flat conducting reflector. An array of two placed infront of a flat
2
reflector produces higher directivity. The large flat sheet reflector can convert bidirectional
pattern into unidirectional pattern.
 Fig. 2.6 Flat Reflector and Corner Reflector

(ii) Corner reflector:

A corner reflector is a retro reflector consisting of two or three mutually perpendicular

interesting flat surfaces which reflects electromagnetic waves back towards the source. If
the spacing between reflector (or) driven element is small, radiation resistance becomes
small, efficiency is reduced. If the spacing of t is large system produces undesirable multiple
lobes and losses its directional characteristics.

The interesting surfaces often have square shapes. This is also known as a corner cube.
The corner reflector consists of a balanced half wave dipole in front of a conducting surface
which has been bent t an angle of 90 degrees or less. Polarization depends on the direction
of the dipole axis, being in the same direction. The most preferred value of corner angle is
length (L) of the sides of reflector should exceed 2 λ to secure the characteristics. Reflector
width (w) should be greater than 1 λ for a half wave radiator. The reflector can be made of
wire netting sheet metal or even fabricated metal spines arranged in a V-formation. Such
spines must be parallel to the radiator with a spine spacing of less than 0.1 wavelength of
operating frequency. Spacing between radiator and vertex should be adjustable. This might
be the final key to tune-up such an antenna after radiator length is settled for a specific
operating frequency. The ranges of design parameters for a good corner reflector as
 1. λ < D a <2λ

2. λ = 2d
λ 2λ
3. 3 <d<
3

4. h is 1.2 to 1.5 times greater than the length of driven element.

Uses of corner reflector:

Corner reflectors are placed on the vessels masts at a height of at least 4.6 meters above
sea level. Popular corner reflectors used on ships are the RORC radar reflectors. Such
devices are often used as radar targets or markers and are often employed on ships and
especially lifeboats. Arrays of corner reflectors are used in automobile and bicycle tall lights.

Applications of corner reflector:

1. Television
2. Point to point communication and
3. Radio astronomy applications
Reflector antenna:
A parabola is a two dimensional plane curve. A parabolic reflector or a paraboloidal is a three
dimensional curved surface. It produces a parallel beam of circular cross section, because the
mouth of the parabola is circular.

The beam width between first nulls of a circular aperture is given by,

BWFN=140λ/D degree
λ= Free space wavelength in metre
D= Diameter of aperture in metre
The beam width between first nulls of a rectangular aperture is given by,
BWFN=115λ/L degree
L=Length of the aperture
Half power beam width for a circular aperture is given by,
HPBW=58λ/D degree
Directivity D of a large uniformly illuminated aperture
D=4πA/λ2
A= area of aperture
In practise, the primary antenna is not isotropic and thus does not radiate uniformly which
introduces distortion. This results in less aperture area which is greater than actual area. A0=KA
Where A0= capture area
A= actual area of the mouth
K=constant depends on the type of antenna used. 0.65 for dipole antenna.
Thus power gain of circular aperture paraboloid with respect to half wave dipole

Fig. 2.7 Reflector Antenna

The radiator that illuminates the parabolic antenna, i.e. the feed system should direct all of its
energy substantially against the reflecting surface. It is apparent that only less than half of the
energy will be intercepted by the reflector. Such loss of power in other words, loss of gain is
ordinarily prevented by shaping the parabolic reflector so that the focus lies somewhat outside
the mouth and then giving the radiator a simple directional pattern such that all the radiated
energy is substantially directed against the surface of the parabola a shown in the figure.

Spill over and back lobe:

In addition to the desired radiation, some of the desired rays are not captured by the
reflector and these constitute spill over while receiving spillover increases noise pick up
which is particularly troublesome in satellite ground stations.
 Fig. 2.8 Spill over and back lobe

Some radiations from the primary radiator occur in forward direction in addition to the
desired parallel beam.

The effective area is given by,

Ae = η A
Where, η = Aperture efficiency
π D2
A = Physical area of the reflector
4
2.5 CASSEGRAIN FEED AND APERTURE BLOCKAGE:

In this feed arrangement the primary feed radiator is positioned around the opening near the
vertex of the paraboloid, instead of at the focus. This system employs a hyperboloid
secondary reflector, whose focii coincide with the focus of the paraboloid. The source is
aimed at the secondary hyperboloid reflector or the sub reflector. The radiations from the
feed radiator are reflected from the cassegrain secondary reflector, illuminating the main
paraboloid reflector and then the latter reflects rays parallel as usual.

Fig. 2.9 Cassegrain feed

Advantages:
 a. Reduction in spill over and minor lobe radiation.
b. Ability to get an equivalent f>> L.
c. Ability to place the feed in a convenient location.
d. Capability of scanning and broadening of the beam by moving one of the reflecting
surfaces.

Disadvantages:

a. Some of the reflected waves are obstructed (blocked) because of the presence of sub
reflector along the path of parallel rays.
b. The aperture blocking defect can be avoided by an offset reflector.

Fig.2.10 Offset Reflector

BABINET’S PRINCIPLE:

It states that “When a field behind the screen with an opening is added to the field of a
complementary service, the sum is equal to the field when there is no screen”. Employing
babinet’s principle many problems of slot antenna can be overcome by using
complementary slot antenna.

Babinet’s principle can be explained in three cases,

Case (i) Let a perfectly absorbing screen be placed in plane S1, then in plane S2, there is a
region of shadow. Let the field behind the screen be a function f1(xyz) i.e. F1 = f1 (xyz).
Case (ii) Let the first screen S1 be placed by its complementary screen and the field behind
it is given as F2 = f2 (xyz).

Case (iii) Let there be no screen placed, the field is given by, F3 = f3 (xyz).

F3 (xyz) = F1 (xyz) + F2 (xyz)

F3 = F1 + F2.

Fig.2.11 Babinet’s Principle

H.G.Booker extended babinet’s principle in electromagnetic, where the source is short

dipole.

Babinet’s principle in optics doesn’t consider polarization, which is so vital in antenna

theory, by introduction of babinet’s principle many of the problems of slot antennas can be
reduced to situation involving complementary linear antennas for which solutions have
already been obtained.

The illustration of booker’s extension of babinet’s principle let us consider three cases. The
sources in all the three cases is a short dipole.

Case (i) The dipole is horizontal and original screen is an infinite perfectly conducting plane
infinitesimally thin sheet with a vertical short cut out. At point P behind the screen the field is
E1.
Case (ii) Here original screen is replaced by the complementary screen consisting of
perfectly conducting plane infinitesimally thin strip of same dimensions as the slot in the
original screen. If dipole is source and is turned vertical so that E and H are interchanged.
The field behind the screen is E2.

Case (iii) Here no screen is placed and field at point P is E3.

Fig. 2.12 Babinet’s principle applied to antenna

By babinet’s principle, E1 + E2 = E3

E1 E2
= =1
E3 E3

The principle may also be applied to points in front of the screen. In case a large amount of
energy may be transmitted through the slot so that E1 = E3. In such case complementary
dipole acts like a reflector and E2 is small using booker’s extension. A medium with an
intrinsic impedance η and have terminal impedances of Zs (screen) and Zc
(complementary) respectively, it is related by,

η2
Zs.Zc=
4
2.6 SLOT ANTENNA:

A dipole and a slot in a conducting sheet have similar shapes except that the metal region
and free space are interchanged.

Fig. 2.13 Slot antenna Fig. 2.14 Dipole antenna

The main difference between slot and dipole antenna is radiation from a slot antenna is
vertically polarized and radiation from dipole is horizontally polarized. The slot and dipole
impedances are related by,

η 02
Zs Zd =
4

Where Zs= Slot impedance

Zd= Complementary dipole impedance
η0 = Intrinsic impedance of free space= 377 Ω
Zd = 73 + j 42.5 Ω
377 2 35476 73− j 42.5
Zs = = x
4 (73+ j 42.5) 73+ j 42.5 73− j 42.5
Zs = 363 – j 211 Ω
 Fig. 2.15 Impedance of Slot antenna and
Complementary slot (Dipole) antenna

Let Zs = impedance of slot antenna

Zd = impedance of complementary dipole antenna
Es = electric field of slot at any point P
Hs = magnetic field of slot at any point P
Ed = electric field of complementary dipole at any point P
Hd = magnetic field of complementary dipole at any point P
Vs = terminal voltage of slot antenna
Is = terminal current of slot antenna
Terminal voltage Vs of slot is given by,
∞
Vs = lim ∫ E s . dl
c 1−−→a c1

dl = infinitesimal vector element of length dl along the path C1.

Terminal current Is of slot is given by,
∞
Is = 2 lim ∫ H s .dl
c2−−→ 0 c 2

Vs
Zs =
Is
Vd
Zd =
Id
Terminal voltage Vd of the complementary dipole is given by,
∞
Vd = lim ∫ E d . dl
c 2−−→0 c2

Terminal current Id of the complementary dipole is given by,

 ∞
Id = 2 lim ∫ Hd . dl
c1−−→ 0 c 1

Is V d η0
Consider Vd = η0 =
2 Is 2

Id V s η0
Vs = η 0 =
2 Id 2

Multiply Vd and Vs,

Vd Vs η η η2
x = 0x 0 = 0
Is Id 2 2 4

V s V d η 02
I s x Id = 4

η 02
Zs Zd = where η0 =377 Ω
4

3772 35476
Zs = =
4Zd Zd

In general impedance of dipole can be written as,

Zd = Rd + j Xd

35476 R d− j X d
Zs = x
R d+ j X d R d− j X d

35476 R d− j X d
Zs =
R d2 + X d 2
Rd = Resistive component of dipole terminal impedance
Xd = Reactive component of dipole terminal impedance.

2.7 LENS ANTENNA

The antenna using the collimating properties of an optical lens is called as lens antenna. It is an
optical device like a parabolic reflector antenna. However lens antenna is used at higher
frequencies (around 3 GHz and above) because at lower frequency they become bulky and
heavy.

Fig. 2.16 Collimated rays

A lens is made of dielectric material operates at radio frequencies. An electromagnetic source at

the focus on the left hand side will produce collimated, i.e. parallel rays on the right hand side.

Types of lenses:

Lens antenna can be divided into two types,

(i) Dielectric lens or H plane metal plane lens or delay lens antenna: Dielectric lens
antenna is an antenna with the travelling wave fronts that are retarded or delayed by
lens media.
(ii) E-plane metal plate lens antenna: E-plane metal plate lens antenna is an antenna in
which the travelling wave fronts are spaced up by the lens media.

Fig. 2.17 Action of dielectric lens and metal plate lens

Dielectric Lens antenna:

The dielectric lens antenna may be subdivided into types,

a) Non-metallic dielectric type (Polystyrene or Lucite) of lens.

b) Metallic (or) artificial dielectric type of lens.

a) Non-metallic dielectric type (Polystyrene or Lucite) of lens:

Polystyrene (dielectric constant k= 2.5, permeability μ= 1.6) and polyethylene (k= 2.2, μ=
1.5) are important materials for dielectric lens construction. The non metallic dielectric lens
antenna may be designed by the ray analysis methods of geometrical optics as dielectric lens
is identical to optical lenses.

Fig.2.18 Rays path in plano concave lens

Let the velocity of wave in air and in lens be c and v respectively, then for equal time
condition,
OP+PP' =OS+SQ' = OS +SQ+QQ'
But PP' = QQ'
OP=OS+SQ
Displacement
We know that, velocity =
Time
Displacement
For equal time condition, Time =
Velocity
Time taken to reach P from O is,
r
OP = (c is the velocity of wave in air, r- displacement)
c
L X
Similarly, OS = and SQ= (v is the velocity of wave in lens medium)
c v
Therefore,
r L X c c
= + or r = L+( ) X ( here r = refractive index)
c c v v v

r=L+μX ( here X = OQ – OS)

OQ
r = L + μ (r cosθ – L) cosθ = OQ = OP cosθ
OP

r = L + μr cosθ – μL OQ = r cosθ OS = L

r(1 – μ cosθ) = L (1 – μ) X = r cosθ – L

L(1 – μ)
r=
1 – μ cosθ

c Velocity ∈air
μ= = ; μ>1
v Velocity ∈lens medium

R = L (μ – 1) provided θ is small

The asymptote of the hyperbola is at an angle θ wrt axis and can be obtained by tending

to ∞

L(μ−1) L(μ−1)
( μ cosθ - 1) = = =0
r ∞
( μ cosθ - 1) = 0

μ cosθ = 1
 1
cosθ =
μ

Drawback: It is difficult to get uniform illumination from a lens antenna/. This is overcome
by designing the lens antenna of zone or stepped dielectric.

λ
t=
μ−1
μ = 1.5
λ
t=
1.5−1

t=2λ

A metal plate lens makes use of waveguide theory which states that the guide
wavelength λg is related to the free space wavelength λ .

1 = 1 1
( ) 2 + ( )2 ⇒1
λg2 λ 2a

λg = guide wavelength
λ = free space wavelength

A structure consisting of many such parallel plates with spacing ‘a’ can be regarded as a
uniform medium with an equivalent or effective index of refraction μ given by the ratio of
velocities as,

c cλ
μ= = ⇒2
v c λg
λ c
μ=
λg
= v
⇒3

Equation 1 can be written as,

cλ 2 λ
(
c λg
) = ( ¿2 -
λ
( 2λa ¿2
 λ
= 1−¿ ¿)2 ⇒4
λg √

λ
=μ
λg
Hence μ = √ 1−¿ ¿)2 ⇒5

It is clear that the refractive index is always less than unity. Clearly the value of ‘a’ must
not be less than its critical value.

√ 1−¿ ¿) 2 =0
λ
1=
2a
λ
a=
2
a= wider internal diameter of the rectangular waveguide or spacing of plates.
The phase velocity of the wave in the guide is given by,
c λg
v = this velocity is always greater than c. Let us consider a wave propagated
λ
between two infinite parallel planes spaced at a distance ‘a’ apart and having its electric
vector parallel to the plates.

This may be regarded as a part of a rectangular waveguide carrying a H 10 wave with its
dimension ‘b’ infinitely large. The equation for v gives the equation for the guide
wavelength λg which is dependent only on the dimension ‘a’.

Hence a metal plate lens antenna can be designed based on this principle i.e. a lens
may be constructed from parallel metal plates. The dielectric lens corrects phases by
slowing down a wave front whereas the metal plate lens operates by speeding up the
wave front.
Fig. 2.19 E plane metal plate lens Fig.2.20 E plane metal plate antenna

The lens plate on the axis of the lens is shown in the figure. The shape of the plate can
be determined by the principle of equality of electrical path length according to fermat’s
principle.

OPP' = OQQ'
OP + PP' = OS +SQ'
But SQ' = QS
OQ
From triangle OQP ; cosθ =
r
OQ = r cosθ
r cosθ
Time taken to travel OQ =
λg
L
OS =
λg
So, QS = OS – OQ
L−r cosθ
QS = = SQ'
λg
L−r cosθ
PP' = 2QS = 2
λg
Hence OP + PP' = OS + SQ'

r L−r cosθ L L−r cosθ

+2 = +
λ0f λgf λ0f λgf
 r L−r cosθ L
+ =
λ0 λg λ0

λ 0 = free space wavelength

λg = lens wavelength

Multiplying the above equation by λ 0

λ
L=r+ L−r cosθ
λg
L = r + μ L−r cosθ
L - μ L = r – μ(L−r cosθ ¿
L ( 1- μ) = r (1- μ cosθ )
50 μ
B=
1+ Kμ
Where K= number of zones, the zone on the axis of the lens is counted as the first zone.
μ = refractive index at the designed frequency.

Uses of lens antennas:

1. Unstepped dielectric lens is a wide band antenna as its shape does not depend on
the wavelength and hence it can be used over a wide frequency range. However this
is not true for dielectric lens antenna which is frequency sensitive. Typical bandwidth
for unstopped and stepped lens antennas is 12 % and 5 % respectively.
2. Both reflectors and lens antennas are commonly used above 1000 MHz. Lens
antenna is a microwave device. So it is preferred to be used usually above 3000
MHz and not below it.

2.8 MICROSTRIP AND PATCH ANTENNA:

In spacecraft and aircraft applications, where size, weight, cost, performance, ease of
installations and aerodynamic profile are constraints, low profile antennas are required is used
at frequency above 100 MHz.
 Fig.2.21 Patch antenna

Microstrip antenna consists of very thin metallic strip (patch) (t<< λ) placed above ground plane.
The strip and the ground plane are separated by a dielectric sheet called substrate. The
radiating element and feed lines are normally photoetched on dielectric substrate.The radiating
patch may be square, circular, elliptical, rectangular or any shape. The feedline is also
conducting strip normally of smaller width. Co-axial line feeds where the inner conductor of co-
axial line is attached to radiating pattern patch.

Array of microstrip elements with single feed (or) multiple feeds may be used for greater
directivity. As the thickness of microstrip antenna is normally very small, waves generated within
dielectric substrate undergo reflection.

Fig. 2.22 Metal Patch

λ
The patch antenna acts as a resonant parallel plate microstrip transmission line with
2
characteristic impedance equal to reciprocal of no. of parallel filed cell transmission lines.
Each field transmission has a characteristic impedance Z 0 equal to intrinsic impedance.

μ μ0 μr
Z i = ηi =
√ √ √
ε
=
ε0
=
εr
 μr
Zi = 120 π
√ εr

The cross section has 10 parallel field cell transmission lines as shown in the figure for ε r = 2,
the characteristic impedance of patch antenna is given by,

Z0 377
Zc = =
n √ εr 10 √2

Zc = 26.63 ohms

l
n=
t

Z0t
so, Zc = which is the general expression for Zc. Radiating pattern of patch is broad. Typical
l √ εr
value of beam area is half of half space. When Ω A = π

4π 4π
Directivity of patch is D= = =4
ΩA π

Limitations:

1. Increasing thickness of substrate

2. Using high dielectric constant substrate
3. Increasing inductance
4. Adding reactive component to reduce the VSWR

Advantage:

1. Linear and circular polarization are possible

2. Small size and weight
3. Narrow beam of radiation
4. Ease of installation and fabrication

Disadvantage:

1. Narrow bandwidth
2. Radiate into half plane
3. Poor end fire radiation performance
 4. Low power handling capability

2.9 RADIATION MECHANISMS:

Consider a two conductor transmission line that creates electric field between the conductors.
The electric field has associated with itself the electric lines of force which are tangent to the
electric field at each point and their strength is proportional to the electric field intensity. The
electric lines of force has a tendency to act on free electrons associated with each conductor
and force them to be displaced. The movement of charges creates a current that in turn creates
a magnetic field intensity. The magnetic field intensity are magnetic lines of force which are
tangent to the magnetic field. The electric filed lines start on positive charges and end on
negative charges. They can also start from a positive charge and end at infinity or start at infinity
and end at a negative charge. Magnetic field lines always form a closed loop encircling current
carrying conductors because there are no magnetic charges. In some mathematical
formulations it is convenient to introduce magnetic charges and magnetic currents to draw
parallel between solutions involving magnetic and electric sources.

Fig. 2.23 Antenna Electric Field Fig. 2.24 Antenna Magnetic field

APPLICATIONS:

Mobile communication, wireless interconnects, and cellular phone technologies are growing
rapidly. Naturally, mobile and cellular technologies need antennas. Having the right antenna for
the right device improves transmission and reception, reduces power consumption, and lasts
longer.
The most common antenna type for cellular telephones is the monopole, often referred to as a
whip antenna. The ¼- wavelength whip is the simplest type available and is used in the 400 to
500 MHz range. Other similar types are the 3/8- wavelength whip antenna and the ½-
wavelength whip antenna. These are larger than the ¼-wavelength antenna but have improved
performance.