Vertical Aerial

Photographs
 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Focal Length
Distance from the focal plane to approximately the center of the camera lens.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Focal Length
Angle of coverage increases as the focal length decreases

Focal Focal
plane plane
Focal Focal
length length
Lens Lens

Angle of Angle of
coverage coverage

Ground Ground

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Fiducial marks
• Optically projected geometric figures located at either the four corners of a
photograph, or on the four sides of a photograph.

• They define the coordinate axes and

geometric center of a single aerial
photograph.

• The x-axis most nearly defines the

direction of flight.

• The y-axis most nearly defines the

flight line.

• The intersection of the fiducial marks

represents the “principal point” of the
photograph.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

The three photo centers

Fiducial marks find the geometric center of a given photo.
Useful information for both photogrammetry and photointerpretation.
However, the geometric center of a photograph is only one of 3
important center points

Different types of distortion and displacement radiate from each.

Different types of exploitation or compensation are possible for each.

You will need to know all 3 photo centers and their respective
properties, such as associated distortion/displacement, relative location,
primary influence on photogrammetry and/or photointerpretation.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

The three photo centers

Different types of distortion and
displacement radiate from each.

Principal point: geometric center

of the photograph, and the
intersection of the X and Y axes.
Ground

PPoint
Lens distortion is radial
from the Principal Point

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

The three photo centers

2
Nadir: The point vertically beneath
the camera at the time the
photograph was taken.

Topographic displacement
is radial from the nadir
Ground

Nadir

PPoint
Usually difficult to locate on a single
aerial photograph

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

The three photo centers

3
Isocenter: The point that falls on
a line halfway between the
Principal Point and the Nadir.

Tilt displacement radiates

from the isocenter
Ground

Isocenter
Nadir

PPoint
FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements
 Vertical Aerial Photographs

The three photo centers

On a truly vertical aerial photograph, all three photo
centers will be located in the same place. This place can
be located by drawing lines between opposite fiducial
marks (as when defining the Principal Point).

In lab, we are going to assume that all of our photos are

truly vertical.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement

Distortion: The shift in position of a landscape feature on a photograph
that alters the perspective characteristics of the image.
• Film and print shrinkage (negligible)
• Atmospheric refraction of light rays (negligible)
• Motion of the landscape feature
• Lens distortion

Displacement: Any shift in the position of a landscape feature on a

photograph that does not alter the perspective characteristics of the image.
• Curvature of the earth (negligible)
• Tilt
• Topographic relief

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement:

Lens Distortion

• Radiates from the Principal Point.

• Causes landscape features to appear either further away, or

closer to, the Principal Point than they really are.

• Most serious near the edges of a photograph.

• Can be calculated by calibrating the lens, and developing a

“distortion curve” for the lens.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement:

Tilt Displacement
• Radiates from the isocenter of a photograph.

• Caused by the aircraft not being perfectly horizontal at the time of

exposure of the film.

• If the amount of tilt is known, photographs can be rectified

(expensive).

• If we can determine the direction of the tilt, in terms of “upper side”

of the tilt and the “lower side" of the tilt, we can determine how
landscape features are being displaced.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Tilt Displacement

X-axis tilt: Y-axis tilt:

wings up Nose up
or down or down

Ground Ground

Isocenter
Isocenter

Nadir
Nadir

PPoint
PPoint

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Tilt Displacement

Conceptual model
Photo

Ground
PPoint
Nadir
Isocenter

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Tilt Displacement

Let’s look closer at

Photo
conceptual displacement

Ground
Nadir

PPoint
Isocenter

Next slide…..

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Tilt Displacement

Some landscape feature

(a’) is being displayed
on a photograph (point Displacement
a) that is displaced
radially inward from a c
the appropriate place
Photo
on the photograph (c)
by the amount d.

b a’
Ground
d

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

• Radiates from the nadir of a photograph.

• Varies directly with the height of the landscape feature.

• Varies directly with the radial distance from nadir to the top of a landscape feature.
• There is no displacement at nadir.
• Varies inversely with the flying height above the base of the landscape features.

• We can view in 3-dimensional images because of it.

• We can use the “similar triangles” theory to arrive at an equation to allow

us to calculate topographic displacement.

In the example that follows, we will assume that the nadir and the Principal
Point are the same (since topographic displacement is radial from the nadir,
yet the nadir is often difficult to determine, and the Principal Point is not).

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Units in inches or mm, r
same scale as photo: d r’
negative
r = distance on the photo f
from the nadir to the lens
displaced landscape
H-h
feature.
r’ = actual place on the H
photo where the A R
landscape feature should h
be located.
d = relief (topographic) E
displacement.
f = focal length.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Units in feet or meters: r
d r’
h = height of the negative
landscape feature. f
A = altitude of the aircraft lens
above sea level.
H-h
E = elevation of the
H
landscape feature.
H = Flying height above A R
the base of the landscape h
feature at nadir.
R = distance from the E
nadir to the landscape
feature.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Similar triangles: r
d r’
 f  r negative
  =  
 ( H − h)   R  f
lens
Thus
H-h
 f R  H
r = 
 H − h  A R
h

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Similar triangles: r
d r’
 f   r'  negative
 =  f
 H  R
lens

Thus H-h
H
 f R
r' =   A R
 H  h

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

We are usually interested
in two things: d
negative

d (object topographic lens

displacement
on a photograph)

h (object height)
h

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Calculate “d”: Calculate “d” (cont.):
d = r − r' Remember,
 fR 
 f R   f R r = 
d = −   H − h 
 H − h   H 
So, substituting r for the above term
 f R  H   f R  H − h 
d =   −    rh Hd
 H − h   
H H  H − h  d =   h=  
 f R H   f R H   f R h  H   r 
d =   −    −    or,
 ( H − h) H    ( H − h ) H   ( H − h ) H  
 rh   ( A − E) d 
 f RH   f RH   f Rh  d =   h=  
d =   −   +    A− E   r 
 ( H − h) H   ( H − h ) H   ( H − h) H 
 f Rh  Where d = displacement of landscape
d =   feature on photo, and h = height of
 ( H − h ) H 
landscape feature

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Example #1: A Ridgeline rh
d =  
H 
Flying height above the base of the
 3.0 inches (1000 feet ) 
landscape feature at nadir = H d =  
= 10,000 feet  10,000 feet 

d = 0.3 inches
Height of the landscape feature
relative to nadir = h = 1,000 feet
If the photo scale was 1 : 12000, what
is the error on the ground?
Radial distance from the nadir to the
landscape feature’s location on the ground error = 0.3 inches (12000)
photo = 3.0 inches ground error = 3600 inches
ground error = 300 feet
What is the displacement on the photo
relative to nadir?

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Example #2: Tree Height

Suppose we have the measured

displacement of a tree, on flat 2.1 mm
ground, or d = 2.1 mm.
79.4 mm
The distance from the top of the tree
to the nadir of the photograph is
79.4 mm, or r = 79.4 mm. Nadir

The flying height of the aircraft, A, A = 10,000 feet

above sea level is 10,000 feet. E = 2,000 feet

The elevation of the area, E, from a

topographic map is 2,000 feet.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement

Example #2:

What is the height of the tree?

2.1 mm
 ( A − E) d 
h=   79.4 mm
 r 
 (10000 feet − 2000 feet ) 2.1 mm 
h =  
 79 . 4 mm  Nadir
 (8000 feet ) 2.1 mm 
h =   A = 10,000 feet
 79. 4 mm  E = 2,000 feet
h = 211.6 feet

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements