As 2574-2000

AS 2574—2000
AS 2574
Australian Standard ™
Non-destructive testing—Ultrasonic
testing of ferritic steel castings
This Australian Standard was prepared by Committee MT/7, Non-destructive
Testing of Metals and Materials. It was approved on behalf of the Council of
Standards Australia on 1 6 June 2000 and published on 6 November 2000.
The following interests are represented on Committee MT/7:

Australasian Railway Association
Australian Aerospace Non-Destructive Testing Committee
Australian Industry Group
Australian Institute for Non-Destructive Testing
Australian Nuclear Science & Technology Organization
Australian Pipeline Industry Association
Bureau of Steel Manufacturers of Australia
Industrial Research Limited, New Zealand
Institution of Engineers, Australia
National Association of Testing Authorities, Australia
New Zealand Non-Destructive Testing Association
Society of Automotive Engineers — Australasia
Test Safe Australia
Victorian WorkCover Authority
Additional interests participating in the preparation of this Standard:
Division of Telecommunications and Industrial Physics, CSIRO
Foundries
Testing Companies
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This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 98197.

AS 2574—2000
Australian Standard ™
Non-destructive testing— Ultrasonic

testing of ferritic steel castings
Originated as AS 2574—1 982.

Second edition 2000.
COPYRIGHT
© Standards Australia International
All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written permission of the
publisher.
Published by Standards Australia International Ltd
GPO Box 5420, Sydney, NSW 2001 , Australia
ISBN 0 7337 3473 1
AS 2574—2000 2
PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Joint Standards Australia /Standards New Zealand
Committee MT/7, Non-destructive Testing of Metals and Materials, to supersede
AS 2574—1 982, Non-destructive testing—Ultrasonic testing of steel castings and
classification of quality.
The objective of this revision is to upgrade the requirements for the A-scan ultrasonic
testing of ferritic steel castings that are 1 5 mm or greater in thickness.
During this revision, cognizance was taken of the following Standards:
ASTM A 609-91 Practice for castings, carbon, low-alloy, and martensitic stainless steel,
ultrasonic examination thereof.
BS 6208:1 990 Ultrasonic testing of ferritic steel castings including quality levels.
Currently there are no International Standards (ISO) published on the subject.
Statements expressed in mandatory terms in notes to tables and figures are deemed to be
requirements of this Standard.
The terms ‘normative’ and ‘informative’ have been used in this Standard to define the
application of the appendix to which they apply. A ‘normative’ appendix is an integral part
of a Standard, whereas an ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and guidance.
3 AS 2574—2000
CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD .............................................................................................................................. 5
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE AND APPLICATION ..................................................................................... 6
1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS ................................................................................... 6
1.3 DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................. 7
1.4 QUALIFICATION OF PERSONNEL.......................................................................... 8
SECTION 2 EQUIPMENT AND CALIBRATION
2.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 PRESENTATION ........................................................................................................ 9
2.3 ASSESSMENT OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL LINEARITY ......................... 9
2.4 GAIN CONTROL ........................................................................................................ 9
2.5 FREQUENCY RANGE................................................................................................ 9
2.6 PROBES ...................................................................................................................... 9
2.7 OVERALL SYSTEM GAIN ........................................................................................ 9
2.8 RESOLUTION........................................................................................................... 10
2.9 COUPLANTS ............................................................................................................ 10
2.10 CALIBRATION BLOCKS......................................................................................... 10
2.11 REFERENCE BLOCKS............................................................................................. 10
SECTION 3 METHOD OF TEST
3.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 11
3.2 PREPARATION OF TEST SURFACES.................................................................... 11
3.3 PREPARATION FOR TESTING............................................................................... 11
3.4 DETERMINATION OF ATTENUATION AND SUITABILITY FOR
ULTRASONIC TESTING ........................................................................................ 12
3.5 PROBES .................................................................................................................... 12
3.6 METHOD................................................................................................................... 12
SECTION 4 IDENTIFICATION AND SIZING OF DISCONTINUITIES
4.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 15
4.2 ULTRASONIC RESPONSE TO DISCONTINUITIES—CHARACTERISTIC
RESPONSE................................................................................................................ 15
4.3 SIZING OF DISCONTINUITIES .............................................................................. 15
SECTION 5 APPLICATION ZONES AND ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
5.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 17
5.2 ZONES OF CASTING............................................................................................... 17
5.3 ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA....................................................................................... 18
5.4 ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR WELD REPAIRS ................................................. 18
SECTION 6 PRESENTATION OF TEST DATA
6.1 RECORD OF TEST ................................................................................................... 21
6.2 TEST REPORT .......................................................................................................... 21
AS 2574—2000 4
Page
APPENDICES
A PURCHASING GUIDELINES..................................................................................... 23
B FACTORS INFLUENCING PROBE SELECTION...................................................... 24
C METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ATTENUATION
AND TRANSFER LOSS .............................................................................................. 25
D SELECTION OF BEAM ANGLE FOR HOLLOW CASTINGS .................................. 28
E COMPENSATION FOR CONVEX CURVATURE ..................................................... 29
F GUIDANCE ON THE NATURE OF DISCONTINUITIES, THEIR
LOCATION AND IDENTIFICATION ........................................................................ 31
G PROCEDURES FOR THE SIZING OF DISCONTINUITIES ..................................... 50
H THE USE OF REFLECTIVITY DIAGRAMS .............................................................. 57
I EXAMPLES OF THE APPLICATION OF EVALUATION SENSITIVITY
LEVELS TO CASTING ZONES.................................................................................. 59
5 AS 2574—2000
FOREWORD
The detection and the location of discontinuities in steel castings are facilitated if a grain-
refining heat treatment and appropriate test surface preparation have been carried out.
Where an adequate grain refining heat treatment has not been carried out, it is difficult to
make a direct comparison of the ultrasonic response from a casting with that of a distance-
amplitude curve (DAC) produced from standard fine-grained reference blocks, or to use
recognized distance-gain-size (DGS) principles. In this case, alternative blocks, or sections
of the casting itself, should be used to establish the test sensitivity.
Ultrasonic testing of castings is carried out using compression wave (normal) probes, and
shear wave (angle) probes where the geometry of the casting limits the effectiveness of
normal probes.
Indicated discontinuity sizes should not be taken as absolute in any assessment of
serviceability of the casting. Ultrasonic testing can only produce an indication of the
response of a discontinuity to ultrasound. The sizing techniques described in this Standard
can, in some circumstances, underestimate the true size of small discontinuities.
AS 2574—2000 6
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA
Australian Standard
Non-destructive testing—Ultrasonic testing of ferritic steel castings
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 SCOPE AND APPLICATION
This Standard sets out methods for the ultrasonic testing of specified areas of heat-treated
ferritic steel castings that are 1 5 mm or greater in thickness, using A-scan presentation. It
employs three evaluation sensitivity levels and divides the casting wall thickness into
zones.
NOTES:
1 Advice and recommendations on information to be supplied by the purchaser at the time of
enquiry and order are contained in the purchasing guidelines set out in Appendix A.
2 This Standard does not apply to the testing of austenitic steel castings, unless by agreement,
because such castings have a columnar structure which is not amenable to grain refining by
heat treatment.
3 The level of evaluation of discontinuities is normally specified in relevant product Standards
or is determined by agreement between the contracting parties after due consideration of the
size, configuration and the service requirements of the casting.
4 Steel deposited during repair welding is deemed to be part of the casting.
5 This Standard does not include methods for the ultrasonic immersion testing of castings.
Procedures described in this Standard enable the test operator to determine the location,
size, shape and often, the identification of discontinuities in all specified zones of heat-
treated steel castings. To enable the accurate sizing of discontinuities, castings should be
machined or ground to provide optimum probe contact. For unmachined castings it is
necessary that some form of surface preparation be carried out.
The recording requirements and the acceptance criteria, as specified in Sections 3 and 5
respectively, may not apply to complicated castings where heavy indentations or shapes are
to be produced by machining, e. g. gear teeth or splines, because the zone parameters (see
Section 5) cannot be rigidly applied.
NOTE: In such cases the recording/acceptance criteria is subject to negotiation between the
purchaser and the supplier.
Although the methods outlined in this Standard are intended to be applied to heat-treated
castings, they may be used on non heat-treated castings, by agreement, provided that it is
recognized that some types of discontinuity may be difficult to detect in structures that have
not been grain refined. In this case, an acceptance standard cannot be applied. For non heat-
treated castings, where direct comparison with standard fine grained calibration blocks, or
the use of recognized distance-gain-size (DGS) principles, is not appropriate, alternative
blocks, or sections of the casting itself, should be used to evaluate discontinuities.
1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS

The following documents are referred to in this Standard:
AS
1 929 Non-destructive testing—Glossary of terms
2083 Calibration blocks and their methods of use in ultrasonic testing
© Standards Australia www.standards.com. au
7 A S 2574—2000
AS
2207 Non-destructive testing—Ultrasonic testing of fusion welded joints in carbon and
low alloy steel.
2382 Surface roughness comparison specimens
3669 Non-destructive testing—Qualification and registration of personnel—Aerospace
3998 Non-destructive testing—Qualification and certification of personnel—General
engineering
1.3 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this Standard, the definitions given in AS 1 929 and those below apply.
1.3.1 Air lock
A cavity formed by the entrapment of air during pouring and solidification.

1.3.2 Cold shut
A discontinuity at the surface of a casting formed when liquid metal has flowed over
previously solidified or oxidized metal.
1.3.3 Crack
A stress-induced fracture of metal occurring during or after solidification.

1.3.4 Discontinuity outline
The projected image of an internal discontinuity, as outlined by the ultrasonic sizing

methods used, marked on the surface of the casting.
NOTE: The outlined area may not be exactly equivalent to the size of the discontinuity.
1 .3.5 Discrete discontinuity
A discontinuity such as a gas pore, a refractory inclusion or another type of non-metallic

inclusion which produces a clearly defined, sharp, point-like ultrasonic response.
1 .3.6 Filamentary shrinkage
A form of shrinkage characterized by extensive branching and interconnected cavities.

1 .3.7 Gas porosity
Discrete cavities (pores) formed by the entrapment of gas resulting from the reaction of
metal with the mould or a core during solidification, or from the release of gas from
solution in the molten metal during solidification.
1 .3.8 Hot tear
A fracture, frequently discontinuous and ragged, formed by restraint of metal during

solidification or cooling.
1 .3.9 Inclusion
Exogenous material entrapped in the casting during solidification.

1 .3.1 0 Macroshrinkage
A large shrinkage cavity or cavities caused by contraction of the steel during solidification.
1 .3.1 1 Microshrinkage
A very fine form of filamentary shrinkage.

1 .3.1 2 Non-planar discontinuity
A volumetric type discontinuity having three dimensions.
www.standards.com. au © Standards Australia

A S 2574—2000 8
1 .3.1 3 Planar discontinuity
A discontinuity having length and width but not thickness.

1 .3.1 4 Sand inclusion
Sand entrapped during solidification.

1 .3.1 5 Segregation
A condition resulting from the local concentration of any of the constituents of an alloy.
1 .3.1 6 Shrinkage
A cavity or cavities formed during solidification as a result of inadequate feeding.

1 .3.1 7 Slag inclusion
A piece of slag entrapped during solidification.

1 .3.1 8 Wormhole
A tubular cavity caused by the release of gas, usually oriented near and normal to the
surface of the casting.
1.4 QUALIFICATIO N OF PERSONNEL
Personnel who perform ultrasonic testing to this Standard shall have recognized
qualifications in the specific area of test and shall meet the visual acuity requirements of a
relevant national Standard.
NOTE: The Australian Standards for qualification of personnel are AS 3669 and AS 3998. In
New Zealand, personnel certification is available from the Certification Board for Inspection
Personnel (CBIP).

9 A S 2574—2000
SECTION 2 EQUIPMENT AND CALIBRATION

2.1 GENERAL
The ultrasonic testing system shall be capable of indicating discontinuities that may be
present in castings, and of delineating their boundaries and contours.
2.2 PRESENTATION
A-scan presentation shall be used.
2.3 ASSESSMENT OF HORIZONT AL AND VERTICAL LINEARITY
Horizontal and vertical linearity shall be assessed in accordance with AS 2083 for the test
ranges to be used. Any deviation of horizontal linearity exceeding 2% over the full screen
width, or vertical linearity exceeding ±2 dB between 30% and 1 00% graticule height, shall
be recorded. Suppression should not be used unless its effect on vertical linearity is known
and recorded.
2.4 GAIN CONTROL
A gain control, calibrated in steps not exceeding 2 dB, shall be used for measuring the
ratios of ultrasonic amplitudes.
2.5 FREQUENCY RANGE
Test equipment shall be capable of testing at a frequency within the range 0.5 MHz to
5 MHz.
2.6 PROBES
2.6.1 Compression wave (normal) probes
Compression wave probes having a 1 0 mm to 25 mm major dimension and a frequency

range of 2 MHz to 5 MHz shall be used for scanning. They may be either single element or
dual element.
2.6.2 Shear wave (angle) probes
Shear wave probes having an 8 mm to 25 mm major dimension and a frequency range of

2 MHz to 5 MHz shall be used for scanning. They may be either single element or dual
element.
NOTES:
1 Probes of other frequencies and sizes may be used for accurately locating and evaluating
indications.
2 Factors influencing probe selection are given in Appendix B.
3 The dominant frequency of all probes should be measured in accordance with AS 2083.
2.7 OVERALL SYSTEM GAIN
The overall system gain shall be assessed in accordance with AS 2083 and shall be not less
than 20 dB.

AS 2574—2000 10
2.8 RESOLUTION
The equipment shall be capable of resolving adjacent reflectors that have a separation along
the beam axis of 2.5 wavelengths. The resolution of the equipment shall be in accordance
with the requirements of Table 2. 1 .
NOTE: In ferritic steels the nominal velocity of compression waves is 5920 m/s and of shear
waves is 3280 m/s.
TABLE 2.1
REQUIREMENTS FOR RESOLUTION
OF ADJACENT REFLECTORS
Nominal Maximum separation of reflectors, mm
frequency Compression Shear (transverse)
(longitudinal) wave probes
MHz wave probes
0.5 29.6 1 6.2
1 .0 1 4.8 8.1
2.0 7.4 4.1
2.5 5.9 3.3
4.0 3.7 2.0
5.0 3.0 1 .6
2.9 COUPLANTS
Couplants shall have good wetting characteristics and be compatible with the casting under
test. The same couplant shall be used for calibrations and examinations.
2.10 CALIBRATION BLOCKS

Calibration blocks manufactured in accordance with AS 2083 shall be used to calibrate the
equipment.
2.11 REFERENCE BLOCKS

Blocks containing reference reflectors at various beam path lengths may be used to
establish a distance-amplitude curve (DAC).
NOTE: Sections of a casting may also be used to establish sensitivity (see Clause 3 .3.2).

11 A S 2574—2000
SECTION 3 METHOD OF TEST

3.1 GENERAL
Because it is difficult to completely specify scanning patterns or procedures, it is important

for the purchase order to include sufficient information, together with suitably marked-up
drawings that show critical and highly stressed regions, to enable appropriate scanning
procedures to be determined.
3.2 PREPARATION O F TEST SURFACES
3.2.1 General requirements
All surfaces over which probes are to be traversed shall have the following characteristics:
(a) A profile to permit uniform probe contact throughout the test.
(b) A roughness that does not exceed 6.3 μ m R a (see AS 2382).
NOTES:
1 A machined surface is preferred for testing.
2 Where grinding is used to prepare the test surface, care is required to prevent excessive
roughness and burring and to preserve the natural profile of the casting.
3 Abrasive blasting, needle gun or flame descaling, followed by wire brushing, usually
produces a satisfactory testing surface; however, local grinding may be necessary to ensure
adequate probe contact.
4 Dimpled, rippled, excessively shot blasted, heavily grooved, ground or machined finishes can
cause high transmission losses and spurious echoes.
Methods used to prepare test surfaces shall not be detrimental to the casting.
3.2.2 Additional surface requirements
Where a product Standard requires a surface finish for testing to be better than that
specified in Clause 3.2.1 , such requirements shall apply.
3.3 PREPARATION FOR TESTING
3.3.1 Time base calibration
The time base shall be calibrated in accordance with AS 2083, and be verified against a
known thickness of the casting under test to determine if the sound velocity within the
material varies from that of the calibration block by more than ±2%.
3.3.2 Preparation of reference blocks
Reference blocks shall be prepared from one of the following:
(a) Material of similar composition and heat treatment to the casting.
(b) Material having known attenuation characteristics.
(c) A non-critical section of the casting.
NOTES:
1 Reference holes should be drilled in castings only with the approval of the purchaser.
Whether such holes are repaired after testing or are allowed to remain in the casting is subject
to the discretion of the purchaser.
2 Where side-drilled holes are used instead of flat-bottomed holes, it is necessary to assess and
record the relationship between the two.
Where steel similar to that being tested is not available, corrections for attenuation and
transfer loss shall be made in accordance with Appendix C.
A S 2574—2000 12
3.3.3 Distance amplitude curves
Distance amplitude curves used for the assessment of discontinuities shall be prepared in
accordance with AS 2083 using reference blocks prepared in accordance with Clause 3.3.2.
As an alternative, recognized distance-gain-size (DGS) principles may be used to establish
a distance amplitude curve provided any attentuation characteristics are accounted for.
3.4 DETERMINATIO N OF ATTENUATION AND SUITABILITY FOR ULTRA-

SONIC TESTING
3.4.1 General
A casting can show different attenuation characteristics in different zones. Therefore, it is

necessary to assess the attenuation throughout the zone under test, or in zones as near as
practicable to those under test.
3.4.2 Determination of suitability for ultrasonic testing
The procedure to be used to determine whether a casting can be effectively tested by the
ultrasonic method using the specified probe(s) and to determine how to compensate for
attenuation, shall be as follows:
(a) Determine the attenuation coefficient in terms of dB loss/mm transit path
(see Appendix C). Should the attenuation coefficient exceed 0.01 dB/mm, completion
of the test should be subject to—
(i) the assurance of the operator that the required sensitivity can be obtained
throughout the full thickness of the casting; and
(ii) agreement between the purchaser and supplier.
(b) Determine the attenuation and transfer loss correction factor as detailed in
Appendix C and apply it to the scanning and evaluation sensitivity settings.
3.5 PROBES
Probes shall comply with the requirements of Clause 2.6.

The selection of probes for scanning is dependent on the section thickness and shall be in
accordance with the following:
(a) Compression wave probes (single element and dual element) for volumetric flaws, in
accordance with Table 3.1 .
(b) Shear wave probes (single element and dual element) for planar flaws, in accordance
with Table 3.2.
NOTE: For shear wave probes, the recommended angles of refraction are 45°, 60° and 70°;
however, other angles may be applied depending on particular circumstances. Information on the
selection of beam angle for the testing of hollow castings is given in Appendix D.
3.6 METHOD
3.6.1 General
Castings shall be tested using compression wave probes to ensure that, as far as possible,
the whole volume of the casting is scanned in those zones specifically identified as critical
or highly stressed. The testing shall be carried out using particular probes to ensure that the
beam axis is, as far as possible, aligned normal to the maximum reflecting surface(s) of any
expected discontinuity and to ensure that discontinuities at all likely locations and
orientations are detected.
All testing shall be carried out at the scanning sensitivity specified in Clause 3.6.2.
NOTE: Information on compensation required when using flat probes on convex surfaces, or for
convex curvature of the back wall, is given in Appendix E.
13 A S 2574—2000
TABLE 3.1
SIZE AND FREQ UENCY O F CO MPRESSION WAVE PROBES
Maximum probe si ze
Section thickness Frequency
(maj or dimension)
mm mm MHz
≥1 5 ≤ 30 25 4 to 5
>30 ≤ 1 00 25 2 to 4
> 1 00 25 2
NOTE: For subsurface investigations, it may be advantageous to use dual element
(twin crystal) probes or short pulse length single probes.
TABLE 3.2
SIZE AND FREQ UENCY O F SHEAR WAVE PROBES
Examined Maximum probe si ze Frequency

thickness (maj or dimension)
mm mm MHz
≤ 30 25 4 to 5
>30 ≤ 1 00 25 2 to 4
>1 00 25 2
3.6.2 Scanning
3.6.2.1 General
Scanning shall be carried out using probes selected in accordance with Clause 3.5, from the
surfaces nominated and to the extent of coverage required. The scanning rate shall not
exceed 1 50 mm/s.
Twin crystal probes should be used for the detection of flaws located close to the entry
surface.
3.6.2.2 Scanning sensitivity
Scanning shall be carried out using a gain of at least 6 dB greater than that required to bring
the signal from a 6 mm diameter flat bottom hole reference reflector at the maximum beam
path length to 40% graticule height. For long items, the beam path may be divided into
sections to improve clarity of presentation.
3.6.3 Evaluation and recording sensitivity
Unless otherwise agreed by contracting parties, the sensitivity used for the evaluation of
discontinuities shall be that necessary to enable comparison with either a 6 mm diameter
flat-bottom hole or a reflector with equivalent reflectivity, at the same beam path distance.
Discontinuities shall be evaluated and recorded for reflectivity, dimension, including
length, width and where possible, section depth (see Section 4) and location, using one of
the following levels:
(a) Level 1 —For the DAC method, a discontinuity is evaluated and recorded if its
amplitude is equal to or greater than one half of the amplitude resulting from a 6 mm
diameter flat-bottom hole. For the DGS method, a discontinuity is evaluated and
recorded if its amplitude is equal to or greater than the amplitude resulting from a
4 mm diameter flat-bottom hole.
A S 2574—2000 14
(b) Level 2 —For both the DAC and the DGS methods, a discontinuity is evaluated and
(c) Level 3 —For the DAC method, a discontinuity is evaluated and recorded if its
amplitude is equal to or greater than double the amplitude resulting from a 6 mm
diameter flat-bottom hole. For the DGS method a discontinuity is evaluated and
(d) When the presence of a discontinuity reduces the back echo by 50% or greater.
When the evaluation and recording sensitivity level is not specified at the time of enquiry or
order, Level 2 shall apply.
3.6.4 Alternative scanning and evaluation sensitivities
Where reference reflectors, evaluation and recording levels other than those specified in
Clause 3.6.3 are required by the purchaser, these details should be specified at the time of
enquiry or order.
3.6.5 Acceptability
The acceptance criteria are specified in Section 5 of this Standard.

NOTE: A summary of scanning sensitivity and evaluation sensitivity levels, details of the
recording method, the sizing method and the acceptance criteria are given in Table 5.1 (see
Section 5). The application of Table 5.1 is subject to compliance with the requirements of
Clause 3.4.

15 A S 2574—2000
SECTION 4 IDENTIFICATION AND SIZING

OF DISCONTINUITIES
4.1 GENERAL
The type, size and orientation of discontinuities in a casting are influenced by the design,
the method of manufacture and the metallurgical factors involved in the solidification of
metal; hence, discontinuities tend to be associated with particular features of the casting and
have a characteristic location, orientation and ultrasonic response.
NOTE: Guidance on the nature, the location and the identification of discontinuities common to
steel castings is given in Appendix F.
4.2 ULTRASONIC RES PONSE TO DISCONTINUITIES—CHARACTERISTIC

RESPONSE
4.2.1 Discrete discontinuities
Ultrasonic responses from discrete discontinuities are characterized by a strong signal

followed by a sharp drop in signal strength when the probe is moved through one probe
diameter in any direction.
4.2.2 Planar discontinuities
Ultrasonic responses from planar discontinuities are characterized by a strong signal which
can be traced over an area, provided one dimension is greater than the probe diameter.
NOTE: Planar discontinuities may be branched, and may cause a reduction in the back echo.
4.2.3 Non-planar discontinuities
Non-planar discontinuities usually produce a multipeak ultrasonic response and a loss of the
back echo.
4.3 SIZING O F DISCONTINUITIES
4.3.1 General
The sizing of discrete and planar types of discontinuities in castings usually does not
present any difficulty; however, the filamentary and branching nature of non-planar
discontinuities prevents accurate sizing. It is preferable to describe this type of
discontinuity as having a reflectance equivalent to a certain size reference reflector
extending over a distance and/or over an area.
The sizing of discontinuities shall be carried out in accordance with one of the methods
described in Clauses 4.3.2, 4.3.3 and 4.3.4 or, where an alternative assessment is required,
e. g. for the sizing of planar discontinuities, in accordance with the 20 dB drop method or
the 6 dB drop method described in Appendix G.
4.3.2 Method for the sizing of discontinuities by reflectivity
The reflectivity, as related to the response from a flat-bottomed hole of equivalent diameter,
shall be obtained using the distance amplitude curve (DAC) method, as follows:
(a) Using a series of distance-amplitude, or other appropriate blocks prepared in
accordance with AS 2083, construct a reflectivity diagram comprising an amplitude-
reference line corresponding to the evaluation sensitivity specified in Clause 3. 6.3.
NOTE: This amplitude-reference line usually corresponds to the response from a series of
calibration blocks each containing a 6 mm diameter flat-bottomed hole but having different
metal path distances.

A S 2574—2000 16
(b) Assess the size of discontinuities by comparing their indications against the amplitude
reference line for the flat-bottomed hole size.
(c) Where the ultrasonic response of the reference blocks and that of a casting are
different, determine the difference in attenuation between the reference blocks and
the casting in accordance with Appendix C and apply any difference to the DAC
reference line obtained in accordance with Step (a) of this Clause.
4.3.3 Last significant echo method for sizing planar and non-planar discontinuities
Planar and non-planar discontinuities shall be sized at the sensitivity appropriate to their
position in the casting zone (see Section 5) using the last significant echo method described
in Appendix G.
NOTE: When using angle probes, it will be necessary to make appropriate projections of the
casting on drawings to correctly locate the discontinuity.
4.3.4 Distance-gain-size method (DGS) for the sizing of discontinuities by reflectivity
The DGS method was developed to determine flaw sizes by comparison to a back wall echo
produced on the part being ultrasonically tested. The derivation of DGS curves is
extensively covered in standard texts on ultrasonic testing. The distance or the thickness of
the casting being tested shall be accurately defined on the screen, as noted on the overlay.
The back reflection of the part shall then be established and a suitable amount of gain
added. Flaw echo indications that appear are sized using the flaw size curves on the
overlay. An example of a DGS overlay is shown in Figure 4. 1 .
NOTE: The reflectivity diagram method illustrated in Appendix H is an alternative method to the
use of the clip-on DGS overlay for the sizing of discontinuities.
FIGURE 4.1 EXAMPLE OF A DGS OVERLAY

17 A S 2574—2000
SECTION 5 APPLICATION ZONES AND

ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
5.1 GENERAL
As this Standard is intended for application to castings that have a wide variety of sizes,
shapes, compositions, melting processes, foundry practices and applications, it is
impractical to specify ultrasonic acceptance limits that would be universally applicable to
such a diversity of products. Ultrasonic acceptance or rejection criteria for individual
castings should be based on a realistic appraisal of service requirements derived from
practical experience and the quality that can normally be obtained in production of the
particular type of casting.
5.2 ZONES OF CASTING
5.2.1 General
Unless otherwise agreed between the purchaser and the founder, for the purposes of
assessment, the casting wall thickness shall be regarded as being divided into zones
comprising a mid zone and two outer zones (see Figure 5. 1 ).
The division of the section thickness into zones shall relate to the dimensions of the section
thickness.
If it is required that the zones relate to either the rough-machined or finished-machined
dimensions, a drawing detailing these dimensions shall be supplied with the enquiry or
order. Under these conditions, unless otherwise agreed, the casting shall be rough machined
before testing.
5.2.2 O uter zones
Unless otherwise agreed, the depth of each outer zone in terms of the casting section
thickness, T, at time of test, shall be as follows:
T
(a) For sections >1 5 mm ≤ 1 00 mm thick: /3 or 25 mm, whichever is the lesser.
T
(b) For sections >1 00 mm ≤ 300 mm thick: /4 or 50 mm, whichever is the lesser.
T
(c) For sections >300 mm thick: /8 or 75 mm, whichever is the lesser.
5.2.3 Mid zone
The mid zone of the casting is the central section located between the two outer zones.
5.2.4 Critical zone(s)
For some castings, it may be necessary to make reference to a critical zone or zones within
a specified depth of any surface nominated on the drawing, within which more stringent
criteria of acceptance than those applicable to the outer zone may be specified.
5.2.5 Demarcation between zones
The demarcation between mid and outer zones cannot always be interpreted exactly if
castings are of complex configuration. If discontinuities are located on the boundaries of
the zones, the founder should report and discuss them with the purchaser. A joint decision
shall then be made regarding the appropriate quality level to be chosen for the purposes of
the inspection.

AS 2574—2000 18
FIGURE 5.1 DIVISION OF CASTING WALL INTO ZONES
5.3 ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

Unless otherwise agreed by the purchaser and the supplier, when using both the scanning
and evaluation sensitivities specified in Clause 3. 6, the requirements for acceptance shall be
in accordance with Table 5.1 .
NOTE: Examples of the application of evaluation sensitivity levels to casting zones are given in
Appendix I.
5.4 ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR WELD REPAIRS

Unless otherwise agreed between purchaser and manufacturer, weld repairs shall be
inspected and assessed for acceptability in accordance with the requirements stated on the
enquiry or order, taking into account the area and zone of the casting in which the weld
repair is located.
NOTE: A related Standard for the ultrasonic testing of fusion welds in steel is AS 2207.

19 A S 2574—2000
TABLE 5.1
TEST SENSITIVITY, RECORDING, SIZING AND ACCEPTANCE

REQUIREMENTS (See Note 1 )
(a) Sensitivity level adj ustment
Sensitivity mode Method
Scanning DAC Method: Adj ust the signal from a 6 mm flat bottom hole at the maximum
section thickness under test to 40% graticule height and add 6 dB min.
DGS Method: Using the appropriate screen insert, adj ust the signal from the
back wall of the maximum section thickness under test to the reference line on
the screen and add the required additional gain as shown on the screen for that
portion of the reference line, and add 6 dB min.
Evaluation DAC Method: Adj ust the signal from a 6 mm flat bottom hole at the maximum
section thickness under test to 40% graticule height.
DGS Method: Using the appropriate screen insert, adj ust the signal from the
back wall of the maximum section thickness under test to the reference line on
the screen and add the required additional gain as shown on the screen for that
portion of the reference line.
(b) Recording requirements (see Note 2)
Recording method Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

(high stress) (intermediate stress) (low stress)
DAC Record any discontinuity Record any discontinuity Record any

producing an amplitude producing an amplitude discontinuity
equal to, or greater than equal to, or greater than that producing an
one half of the indication of the indication from a amplitude equal to, or
from a 6 mm dia. 6 mm dia. equivalent FBH. greater than double
equivalent FBH. that of the indication
from a 6 mm dia.
equivalent FBH.
DGS Record any discontinuity Record any discontinuity Record any

producing an amplitude producing an amplitude discontinuity
equal to, or greater than equal to, or greater than the producing an
the indication from a 4 mm indication from a 6 mm dia. amplitude equal to, or
dia. equivalent FBH. equivalent FBH. greater than the
indication from a
8 mm dia. equivalent
FBH.
B ack echo Record any discontinuity, or condition that reduces the back echo reflection by
Attenuation ≥ 50% graticule height.
(Where loss of back echo can be positively identified as due to the geometric
configuration of the test item, this shall be recorded and the areas involved
clearly identified. )
(c) Sizing requirements
Size all recordable discontinuities for length, width and sectional depth where these parameters can be
determined (see Note 3 and Clause 4. 3).
( continued)

A S 2574—2000 20
TAB LE 5.1 ( continued)

(d) Acceptance criteria (see Note 2)
Parameter Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

(high stress) (intermediate stress) (low stress)
Maximum allowable 6 mm dia. 8 mm dia. 1 0 mm dia.

equivalent FBH size for a
discrete reflector
(see Note 4).
Maximum allowable loss 50% 75% 90%
of back echo due to
attenuation by discrete
reflectors
Maximum area of 1 000 mm2 2 000 mm2 4 000 mm2
recordable discrete
discontinuities with less
than 25 mm separation in
any 1 0 000 mm 2 area
Maximum area of 1 000 mm2 2 000 mm2 4 000 mm2
recordable planar (maximum length 50 mm) (maximum length 75 mm) (maximum length
discontinuities in any 1 00 mm)
1 0 000 mm 2 area
(see Note 5).
Maximum area of all 4 000 mm2 1 2 000 mm2 20 000 mm2
recordable discontinuities
in any 1 00 000 mm2 area
(see Note 5).
NOTES:
1 The application of this Table is subj ect to compliance with the requirements of Clause 3.4.
2 Examples of the allocation of stress levels to zones within a casting are given in Appendix I.
3 Adj acent recordable planar discontinuities that are less than 25 mm apart shall be considered as one for
sizing purposes.
4 Discrete discontinuities up to the equivalent reflector size shown for the relevant acceptance criteria may
be present in any zone provided that any associated loss of back echo does not exceed the limit
requirement for that criteria.
5 Limits for 1 0 000 mm 2 and 1 00 000 mm2 frame areas are subj ect to the frame areas being in the most
unfavourable position.
6 For special applications, stricter requirements than those specified in this Table may be agreed to at the
time of ordering.

21 AS 2574—2000
SECTION 6 PRESENTATION OF TEST DATA

6.1 RECORD OF TEST
The record of test shall include at least the following information:
(a) The name of the testing authority.
(b) Date and place of test.
(c) Identification of the casting by—
(i) job number;
(ii) order number; and
(iii) drawing and pattern number.
(d) The relevant product Standard and the evaluation sensitivity level specified for each
casting zone.
(e) The type of steel, the heat or batch number, and details of the method of manufacture,
if available.
(f) Details of any heat treatment carried out and surface condition.
(g) The test instrument type, and any variation of horizontal linearity or vertical linearity
in excess of the limits given in Clause 2.3.
(h) The couplant used.
(i) Description of probe(s), size, type, frequency and angle of refraction.
(j) The method of test including scanning procedure, scanning and evaluation sensitivity,
reference sensitivity, methods of sizing and methods for the determination of
attenuation.
(k) The results of the test and a sketch of the physical outline of the casting showing the
orientation, size, position and nature of discontinuities, and, if relevant, areas not
tested because of unfavourable configuration of the casting.
(l) The details of any rectification or weld repairs carried out, and location on the
casting, if available.
(m) Identification and signatures of test personnel.
(n) The results of any complementary non-destructive tests carried out.
(o) The number of this Standard, i. e. AS 2574.
6.2 TEST REPORT

The test report shall include the following information:
(a) The name of the laboratory or testing authority and identification of test personnel.
(b) The contract details, including the order number and the evaluation sensitivity levels
specified.
(c) Identification of casting by—
(i) job number; and
(ii) drawing pattern number.
(d) The relevant product specification or application code.

AS 2574—2000 22
(e) Details of any repairs carried out.

(f) The test procedure used and details of any variations of that procedure.
(g) The method and extent of scanning.
(h) The reference sensitivity and scanning sensitivity.
(i) Compliance or otherwise with the specified evaluation sensitivity levels, if
applicable.
(j) A sketch showing the location, orientation and nature of non-complying
discontinuities.
(k) The method used for the sizing of any discontinuities.
(l) Reference to this Standard, i. e. AS 2574.
(m) The date and place of test.
(n) The report number and date of issue.
(o) Identification and signature of officer responsible for test report.

23 AS 2574—2000
APPENDIX A
PURCHASING GUIDELINES
(Informative)
A1 GENERAL
Australian Standards are intended to include the technical requirements for relevant
products but do not purport to comprise all the necessary provisions of a contract. This
Appendix contains advice and recommendations on the information to be supplied by the
purchaser at the time of enquiry or order.
A2 INFORMATION TO BE SUPPLIED BY THE PURCHASER

The purchaser should supply the following information at the time of enquiry and order:
(a) Job reference number.
(b) Identification and geometry of casting, method of casting including runner and riser
locations, extent and location of any repairs, manufacturing history and the intended
use.
(c) Drawing and pattern number, if applicable.
(d) Type of steel and identification of the relevant product Standard.
(e) Nature of any heat treatment given to the casting.
(f) Surface preparation.
(g) Test procedure to be used (see Section 3).
(h) The evaluation sensitivity level for specified regions of castings.
(i) Any modifications to the zones of the casting.
(j) Any agreed departures from the methods specified in this Standard.
(k) Any complementary test methods to be used.
(l) Whether a certificate of compliance is required.
(m) Reference to this Standard, i. e. AS 2574.

A S 2574—2000 24
APPENDIX B
FACTORS INFLUENCING PROBE SELECTION
(Informative)
B1 GENERAL
The choice of probes for the examination of any casting is usually a compromise between
the optimum type and what is economically practical. The examination of a casting should
be conducted in such a manner as to ensure that the best possible ultrasonic detection and
resolution is obtained by using the highest possible frequency consistent with adequate
acoustic penetration and an acceptable noise (interference) level.
The determination of the best possible compromise on the type of probe should be made
with regard to the following features of the casting:
(a) Geometrical shape and surface condition. The access to areas suspected of containing
discontinuities and the availability of a suitable scanning surface will depend on the
shape of the casting.
(b) Size.
(c) Metallurgical structure.
(d) The nature, position and orientation of possible discontinuities.
Guidance on the selection of probes is given in Paragraph B2.
B2 PROBE CHARACTERISTICS
B 2.1 Frequency
In most applications of ultrasonic testing of steel castings the test frequency will be within
the range 2 MHz to 5 MHz. Other frequencies may be used where specified.
The following factors will influence the choice of frequency:
(a) Nature of the metal through which the beam will pass When testing coarse-grained
steel, higher frequencies will be attenuated to a greater extent than lower frequencies;
e. g. where 1 MHz is required to give satisfactory penetration, 4 MHz would give
unsatisfactory results because the ultrasonic beam would attenuate to a greater extent
and therefore result in less penetration.
(b) Size of discontinuity to be detected In general, the size of the discontinuity which
may be detected is proportional to the wavelength of the ultrasonic beam. The higher
the frequency the shorter the wavelength and the smaller the discontinuity which may
be detected. It also follows that better resolution is possible at higher frequencies.
(c) Beam path length Where long beam path lengths are to be used it may be
advantageous to use a lower frequency to result in less attenuation.
B 2.2 B eam angle
The objective in the selection of the beam angle is to produce an ultrasonic beam having an
axis normal to the maximum reflecting surface or surfaces of any discontinuity.
B 2.3 Probe types
Single element probes are generally used for the ultrasonic examination of castings except
when examining areas adjacent to the scanning surface, in which case dual element (twin
crystal) probes or short-pulse single crystal probes can be used.

25 AS 2574—2000
APPENDIX C
METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ATTENUATION
AND TRANSFER LOSS
(Normative)
C1 SCOPE
This Appendix provides methods for the determination of energy losses due to the
attenuation and transfer characteristics of the material under test using compression and
shear wave probes.
Where energy losses exceed 2 dB at the maximum beam path length, the scanning and
evaluation sensitivity should be increased accordingly.
C2 METHOD FOR COMPRESSION WAVE PROBES

When using compression wave probes, the following method shall be employed:
(a) Calibrate the time base of the ultrasonic testing system using a suitable range.
(b) Using the metal under test, obtain a number of back echoes at distances Tm1 , Tm2, Tm3 ,
etc. and plot the gain to bring the back echo signals to a reference height, e. g. 80%
(see Figure C1 ).
(c) Using an appropriate calibration block, obtain a number of back echoes at distances
Tc1 , Tc2, Tc3 , etc. and plot the gain to bring the back echo to the same reference height
as was used in Step (b), e. g. 80% (see Figure C1 ).
(d) The loss due to attenuation and transfer characteristics is the difference in gain
between the two curves at the appropriate beam path distance.
C3 METHOD FOR SHEAR WAVE PROBES

When using shear wave probes, the following method shall be employed:
(a) Calibrate the time base to a suitable range using a single probe having the same
characteristics as the test probe.
(b) Using two angle probes of the same characteristics as the test probe, one as a
transmitter and the other as a receiver, place one probe in position A and the other in
position A 1 on the material under test (see Figure C2(a)). Maximize the amplitude
response and bring the signal to a reference height. Record the instrument gain
setting.
(c) Repeat Step (b) with probes in position A and A 2, and other skip positions, to obtain
as many readings as possible.
(d) Plot the results as shown by Curve A in Figure C2(c).
(e) Using the same angle probes as in Step (b) (one as a transmitter and the other as a
receiver), place the probes on the calibration block (see Figure C2(b)). Maximize the
amplitude response and bring the signal to the same reference height as was used in
Steps (b) and (c). Record the instrument gain setting.
(f) Plot the results as shown by Curve B in Figure C2(c).
(g) The difference in gain between the two curves at the appropriate beam path distance
is the attenuation and transfer loss.

AS 2574—2000 26
C4 MEASUREMENT OF ATTENUATION COEFFICIENT

The attenuation coefficient shall be measured at the position showing minimum back echo.
The attenuation coefficient ( AC) shall be calculated from the following equation:
( B 2 − B1 ) dB − 6 dB
AC = . . . C4(1 )
2T
where
B1 = the gain setting required to bring the signal from the first back echo, at a
beam path length greater than three near zones, to the reference height.
B2 = the gain setting required to bring the signal from the back echo, at a beam
path length twice that for B1 , to the reference height.
T = the beam path length for the signal used for B1 .
FIGURE C1 METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF ATTENUATION AND TRANSFER

LOSS FOR COMPRESSION WAVE PROBES

27 AS 2574—2000
FIGURE C2 METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF ATTENUATION AND TRANSFER

LOSS FOR SHEAR WAVE PROBES

AS 2574—2000 28
APPENDIX D
SELECTION OF BEAM ANGLE FOR HOLLOW CASTINGS
(Informative)
When using a shear wave probe to scan the annulus in the circumferential examination of a
cylindrical hollow casting, a beam angle should be chosen to give the most favourable beam
to inner surface alignment, i. e. to enable the beam to graze the inside surface.
The optimum beam angle for any wall thickness/outside diameter ratio may be selected
from the graph shown in Figure D1 .
FIGURE D1 OPTIMUM BEAM ANGLE

29 AS 2574—2000
APPENDIX E
COMPENSATION FOR CONVEX CURVATURE
(Informative)
E1 COMPENSATION FOR CONVEX CURVATURE OF SCANNING SURFACES

When a flat probe is coupled to a convex shaped test surface the working sensitivity is less
than that obtained when a flat probe is coupled to a flat surface, the reduction being a
function of the crystal diameter and the radius of curvature of the test surface.
Compensation (i. e. increase in gain) for various probe diameters and radii of curvature may
be determined by the use of the nomogram shown in Figure E1 , as follows:
(a) Locate radius of curvature of test surface on left-hand scale.
(b) Locate probe diameter on centre scale.
(c) Rule a line joining these points and extend to intersect right-hand scale.
(d) The point of intersection on the right-hand scale is the correction, in decibels, to be
added.
Example : When using a probe having a diameter of 1 5 mm on a test surface having a radius
of 1 50 mm, the correction required is 7.7 dB, i. e. nominally +8 dB.
E2 COMPENSATION FOR CONVEX CURVATURE OF BACK WALL

When using reflectivity comparison diagrams or shear wave probes with beam path
distances greater than half-skip, an allowance is required to be made for the convex
curvature of the back wall when the back echo is used as a reference to set the test
sensitivity. Compensation for curvature may be obtained from the graph shown in
Figure E2.
FIGURE E1 COMPENSATION FOR CURVATURE

AS 2574—2000 30
FIGURE E2 CORRECTIONS FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF r/T

31 AS 2574—2000
APPENDIX F
GUIDANCE ON THE NATURE OF DISCONTINUITIES, THEIR LOCATION
AND IDENTIFICATION
(Informative)
F1 GENERAL
Accurate identification of discontinuities requires a considerable degree of expertise and
experience and can only be made if the operator—
(a) has a thorough knowledge of casting processes and procedures;
(b) has made an accurate location and sizing of the discontinuities; and
(c) is aware of the behaviour of discontinuity echo response to probe manipulation.
Paragraphs F2 to F5 provide guidance on the identification of discontinuities in castings.
F2 SHRINKAGE—DISCONTINUITIES CAUSED BY INADEQUATE FEEDING

F2.1 General description
Shrinkage results in the formation of a cavity or cavities and is caused by the contraction of
metal during solidification. It can occur where there is a localized variation in section
thickness resulting in slower solidification. Shrinkage can also occur in parallel sections
where the feeding of liquid metal is difficult.
Three types of shrinkage can be found in castings, as follows:
(a) Macroshrinkage.
(b) Filamentary shrinkage.
(c) Microshrinkage.
Examples of locations where shrinkage in castings of differing profiles can be expected are
shown in Figure F2.1 .

AS 2574—2000 32
FIGURE F2.1 EXAMPLES OF SHRINKAGE FORMATION, (a) TO (g) BEING DUE TO

INCREASED METAL VOLUME AT JUNCTIONS CAUSING HOT SPOTS

33 A S 2574—2000
F2.2 Macroshrinkage
The ultrasonic response from macroshrinkage is usually characterized by a complete loss of

back echo and a clearly defined signal showing multiple peaks and pronounced ‘grass’ . (See
Figures F2.2 and F2.3 for examples of the testing of castings containing macroshrinkage).
The detection of macroshrinkage is dependent upon casting thickness and the type of probe
used.
Single element probes should be used on thicknesses of 50 mm and above, and twin element
probes on thicknesses below 50 mm.
(a) Radiograph of shrinkage
(b) Macro-section through discontinuity

FIGURE F2.2 EXAMPLE OF MACROSHRINKAGE

AS 2574—2000 34
(a) Section from a casting showing macroshrinkage and the probe position
FIGURE F2.3 TYPICAL ULTRASONIC RESPONSES RESULTING FROM THE

TESTING OF A SAMPLE CONTAINING MACROSHRINKAGE

35 A S 2574—2000
F2.3 Filamentary shrinkage
Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs along the centre-line of a casting, but it can extend
towards the surface and be associated with pinholes and wormholes.
The detection of filamentary shrinkage is dependent on casting thickness.
Either single or twin crystal probes can be used.
Ultrasonic response is characterized by a reduced back echo and numerous low amplitude
indications from the discontinuity. (See Figures F2.4 and F2.5 for examples of the testing of
castings containing filamentary shrinkage).
FIGURE F2.4 FILAMENTARY SHRINKAGE AS VISIBLE ON A

RADIOGRAPH (ENLARGED)

AS 2574—2000 36
(a) Section from large casting showing filamentary shrinkage and

the direction of the ultrasonic beam
FIGURE F2.5 TYPICAL ULTRASONIC RESPONSES RESULTING FROM THE TESTING

OF A SAMPLE CONTAINING FILAMENTARY SHRINKAGE

37 A S 2574—2000
F2.4 Microshrinkage
The ultrasonic response from microshrinkage is characterized by a minimal loss of back

echo with numerous low amplitude indications from the discontinuity. (See Figures F2.6
and F2.7.)
FIGURE F2.6 RADIOGRAPH OF A TYPICAL AREA OF MICROSHRINKAGE AT THE

CENTRE OF A CASTING (ENLARGED 30× )

AS 2574—2000 38
Large roller casting
FIGURE F2.7 A TYPICAL ULTRASONIC RESPONSE RESULTING FROM THE TESTING

OF A CASTING CONTAINING MICROSHINKAGE

39 A S 2574—2000
F3 DISCONTINUITIES ASSOCIATED WITH ENTRAPPED GAS
F3.1 General
Discontinuities formed in castings due to entrapped or evolved gases may be divided into
the following categories:
(a) Airlocks.
(b) Gas porosity—general including blowholes.
(c) Gas porosity—localized subsurface.
(d) Wormholes.
F3.2 Airlocks
When molten metal is poured into a mould, air can become entrained in the metal stream
and appear in the casting as a relatively smooth cavity, or cavities, usually positioned just
below and parallel to the casting surface.
Airlocks close to the surface are best detected by the use of twin crystal probes.
The ultrasonic response from airlocks is characterized by a complete loss of back echo and
by a usually clear signal, which can be mistaken as a back echo if the discontinuity occurs
very close to the far wall. Airlocks can be missed if they occur within the probe dead zone
or if the loss of back echo is mistaken for bad probe coupling (see Figure F3.1 ).

A S 2574—2000 40
(a) Casting showing airlock and direction of ultrasonic beam
FIGURE F3.1 AIRLOCK AND RESULTANT ULTRASONIC RESPONSE
F3.3 Gas porosity (blowholes)
Gas porosity (blowholes) generally occurs as small discrete cavities at random in a casting
and results from gas dissolved in the liquid metal being released during solidification.
Gas porosity cavities are typically spherical, or slightly elongated and smooth.
Ultrasonic response is characterized by clearly resolved multiple indications and a
reduction of the back echo. The degree of loss of the back echo is dependent on the extent
of porosity in the casting. Figure F3.2 shows large blowholes and Figure F3.3 general
lightly dispersed gas porosity.

41 AS 2574—2000
(a) Section of casting showing gas porosity and direction of ultrasonic beam
FIGURE F3.2 LARGE BLOWHOLE GAS POROSITY AND

RESULTANT ULTRASONIC RESPONSE

AS 2574—2000 42
(a) Section of casting showing light general porosity and direction of ultrasonic beam
FIGURE F3.3 LIGHT GENERAL GAS POROSITY AND


43 A S 2574—2000
F3.4 Gas porosity—localized subsurface
A fine form of gas porosity which usually occurs just below the cast surface is due to a
metal-mould reaction, and is often visible in small areas on the cast surface (see
Figure F3.4).
The presence of surface porosity can be verified ultrasonically using angle probes.
The ultrasonic response is characterized by multiple low amplitude signals.
FIGURE F3.4 LOCALIZED SUBSURFACE POROSITY
F3.5 Wormholes
The ultrasonic response from a wormhole is similar to that of a blowhole but is traceable
over an extended length (see Figure F3.5).

AS 2574—2000 44
(a) Radiograph showing wormholes and piping
FIGURE F3.5 WORMHOLES AND RESULTANT ULTRASONIC RESPONSE

45 A S 2574—2000
F4 DISCONTINUITIES ASSOCIATED WITH RESTRAINT O F METAL DURING

COOLING
F4.1 General
Discontinuities formed by restraint of metal during cooling, and those due to transformation
stresses in the solid state, can be divided into two classes as follows:
(a) Hot tears which occur early in the solidification process.
(b) Stress cracks which occur in the late stage of cooling after solidification has taken
place.
F4.2 Hot tears
Hot tears are cracks which are discontinuous and of ragged form. They occur when the
metal is weak, at or near the solidification temperature, due to stresses set up when
contraction of the metal is restrained by the mould or a core, or by an already solid thinner
section (see Figure F4.1 ).
Hot tears occur at, or near to changes in section, e. g. re-entrant angles and joints between
sections. They are not fully continuous and commonly exist in groups, often terminating at
the surface of a casting.
Because of their orientation, the location of hot tears can rarely be determined accurately
using a normal probe. The most satisfactory method requires the use of angle probes.
Where hot tears do not extend to the surface, their existence may sometimes be indicated by
a slight depression on the casting. Hot tears can be mistaken for surface metal wrinkling or
folding.

A S 2574—2000 46
FIGURE F4.1 LOCATION OF HOT TEARS
F4.3 Stress cracks
Stress cracks are relatively straight tight cracks formed when the metal is completely solid,
in the late stages of cooling, by high restraint stresses or by phase transformation stresses.
Stress cracks can be of branched form and can occur at any angle. They differ from thermal
or heat-treatment stress cracks and from weld cracks in the actual time of their formation.
Unlike hot tears, stress cracks invariably reach the surface. They can be detected visually
and outlined by the use of dye penetrant or magnetic particle testing.
The extent of stress cracks can be determined ultrasonically using angle probes (see
Figure F4.2).

47 AS 2574—2000
(a) Casting showing a stress crack
FIGURE F4.2 STRESS CRACK AND RESULTANT ULTRASONIC RESPONSE

A S 2574—2000 48
F5 DISCONTINUITIES ARISING FROM METAL O R MOUL D CONDITIO N
F5.1 General
Discontinuities such as cold shuts and sand or slag inclusions, can occur as a result of
inappropriate metal or mould conditions.
F5.2 Cold shuts
Cold shuts occur when the advancing metal front loses fluidity, the metal oxidizes and the
following metal overruns the front. They usually occur when the metal is poured at too low
a temperature.
Cold shuts are readily visible on the casting surface and their extent can be traced
ultrasonically (see Figure F5.1 ).
FIGURE F5.1 CASTING SHOWING A TYPICAL COLD SHUT
F5.3 Sand or slag inclusions
Sand or slag inclusions can arise from improper foundry practice and metal-mould
reactions. The ultrasonic response will depend on the quantity and distribution of the
entrapped sand and slag. The ultrasonic trace may not show a back echo and the degree of
multiple indication is largely dependent on which surface is used for probing (see
Figure F5.2).

49 AS 2574—2000
(a) Casting showing sand inclusions
FIGURE F5.2 SAND OR SLAG INCLUSIONS AND


A S 2574—2000 50
APPENDIX G
PROCEDURES FOR THE SIZING OF DISCONTINUITIES
(Normative)
G1 GENERAL
The effective beam profile of the probe is first determined by the method detailed in
AS 2083 using a selected decibel drop, generally 20 dB or 6 dB, or the last significant echo
technique. Sizing is then carried out in accordance with Paragraphs G2, G3 or G4 which
detail procedures for the 20 dB drop, the 6 dB drop and the last significant echo methods
respectively.
NOTE: When using twin crystal probes for sizing, care should be taken to ensure that the axis of
a discontinuity passes through both half crystals of the probe.
G2 PROCEDURES FOR SIZING USING THE 20 dB DROP TECHNIQUE
G2.1 Method for normal probes
The procedure for sizing discontinuities orientated in the horizontal plane, using a normal
probe, shall be as follows:
(a) Move the probe over the discontinuity until the point of last significant maximum
response at the edge of the discontinuity is obtained (see Figure G1 ).
NOTE: The last significant echo is the point just before the signal falls off rapidly. The gain
control may need adjustment to establish this point.
(b) At this point, adjust the echo height to between 80% and 1 00% full screen height (see
Figure G2).
(c) Decrease the gain by 20 dB and note the echo height (see Figure G4), then return the
echo height to the setting established in Step (b).
(d) Move the probe forward until the echo height drops to the baseline. Reverse the probe
movement until the echo height returns to the height obtained in Step (c) (see
Figures G3 and G4).
(e) Mark the probe position and note the beam path length of the echo.
(f) Move the probe backwards to the opposite end of the discontinuity, repeating
Steps (a) to (e).
(g) Repeat Steps (a) to (f) at right angles to the original direction chosen.
NOTE: For large discontinuities sizing may be required in several other directions.
(h) Measure the probe movement, M, and obtain the discontinuity dimension ( L or W) by
subtracting the beam width ( a 1 + a 2) at the discontinuity beam path length, i. e. L or
W = M − ( a 1 + a 2 ) (see Figure G5).
G2.2 Methods for angle probes for vertically orientated discontinuities
G2.2.1 Vertical dimension
The procedure for sizing the vertical dimension of a discontinuity orientated in the vertical
plane, using an angle probe, shall be as follows:
(a) Scan the discontinuity until the point of maximum intensity of the last significant
echo is obtained.
NOTE: The point of maximum response from the discontinuity is illustrated in Figure G6.
The last significant echo is the point just before the signal falls off rapidly (see Figure G7).
The gain control may need adjustment to establish this point.

51 AS 2574—2000
(b) At this point adjust the echo height to between 80% and 1 00% of full screen height
(see Figure G8).
(c) Decrease the gain by 20 dB and note the echo height, then return the echo height to
the setting established in Step (b).
(d) Move the probe forward until the echo falls to the baseline. Reverse the probe
movement until the echo height returns to the height obtained in Step (c)
(see Figures G9 and G1 0).
(e) Mark the probe position and the beam path length of the echo.
(f) Move the probe backwards, repeating Steps (a) to (e).
(g) Plot on paper the probe position and the beam boundary at each position (see
Steps (e) and (f)). Measure the range along the 20 dB boundary on the beam profile.
The resultant plots should indicate the dimension and orientation of the discontinuity
(see Figure G1 1 ).
(h) To obtain greater accuracy, repeat Steps (a) to (g) using a probe placed on a minimum
of two other surfaces.
NOTES:
1 This method of sizing discontinuities can tolerate minor errors in the measurement of the
probe position and the assessment of the 20 dB drop-off point.
2 The beam spread should be plotted carefully to ensure accuracy.
G2.2.2 Horizontal dimension
The procedure for sizing the horizontal dimension of a discontinuity orientated in the
vertical plane, using a transverse wave probe, shall be as follows:
(a) Move the probe parallel to the discontinuity until the point of maximum intensity of
the last significant echo is obtained.
(b) At this point adjust the echo height to between 80% and 1 00% full screen height.
(c) Decrease the gain by 20 dB, note the echo height and then return the echo height to
the setting established in Step (b).
(d) Move the probe parallel to the discontinuity until the echo falls to the baseline.
Reverse the probe movement until the echo height returns to the height obtained in
Step (c).
(e) Mark the probe position through its centre-line.
(f) Move the probe to the opposite end of the discontinuity and repeat Steps (a) to (e)
(see Figure G1 2).
(g) Plot on paper the probe position and the beam boundary at each position (see
Steps (e) and (f)). Measure the range along the 20 dB boundary on the beam profile.
The resultant plots should indicate the dimension and orientation of the discontinuity
(see Figure G1 2).
NOTES:
1 This method of sizing discontinuities can tolerate minor errors in the measurement of the
probe position and the assessment of the 20 dB drop-off point.
2 The beam spread should be plotted carefully to ensure accuracy.

A S 2574—2000 52
G3 PROCEDURE FO R SIZING USING THE 6 dB DROP TECHNIQUE USING

NORMAL PROBES
The procedure for sizing discontinuities orientated in the horizontal plane, using a normal
probe and the 6 dB drop technique, shall be as follows:
(a) Move the probe over the discontinuity until the point of last significant maximum
response at the edge of the discontinuity is obtained (see Figure G1 ).
(b) At this point adjust the gain to obtain an echo of between 80% and 1 00% full screen
height (see Figure G2).
(c) Decrease the gain by 6 dB and note the echo height (see Figure G1 4).
(d) Return the gain to the setting established in Step (b).
(e) Move the probe over the edge of the discontinuity until the echo is reduced to the
level noted in Step (c) (see Figures G1 3 and G1 4).
(f) Mark the position of the centre-line of the probe.
(g) Move the probe backwards to the opposite end of the discontinuity and repeat
Steps (e) and (f).
(h) Repeat Steps (a) to (g) at right angles to the original direction used for Steps (e) and
(g).
(i) Measure the probe movement, M, to obtain the discontinuity dimension (see
Figure G1 5).
G4 PROCEDURES FOR SIZING USING THE LAST SIGNIFICANT ECHO

TECHNIQUE
G4.1 Method for longitudinal wave probes
The procedure shall be as follows:

(a) Move the probe over the discontinuity until the last significant echo is obtained (see
Figure G1 ).
(b) Continue to move the probe towards the edge of the discontinuity area until the echo
just starts to decrease in amplitude.
(c) Mark the position of the centre-line of the probe. (This will be the edge of the
discontinuity area for evaluation purposes.)
(d) Move the probe backwards to the opposite end of the discontinuity and repeat
Steps (a), (b) and (c).
(e) Repeat Steps (a) to (d) at right angles to the original direction chosen.
G4.2 Methods for transverse wave probes
G4.2.1 Vertical dimension
The procedure for sizing the vertical dimension of a discontinuity shall be as follows:
(a) Move the probe over the discontinuity until the last significant echo is obtained (see
Figure G7).
NOTE: The point of maximum response from the discontinuity is illustrated in Figure G6.
The last significant echo is the point just before the signal falls off rapidly. The gain control
may need adjustment to establish this point.
(b) Mark the probe position and record the beam path length of the echo.

53 AS 2574—2000
(c) Move the probe backwards to the opposite end of the discontinuity, and repeat
Steps (a) and (b).
(d) Plot on paper the probe position and the central beam at each position. Measure the
beam path distances at each position.
The resultant plots indicate the dimension and orientation of the discontinuity.
(e) To obtain greater accuracy, repeat Steps (a) to (d) with the probe placed on a
minimum of two other surfaces.
NOTE: The last significant echo sizing technique should be used instead of the 20 dB drop
method when probe movement is restricted, or when it has been shown that its results are
more accurate for discontinuities of certain configuration.
G4.2.2 Horizontal dimension
The procedure for sizing the horizontal dimension of a discontinuity shall be as follows:
(a) Move the probe parallel to the discontinuity until the point of maximum intensity of
the last significant echo is obtained.
(b) The centre-line of the probe indicates the position of the end of the discontinuity.
(c) Repeat Steps (a) and (b) to determine the position at the opposite end of the
discontinuity.
FIGURE G1 PROBE POSITION SHOWING FIGURE G2 ECHO ADJUSTED TO

POINT OF LAST SIGNIFICANT MAXIMUM 80%-1 00% FULL SCREEN HEIGHT (x)
RESPONSE AT EDGE OF DISCONTINUITY
(Mark position of probe and note beam path)

FIGURE G3 PROBE POSITION TO FIGURE G4 ECHO 20 dB DOWN FROM
REDUCE ECHO SHOWN IN ECHO SHOWN IN FIGURE G2
FIGURE G2 BY 20 dB

AS 2574—2000 54
FIGURE G5 PROBE MOVEMENT MEASUREMENTS
FIGURE G6 BEAM AT POSITION OF FIGURE G7 SHOWING POINT OF LAST

MAXIMUM RESPONSE FROM SIGNIFICANT MAXIMUM RESPONSE AT
DISCONTINUITY EDGE OF DISCONTINUITY
FIGURE G8 ECHO ADJUSTED TO FIGURE G9 20 dB BOUNDARY

80%-1 00% FULL SCREEN HEIGHT (x) INTERSECTING EXTREMITY OF
DISCONTINUITY

55 AS 2574—2000
FIGURE G1 0 ECHO AT THE PROBE POSITION SHOWN IN FIGURE G9
FIGURE G1 1 ILLUSTRATES METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF VERTICAL

DIMENSION OF DISCONTINUITY
FIGURE G1 2 MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DIMENSION OF DISCONTINUITY

AS 2574—2000 56
FIGURE G1 3 PROBE POSITION TO FIGURE G1 4 ECHO 6 dB DOWN FROM

REDUCE THE ECHO SHOWN IN SIGNAL SHOWN IN FIGURE G2
FIGURE G2 BY 6 dB
FIGURE G1 5 PROBE MOVEMENT FOR SIZING A DISCONTINUITY USING THE 6 dB

DROP PROCEDURE

57 AS 2574—2000
APPENDIX H
THE USE OF REFLECTIVITY DIAGRAMS
(Informative)
H1 GENERAL
A reflectivity diagram shows the relationship between the gain and the beam path length
(distance) for a back echo and reflectors of various sizes. The diagram may be used for
determining the following:
(a) The change in gain for a particular echo (e. g. a reference echo) corresponding to a
change in beam path length.
(b) The diameter of a disc-shaped reflector of similar reflectivity to an observed echo.
(c) Losses due to attenuation by comparing the theoretical gain of a reference echo at a
particular beam path length with the actual gain.
H2 PREPARATION OF A CHARACTERISTIC REFLECTIVITY DIAGRAM

Figure H1 shows a generalized reflectivity diagram. Reflectivity diagrams characteristic of
a particular probe or probe type may be prepared by replotting the ordinate as distance,
given a knowledge of the length of the near zone for the probe. Values of the length of a
near zone may be obtained from published information, from the manufacturer, by
calculation when the effective diameter of the crystal and the wavelength in the propagating
medium are known, or approximated by measurement.
In the case of the measurement approximation for length of a near zone, it may be seen
from Figure H1 that the projection of the back-echo line intersects the zero amplification
line at √ 3 times the length of the near zone. For a probe under investigation, plot, on
arith/log graph paper, values of gain for back echoes obtained from reference blocks,
including at least one value obtained at a distance shorter than the expected length of the
near zone and several at distances considerably greater. By construction of the appropriate
back echo boundary the distance corresponding to the intersection point may be determined
and the approximate length of the near zone calculated.
H3 APPLICATION OF REFLECTIVITY DIAGRAM

In this Standard, Figure H1 may be used to assist in the preparation of the reflectivity
comparison diagram. In the preparation of a reflectivity comparison diagram for a probe,
the reference echo specified is measured and plotted for a known distance on a reflectivity
diagram which is characteristic of that probe, using an appropriate reference block or
calibration block.
This plot establishes a value for the relative equivalent reflector diameter, S. For other
distances the corresponding change in amplification may be read and plotted.

AS 2574—2000 58
FIGURE H1 GENERALIZED REFLECTIVITY DIAGRAM

59 AS 2574—2000
APPENDIX I
EXAMPLES OF THE APPLICATION OF EVALUATION SENSITIVITY LEVELS
TO CASTING ZONES
(Informative)
I1 HIGH STRESS (POINT CONTACT LOADING)

Two examples of steel castings which contain Zone 1 areas that will be subject to high
stress point contact loading when in the finished form are shown in Figure I1 .
FIGURE I1 OUTER ZONES SUBJECT TO HIGH STRESS

AS 2574—2000 60
I2 INTERMEDIATE STRESS (DISTRIBUTED VOLUME LOADING)

An example of a steel casting designed for towing/lifting equipment and mining/crushing
equipment and which contains three zones that will be subj ect to intermediate stresses is
shown in Figure I2.
FIGURE I2 ZONES SUBJECT TO INTERMEDIATE STRESSES
I3 LOW STRESS (COMPRESSION/SELF SUPPORT LOADING)

An example of a steel casting designed to be used as support blocks and counterweights and
which contains three zones that will be subj ect to low stresses is shown in Figure I3.
FIGURE I3 ZONES SUBJECT TO LOW STRESSES

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AS 2574—2000

The following interests are represented on Committee MT/7:

Keeping Standards up-to-date

This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 98197.

Non-destructive testing— Ultrasonic

Originated as AS 2574—1 982.

SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS

A cavity formed by the entrapment of air during pouring and solidification.

A stress-induced fracture of metal occurring during or after solidification.

The projected image of an internal discontinuity, as outlined by the ultrasonic sizing

A discontinuity such as a gas pore, a refractory inclusion or another type of non-metallic

A form of shrinkage characterized by extensive branching and interconnected cavities.

A fracture, frequently discontinuous and ragged, formed by restraint of metal during

Exogenous material entrapped in the casting during solidification.

A very fine form of filamentary shrinkage.

A volumetric type discontinuity having three dimensions.

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1 .3.1 3 Planar discontinuity

A discontinuity having length and width but not thickness.

Sand entrapped during solidification.

A cavity or cavities formed during solidification as a result of inadequate feeding.

A piece of slag entrapped during solidification.

1.4 QUALIFICATIO N OF PERSONNEL

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SECTION 2 EQUIPMENT AND CALIBRATION

A-scan presentation shall be used.

2.3 ASSESSMENT OF HORIZONT AL AND VERTICAL LINEARITY

2.4 GAIN CONTROL

2.5 FREQUENCY RANGE

2.6.1 Compression wave (normal) probes

Compression wave probes having a 1 0 mm to 25 mm major dimension and a frequency

Shear wave probes having an 8 mm to 25 mm major dimension and a frequency range of

2.7 OVERALL SYSTEM GAIN

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2.10 CALIBRATION BLOCKS

2.11 REFERENCE BLOCKS

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SECTION 3 METHOD OF TEST

Because it is difficult to completely specify scanning patterns or procedures, it is important

3.2 PREPARATION O F TEST SURFACES

3.2.1 General requirements

3.3 PREPARATION FOR TESTING

3.3.1 Time base calibration

3.3.3 Distance amplitude curves

3.4 DETERMINATIO N OF ATTENUATION AND SUITABILITY FOR ULTRA-

A casting can show different attenuation characteristics in different zones. Therefore, it is

Probes shall comply with the requirements of Clause 2.6.

SIZE AND FREQ UENCY O F CO MPRESSION WAVE PROBES

SIZE AND FREQ UENCY O F SHEAR WAVE PROBES

Examined Maximum probe si ze Frequency

The acceptance criteria are specified in Section 5 of this Standard.

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SECTION 4 IDENTIFICATION AND SIZING

4.2 ULTRASONIC RES PONSE TO DISCONTINUITIES—CHARACTERISTIC

4.2.1 Discrete discontinuities

Ultrasonic responses from discrete discontinuities are characterized by a strong signal

4.3 SIZING O F DISCONTINUITIES

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FIGURE 4.1 EXAMPLE OF A DGS OVERLAY

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SECTION 5 APPLICATION ZONES AND

5.2 ZONES OF CASTING