Clinical Management Guidelines for Coronary 
Artery Disease for National Programme for 
Prevention and Control of Diabetes, Cardiovascular 
Disease and Stroke 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Partners 

Department of Cardiology and Community Medicine, 

Post‐Graduate Institute of Medical education and Research, 

    Chandigarh, India 

 
 
Developed under the Government of India – WHO 

Collaborative Programme 2008‐2009 
  2

INVESTIGATORS

Prof. K. K. Talwar Director and Head Department of Cardiology, Post Graduate Institute of
Medical Education & Research & Principal Investigator,

Dr. Yash Paul Sharma Additional Professor, Department of Cardiology

Dr. J. S. Thakur Associate Professor, Department of Community Medicine

Dr. Rajiv Mahajan Assistant. Professor, Department of Cardiology

Dr. Shiv Bagga Assistant. Professor, Department of Cardiology

PROJECT STAFF

Dr. Roshan Kurmi Senior Research officer, WHO-CVD Guidelines Project

Mr. Kuldeep Singh Data-entry Operator, WHO-CVD Guidelines Project

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Abbreviations

ACS Acute coronary syndrome

ACEI Angiostensin converting enzyme inhibitor
AIVR Accelerated idioventricular rhythm
AMI Acute myocardial infarction
CABG Coronary artery bypass graft
CAD Coronary artery disease
CHF Congestive heart failure
CSA Chronic stable angina
CHC Community health centre
CVD Cardiovascular disease
IABP Intra aortic balloon pump
ICD Implantable cardioverter defibrillator
LAD Left anterior descending
LCX Left circumflex
LMWH Low molecular weight heparin
LVEF Left ventricular ejection fraction
LVOTO Left ventricular outflow tract obstruction
MI Myocardial infarction
NPJT Nonparoxysmal junctional tachycardia
NSTEACS Non ST elevation Acute coronary syndrome
NSTEMI Non ST elevation myocardial infarction
PCI Percutaneous coronary intervention
PHC Primary health centre
PSVT Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia
RCA Right coronary artery
STEMI ST elevation Myocardial infarction
VAD Ventricular assist device
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CONTENTS

S.No. Topic Page No

1 Introduction 6
2 Purpose of these guidelines 6
3 Health Care System 7
4 Recommendation for Levels of Care 8
5 Definitions and Spectrum Of Coronary artery Disease 9
6 Risk factors for Coronary artery Disease 11
7 Pathogenesis and pathophysiology 12
8 Likelihood of Coronary artery Disease 14
9 Clinical manifestations 15
10 Electrocardiogram In Coronary artery Disease 18
11 Laboratory studies and cardiac biomarkers 20
12 Algorithm for the evaluation & management of chest pain 22
13 Chronic stable angina 22
14 Management of ACS: standard of care 25
15 Management Of Post MI complications 30
16 Pre-discharge checklist & long-term ACS management 32
17 Health Care System Based Management 33
18 Summary of recommendations for ACS at different levels of health care 39
19 Treatment guidelines at health sub-centre 40
20 Treatment guidelines at Primary health Centre 40
21 Treatment guidelines at Community Health Centre & Sub-divisional Hospitals 40
22 Treatment guidelines at District level Hospital 41
23 Medication dosing & administration 43
24 References and suggested readings 45
25 Experts Participated and contributed 48
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Executive Summary

India is currently experiencing an epidemic of Coronary artery disease (CAD). Statistics show
that 20-25% of all medical admissions19 and 25% of all mortality is due to CAD. After extreme
poverty and infectious diseases, control of heart attack can be the most rewarding for Indians in
the 21st century for saving productive life years. The unhealthy life style practices viz.,
unbalanced dietary pattern, lack of physical activity, tobacco consumption, ill effects of
urbanization, psychosocial stress, all contribute to a greater risk of developing CAD in Indians.
The increasing rates of CAD mortality and the projected rise in CAD mortality for 2020 in the
developing world necessitate immediate prevention and control measures.
Experience in the developed world has shown that significant reductions in CAD prevalence and
mortality can be achieved via primary and secondary preventive efforts as well as timely
intervention and medical therapy. Despite this alarming burden of CVD, there are no definite
guidelines at the national level to combat this serious problem. As thus, the need for clinical
management guidelines was considered.
The clinical management guidelines for CAD for National Programme for Diabetes, CVDs and
Stroke (NPDCS) has been designed as per the requirement of Indian Public Health Standard
(IPHS) and National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) to make the assessment and management of
coronary artery disease feasible, community oriented and evidence based as well as to prevent the
risk of CAD in more easy and scientific way. This management guideline focuses the need of
preventive measures, timely screening of high risk population, and immediate assessment,
intervention as well as continued medical therapy once CAD is established.
The recommendations are based upon health service infrastructure data, local evidence based
studies as well as major international guidelines. Available situation analysis was carried out to
know the complete infrastructure of Indian health care delivery system. The recommendations
were subsequently compiled and reviewed by the participants and experts investigators, senior
cardiologist, and epidemiologist in multiple sessions. These guidelines are described as two broad
categories: chronic stable angina and acute coronary syndrome. Recommendations for different
levels of health care delivery systems in India, in a step-wise pattern are the principal objective of
these guidelines. It is hoped that the recommendations will help the medical officers and
physicians to effectively manage coronary artery diseases.
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1. INTODUCTION

Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) is the leading cause of death globally where India has the
highest burden. It causes 3 million deaths/ year, accounting for 25% of all mortality in India.
Hospitals statistics reveal that 20-25 % of all medical admissions are due to Coronary artery
disease19. According to the National Commission on Macroeconomics and Health (NCMH), there
would be around 62 million patients with CAD by 2015 in India, and of these, 23 million would
be patients younger than 40 years of age. By 2020, 60% of the world’s heart disease is expected
to occur in India.
The risk of CAD in Indians is 3-4 times higher than white Americans, 6 times higher than
Chinese and 20 times higher than Japanese23. CAD is affecting Indians 5-10 years earlier than
other communities; in some studies from South India, the percentage of patients below 45 years
suffering from AMI is reported to be as high as 25-40%.
Asian-Indians have a 40% higher mortality rate from CAD than their white counterparts22.
Despite a recent decline in the developed countries, both CAD mortality and the prevalence of
CAD risk factors continue to rise rapidly in the developing countries. Clearly, there is a need for
concerned efforts directed at prevention and effective treatment of this epidemic.

2. PURPOSE OF THESE GUIDELINES

India has highest burden of acute coronary syndromes in the world, yet little is known about the
treatments and outcomes of this disease. The most striking feature of management of patients
with cardiovascular disease in India, is its heterogenicity: from patients treated at tertiary and
teaching hospitals, who receive the best possible evidence-based care, to patients who have poor
or, even no, access to specialist care and whose condition, therefore, is poorly treated
Till date there are no standard guidelines in the national level to combat this serious problem.
Though there are hundreds of guidelines in the world, none has focused the Indian health
situation and are thus poorly applicable. Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Government of
India has launched National Programme for Diabetes, CVDs and Stroke (NPDCS) in January
2008 on pilot basis in the country to formulate a standard management guideline for the same.
These guidelines are intended to assist both cardiovascular specialist and non specialists in the
proper evaluation, management and prompt referral of patients with an acute onset of symptoms
suggestive of these conditions, based on the level of health care delivery system in India.
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Application of these principles with carefully reasoned clinical judgment will definitely reduce
the high mortality from this syndrome in the national level as well as reduce the cardiac damage
caused by ACS

3. HEALTH CARE SYSTEM – THE STRUCTURE AND CURRENT SCENARIO

               

         Centres   Population norms             Health care staff     Services(cardiac) 

    Male health worker,female health               
worker,voluntary HW 
     SUB‐CENTRE       5000 (3000)*                   ‐ 

    Medical officer, Pharmacist, Staff  Limited Blood tests, 
nurse, Female Health  Oxygen trolley, ECG 
    PHC (4‐6 beds)    30,000 (20,000)*  Worker,Health Educator,Health 
Assistant (M&F) 

     Physician,surgeon,obstetrician,pe ECG,Defibrillator,Ultr
diatrician,anaesthetist,staffnurses sound,Blood 
    ,dresser,pharmacist/compounder, tests,essential drugs 
   CHC (30 bedded)   1,20,000 (80,000)* opthalmic  assistant,laboratory 
technician,radiographer,ward 
boys 

    Specialists  ECG,Defibrillator,Ultr
(med,surg,obs,paed,anaesthsia,op sound,Blood tests, 
    Sub‐divisional     5‐6 lakh people  thalmology,com. Health,skin &  drugs 
    (30‐100 beds)  VD,dental care) 

    Specialists (including  ECG,TMT,Holter,Ech
cardiologists)  o,Thrombolytic 
  District Hospitals        > 6 lakhs  therapy,ICU facilities 
(101‐500beds)  (No cath lab) 

    Medical & Surgical Specialists  ICU facilities, Cath 
lab may or may not 
  Medical Colleges  For more coverage 
  8

& Tertiary Centres  in each state  be available 

* population covered in hilly/tribal areas 

4. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LEVELS OF CARE

The facilities available at different levels of health services are heterogeneous at different states

of the country. Moreover there is scope for further upgrade of the present setup. The working

group has suggested tiered system of health care delivery for the management of patients with

CAD. Therefore, we will describe the recommendations for four levels of health facilities.

Definitions of Levels

Level 1 has a physician trained to interpret ECG. ECG facility is available however a defibrillator

is not available.

Level 2 has a medical specialist trained in thrombolysis if required. ECG and defibrillation

facilities are available.

Level 3 has trained medical specialist/ Cardiologist. A CCU/ ward with ECG monitors is

available. A TMT and echocardiography machine is also available. A catheterization lab is not

available.

Level 4 centres are referral centres with ICU facilities and provide state of the art in management

of CAD. A cardiac catheterization lab may or may not be available.

In the present scenario most of the PHCs correspond to level 1, CHCs & sub-divisional

hospitals to Level 2 , district hospitals to level 3 and medical colleges ( with facilities for

percutaneous coronary interventions) & tertiary centres to level 4.

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Sub-centres should concentrate on primary prevention. Level 1 can follow up diagnosed patients
of coronary artery disease. Level 2 has a cardiac defibrillator .Management of acute coronary
syndrome and thrombolysis should be done from this level onwards. Special Investigation for risk
stratification and management of CAD like TMT and Echocardiogram can be done at level 3.
Specialized care & evaluation will be provided at level 4 (Medical colleges/Tertiary centres).

Angiography and angioplasty can be done at those centres where cardiac catheterization lab

facility is available.

5. DEFINITIONS AND SPECTRUM OF CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE

Definitions

Coronary artery disease is a condition in which there is an inadequate supply of blood and oxygen
to a portion of the myocardium. It typically occurs when there is an imbalance between
myocardial oxygen supply and demand. The most common cause of myocardial ischemia is
atherosclerotic disease of an epicardial coronary artery or arteries (fig.1) sufficient to cause a
regional reduction in myocardial blood flow and inadequate perfusion of the myocardium
supplied by the involved coronary artery

Fig.1: Relation of epicardial coronary arteries and the heart 
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• Coronary Artery disease (CAD) : Fifty percent or more stenosis of epicardial coronary
arteries.

• Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS): A spectrum of clinical conditions from unstable

angina to ST-elevation MI consequent to myocardial ischemia. Clinically, acute chest
pain, typical in character, lasting more than 15 minutes. ‘Typical’ defined as retrosternal
discomfort (heaviness), brought about or increased with exertion and reduced with rest or
nitrates. ECG and quantitative/ qualitative measurement of cardiac biomarkers viz
Troponins T/I or CPKMB helps to decide about the type of ACS.

• Unstable Angina (UA): A clinical syndrome subset of ACS defined by ECG ST-segment
depression or prominent T wave inversion and no elevation of cardiac biomarkers of
necrosis (Troponins T/I or CPKMB).

• NSTEMI: A clinical syndrome subset of ACS defined by ECG ST-segment depression

or prominent T wave inversion and/or positive biomarkers of necrosis in the absence of
ST-segment elevation.

• STEMI: A clinical syndrome subset of ACS characterized by ST-segment elevation or

new onset LBBB due to myocardial necrosis.

• Chronic Stable Angina: Chronic manifestation of CAD described as retrosternal

discomfort (heaviness), brought about or increased with exertion and reduced with rest or
nitrates lasting less than 10 minutes.

Spectrum Of coronary artery disease

Coronary artery disease is a dynamic process that involves cyclical transition between partial
vessel occlusion to complete vessel occlusion or reperfusion. The clinical spectrums of CAD are
shown in the diagram below (fig.2).
  11

 
Fig.2: Flowchart showing the spectrum of CAD

Definition of myocardial infarction3,17,29

The defining criteria of myocardial infarction are a subject with ongoing changes as a result of
scientific advances. In studies of disease prevalence by the World Health Organization (WHO),
MI was defined by a combination of two of three characteristics: typical symptoms (i.e., chest
discomfort), enzyme rise and a typical ECG pattern. This definition seems to be suitable in
context to applicability.

6. RISK FACTORS FOR CAD

Epicardial coronary arteries are the major site of atherosclerosis. The major risk factors for
atherosclerosis disturb the normal function of vascular endothelium. Subjects with > 2 of the risk
factors are at high risk for developing CAD. The commonly recognized risk factors of CAD are
as follows:

• Modifiable
– Smoking or tobacco use in any form
– Dyslipidemia
– Hypertension
– Diabetes Mellitus or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT)30
– Obesity Lack of regular physical activity

• Non-modifiable
– Family history of CAD
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– Age (male ≥ 35 years and female ≥ 45 years)30

– Genetic factor
CAD risk in Indians

The Risk of coronary artery disease in Indians is 3 to 4 times higher than white Americans, 6
times higher than Chinese and 20 times higher than Japanese23. CAD in Indian occurs 5-10 years
earlier than other communities. Indians also have higher prevalence of Type 2 DM and IGT,
abdominal obesity and dyslipidemia (high triglycerides and low HDL). Increased Apo-B and
Apo-A1 levels have been recently identified as significant risk factors12 but available data are
limited.

7. PATHOGENESIS AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Partial or complete epicardial coronary artery occlusion from plaques vulnerable to rupture or
erosion is the commonest cause of myocardial infarction, accounting for around 70% of fatal
events. This thrombotic process diminishes microcirculatory perfusion by reduced coronary
artery flow through epicardial stenoses, as well as by distal embolisation of thrombus (fig.3).
  13

Blocked lumen of LAD causing anterior infarct

  Fig.3: Myocardial infarct consequent to diminished microcirculatory perfusion  

This pathophysiology provides the rationale for fibrinolytic and antithrombotic therapies, whereas
residual epicardial stenoses are targets for percutaneous and surgical revascularisation
approaches.

Vulnerable plaques likely to rupture or erode have evidence of inflammation with monocytes,
macrophages, and sometimes T-cell infiltrates, together with thin fibrous caps and large lipid
cores. This process involves the entire coronary vasculature, and the true culprit lesion can be
difficult to define. Platelet hyper-reactivity and pro-coagulant states also contribute to this
thrombotic disease and give rise to the idea of so-called vulnerable blood.

Additionally, coronary spasm, emboli, or dissection of the coronary artery are causes of infarction
in the absence of occlusive atherosclerosis, and are reported in 5–10% of patients with STEMI
and 10–15% of patients with NSTEMI. In up to half of cases, precipitating factors such as
vigorous physical exercise, emotional stress, medical or surgical illness, are implicated in STEMI.
Alcoholic binge & use of recreational drugs has been implicated as precipitating factors
particularly in young MI ( < 40 years) .
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Coronary artery occlusion is a dynamic process from deposition of atherosclerotic plaque and
partial occlusion to complete artery occlusion (fig 4). 8.

Deposition of plaque in coronary arteries Atherosclerosis

Partial occlusion of coronary arteries Stable angina

Rupture of Plaque

Thrombus formation Unstable angina

ACS
Sub occlusive intracoronary clot

Complete occlusion Myocardial infarction

Figure 4. Pathogenic spectrum of coronary artery disease

8. LIKELIHOOD FOR CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE

Likelihood of ACS:

The signs, symptoms, ECG features and cardiac biomarkers which represent ACS secondary to
obstructive CAD are mentioned in the table below: (Table 1)

Table1. Likelihood that signs and symptoms represent an ACS secondary to CAD

Features High risk ACS Low risk (no high/

(any of below) intermediate, any of
below)
History Typical angina, history of Atypical symptoms
CAD, age>70 years, male,
diabetes
Exam Extracardiac vascular disease Pain reproduced on
(PAD or Cerebrovascular) palpation
Hypotension, transient mitral
regurgitation murmur, S3 , S4
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ECG Old Q waves , New transient T wave flattening or

ST depression (≥1.0 mm), T inversion < 1 mm with
wave inversion in multiple dominant R wave or
precordial leads Normal ECG
Biomarkers Positive Troponins or CK-MB Normal

9. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS

Fig.5: Figures showing the usual and unusual site of pain of angina 

Chest pain (angina) is the commonest symptom

• Typical angina: Substernal pressure radiating to neck, jaw, arm (Fig. 5) with duration
<20-30 minutes which may be associated with dyspnea, diaphoresis, palpitations, nausea-
vomiting, or lightheadedness; increases with exertion, decreases with rest or NTG. (Note:
Rest angina is angina occurring at rest and prolonged, usually greater than 20 minutes;
new-onset angina is new onset angina of at least class III severity (Table 2); increasing
angina means more frequent, with longer duration or increase by ≥1 class to at least class
III severity.
 

   Table2. Grading of angina pectoris according to CCS (Canadian Cardiovascular Society)   

   classification: 
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   This classification helps in risk stratification of chronic stable angina  and deciding the line of  

    management  

Class                 Symptoms 

Class I  • No angina with ordinary physical activity (e.g., walking, climbing stairs) 
• Angina with strenuous or prolonged exertion 
 

Class II  • Early‐onset limitation of ordinary activity (e.g., walking rapidly or walking >2 
blocks; climbing stairs rapidly or climbing >1 flight) 
  • angina may  be worse after meals, in cold temperatures, or with emotional 
stress 
Class III  • Marked  limitation  of  ordinary  activity  e.g.  walking  1‐2  blocks  on  the  level 
and climbing 1 flight of stairs under normal condition  and at a normal pace 
 

Class IV  • Inability to carry out any physical activity without chest discomfort 
• Angina occurs during rest 
 

• MI: Has increased angina intensity and duration >30 min. Twenty five percent of MIs
are clinically silent. Proportion of painless STEMIs is greater in patients with diabetes
mellitus and increases with age.
Killip Classification:

The Killip classification, published in 1967, categorizes patients with an acute MI based upon the
presence or absence of simple physical examination findings that suggest LV dysfunction. The
higher the Killip class on presentation, the greater the subsequent mortality.

Class Exam findings

I No signs of heart failure
II S3, elevated JVP, rales less than half of posterior lung fields
III Overt pulmonary edema
IV Cardiogenic shock

Angina equivalents: Older patients, diabetics, patients with chronic renal failure and female
patients are more likely to present with dyspnea as their primary symptom. Some patients may
have no chest discomfort but present solely with jaw, neck, ear, arm, shoulder, back, or epigastric
discomfort or with unexplained dyspnea without discomfort. If these symptoms have a clear
relationship to exertion or stress or are relieved promptly with NTG, they should be considered
equivalent to angina.

Associated symptoms: Weakness, nausea/vomiting, sweating, apprehension, anxiety, sense of

impending doom.
  17

Other presentations, with or without pain

• Sudden-onset breathlessness, loss of consciousness confusional state or sensation of
profound weakness
• Rhythm abnormalities or unexplained decrease in arterial pressure
• Evidence of peripheral embolism
Features not characteristics of myocardial ischemia:
• Sharp pain brought by respiratory movement or cough,
• Pain that may be localized by the tip of one finger, particularly over the left ventricular
apex or a costochondral junction.
• Very brief episode of pain that lasts a few seconds
• Pain reproduced by movement or palpation over the chest
• Constant pain that lasts for many hours without other ischemic symptoms

Physical examination
• Focused clinical examinations for evidence of heart failure, peripheral hypo-perfusion
(pallor, diaphoresis, cool extremities), heart murmur, elevated JVP, pulmonary edema
should be noted quickly without delaying treatment.

• The presence of severe underlying coronary disease is suggested in patients with clinical
evidence of LV dysfunction, congestive heart failure

• Pulse rate and blood pressure: Arterial pressure is variable. In most transmural
infarctions, systolic pressure decreases by approximately 10–15 mmHg from the
preinfarction state.

– Many patients have normal pulse rate and blood pressure within the first hour of
STEMI.
– Patients with large infarctions have hypotension (systolic blood pressure <100 mmHg
and/or sinus tachycardia >100/min)
– Anterior infarction: About one-fourth of patients have manifestations of sympathetic
nervous system hyperactivity (tachycardia and/or hypertension).
– Inferior infarction: Up to half of patients show evidence of parasympathetic
hyperactivity (bradycardia and/or hypotension).
• In right ventricular (RV) infarction, Jugular venous distention is common.

• Look for signs of ventricular dysfunction

– Third and fourth heart sounds
  18

• Transient mid-systolic or late systolic apical systolic murmur due to dysfunction of the
mitral valve apparatus may be present. New, loud (≥Gr 3/6) precordial systolic murmur
may be present in ruptured ventricular septum and mitral regurgitation

• Pericardial friction rub in pericarditis (usually develops 24-96 hours after MI)

10. ELECTROCARDIOGRAM IN CAD

• A 12 lead resting ECG (± RV3, RV4 for right ventricular MI) should be obtained
immediately in patients with ongoing chest pain as rapidly as possible with in 10 minutes
of presentation

• A normal ECG does not exclude the presence of severe CAD, and should be repeated if
strong suspicion in every 4-6 hrs or earlier

• ECG abnormality includes:

– Resting ST segment changes ( depression ≥ 0.5 mm horizontal or downsloping in

NSTEACS, convex elevation > 1mm in ≥2 consecutive leads in STEMI, pseudo
normalization of ST segment or dynamic changes)

– New pathological Q-waves (>0.4 seconds) is considered diagnostic of MI, but may occur
with prolonged ischemia

– T wave-inversion(≥ 2 mm symmetrical) or a peaked upright T waves may be the first

ECG manifestations of Myocardial Ischemia

– Recent onset LBBB

– RVMI is diagnosed with ST segment elevation in lead V4R, ST elevation in V1 in the

presence of ST elevation in inferior leads

– Non-specific ST and T changes: ST depression <0.5 mm, T wave inversion <2mm,

isoelectric T wave or asymmetric T inversion is less suggestive of myocardial ischemia.

• The range of normal ST-segment deviation differs between men and women. ST-
elevation (concave upwards) in the V2 or V3 leads of 2·0 mV or less in men and 1·5 mV
or less in women, or 1·0 mV or less in other leads, is normal
• ECG changes that mimic MI may result from pre-excitation, pericarditis, myocarditis,
cardiomyopathy, COPD, pulmonary embolism, cholecystitis, and hyperkalemia; thus the
treating physician should be aware.
• Figure 6 shows the evolution of ST changes In MI.
  19

Figure 6. Evolution of ECG changes in Myocardial infarction

The Coronary Circulation:

Fig 7: The coronary circulation representing specific arterial territory of the heart  

ECG Localization of MI (Table 3): ECG may be helpful to clinically localize the arterial
territory (Fig.7) in Acute Myocardial infarction (AMI)

Table 3: ECG localization of AMI28

Anatomic area ECG leads with ST elevation Coronary artery

Anterior V1-V4 LAD
Inferior II, III, aVF RCA (85%), LCx (15%)
RV V1-V2 and V4R RCA
  20

Posterior ST depression V1-V2 RCA or LCx

11. LABORATORY STUDIES

• Blood samples should be sent for cardiac enzymes (biomarkers Troponin I or T and CK-
MB)-for diagnosis of ACS; Hemogram, blood urea, creatinine, electrolytes, FBS -for
monitoring and Fasting lipid profile- for secondary prevention. Cardiac specific troponin
is the preferred biomarker (Table 4 and Fig 8) for diagnosis of STEMI. Troponin I is not
altered in renal failure.

• A portable chest radiograph is useful to exclude other causes of acute chest pain but it
should not delay the initiation of therapy

• Imaging:

ƒ 2D echocardiography: Abnormalities of wall motion are almost universally

present in STEMI. Estimation of left ventricular (LV) function is useful
prognostically. It may identify the presence of right ventricular (RV)
infarction, ventricular aneurysm, pericardial effusion, and LV thrombus.

ƒ Doppler echocardiography: Useful in detection and quantitation of a

ventricular septal defect and mitral regurgitation.

Table 4: Time course of serum markers in acute MI

Test Onset Peak Duration

Creatine kinase - total and MB 3-12 hours 18-24 hours 36-48 hours
Troponins 3-12 hours 18-24 hours Upto 10 days
  21

Figure 8: Timing of cardiac biomarkers in acute myocardial infarction 
  22

12. ALGORITHM FOR EVALUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS WITH

CHEST PAIN

Because symptoms are similar, the differentiation of CSA, UA/NSTEMI and STEMI from that of
a non coronary chest pain requires medical evaluation and judgment. The following algorithm is
helpful (figure 9)

* History, ECG, stress tests 

Figure 9. Algorithm for Evaluation and Management of Patients with Chest Discomfort .

13. CHRONIC STABLE ANGINA: (approach)

A. History: Clinical Classification of Chest Pain

• Typical angina (definite if all 3 present)

1. Retrosternal chest discomfort with a characteristic quality and duration that is
2. Provoked by exertion or emotional stress and
3. Relieved by rest or nitroglycerin
• Atypical angina (probable)
  23

Meets 2 of the above characteristics

• Non-cardiac chest pain
Meets ≤1 of the typical angina characteristics

B. Initial Laboratory Tests, ECG, and Chest X-Ray for diagnosis:

1. Hemoglobin.
2. Fasting glucose.
3. Fasting lipid profile, including total cholesterol, HDL, triglycerides, and calculated LDL
cholesterol.
4. Rest electrocardiogram (ECG) in patients without an obvious non-cardiac cause of chest pain.
5. Rest ECG during an episode of chest pain.
6. Chest X-ray in patients with signs or symptoms of congestive heart failure, valvular heart
disease, pericardial disease, or aortic dissection/aneurysm.

C. Stress testing ( Tread Mill Test or stress thallium ) and coronary angiography for risk
stratification as indicated.

D. Management: This includes pharmacotherapy, risk factor reduction and revascularization (if
required). The pneumonic ABCD for Aspirin and antianginals (nirates, ACE-inhibitors), B-
blockers, Calcium channel blockers & Diet holds good approach for the treatment of CSA
patients. (See below)

E. Follow up

Treatment Guidelines for patients with Chronic Stable Angina (see management
algorithm in figure 10)

• Identify precipitating factors such as anemia, hyperthyroidism, valvular heart disease (e.g.,
aortic stenosis), tachyarrhythmia, and hypertension.
• Start sublingual nitroglycerin (for sos purpose), oral nitrates, ß-blockers, aspirin, statins and
consider ACE inhibitors.
• Start risk factor modification such as statins medication to the ATP III goal of cholesterol <200
mg and LDL cholesterol <100, life style modification inclusing healthy diet, regular exercise &
weight reduction.
• Optimize beta blocker dose with check on pulse rate and blood pressure..
• Count the use of sublingual nitroglycerin to monitor the success of treatment.
• Use of nitroglycerin patch at bedtime for nocturnal angina.
• Consider coronary angiography if angina pectoris symptoms are refractory or if the exercise
electrocardiogram is abnormal, especially with poor work capacity
  24

Algorithm for management of CSA

Figure10. Management Algorithm of chronic stable angina

  25

14. MANAGEMENT OF ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROMES: standard of care (Figure

11)

Chest pain suggestive of ACS

Immediate assessment within 10 Minutes

Initial tests Emergent care Assessment

– 12 lead ECG • IV access o Read ECG
– Blood sample for: • Cardiac o Establish
CPK-MB,
Cardiac enzymes, monitoring diagnosis
electrolytes, CBC, • Oxygen o Identify
lipids, RFT, glucose, • Aspirin and/or complications
--Coagulation
CXR (PT, clopidogrel o Assess for
PTI, INR) • Nitrates reperfusion  / optimum treatment
– CXR

Figure11. Management ACS in emergency department

STEMI cardiac care:

Assessment/ planning the therapy
– Time since onset of symptoms
– Is this high risk STEMI?
ƒ KILLIP class (≥3)
ƒ If higher risk: manage with more invasive treatment
– Determine if fibrinolysis candidate
ƒ Who meets criteria with no contraindications
– Determine if PCI candidate
ƒ Based on availability and time to balloon treatment

Determine preferred reperfusion strategy

Fibrinolysis is the preferred strategy at Levels 2 & 3 irrespective of time since onset of symptoms

For Level 4:

Fibrinolysis is preferred if:

– Time <3 hours from onset
  26

– PCI not available/delayed

ƒ door to balloon > 90min
ƒ door to balloon minus door to needle > 1hr

PCI preferred if:

– PCI available
– Door to balloon < 90min
– Fibrinolysis contraindications
– Late Presentation > 3 hr
– High risk STEMI
– Killip 3 or higher

Fibrinolysis indications

• ST segment elevation >1mm in two contiguous leads

• New LBBB
• Symptoms consistent with ischemia
• Symptom onset less than 12 hrs prior to presentation

Absolute contraindications for fibrinolysis

• Any prior intracranial hemorrhage

• Known structural cerebral vascular lesion (e.g., arterio-venous malformation)
• Known malignant intracranial neoplasm (primary or metastatic)
• Ischemic stroke within 3 months except acute ischemic stroke within 3 hours
• Suspected aortic dissection
• Active bleeding or bleeding diathesis (excluding menses)
• Significant closed-head or facial trauma within 3 months

Relative contraindications for fibrinolysis

• History of chronic, severe, poorly controlled hypertension

• Severe uncontrolled hypertension on presentation (SBP >180 or DBP >110 mmHg)
• History of prior ischemic stroke greater than 3 months, dementia, or known intracranial
pathology not covered in contraindications
• Traumatic or prolonged (> 10 minutes) CPR or major surgery (< 3 weeks)
• Recent (< 2 to 4 weeks) internal bleeding
• Non-compressible vascular punctures
• For streptokinase / anistreplase: prior exposure (> 5 days ago) or prior allergic reaction to
these agents
• Pregnancy
• Active peptic ulcer
• Current use of anticoagulants: the higher the INR, the higher the risk of bleeding
•
  27

Common Thrombolytic Regimens:

The dosages for the current fibrinolytic agents, co-therapy and contraindications are provided in
Table 5.

Table 5: The current fibrinolytics in acute myocardial infarction

Drug Initial treatment Co-therapy Contraindicatio

ns
Streptokinase 1.5 million units in 100 ml None or iv heparin x Prior STK or
(STK) 5%DA or NS over 30-60 24−48 hours Anistreplase
minutes
Urokinase 2.5 lakhs units iv over 10 iv heparin x 24−48 Non antigenic 
minutes followed by 5 lakhs hours and does not 
units iv over next 60 minutes. cause 
Alternatively given as hypersensitivity, 
intracoronary infusion of 6000 can be used if 
unit/min for 2 hour STK allergy or 
prior STK 
Tenecteplase Single iv bolus iv heparin x 24−48
* 30 mg if <60 kg hours
35 mg if 60 kg to <70 kg
40 mg if 70 kg to <80 kg
45 mg if 80 kg to <90 kg
50 mg if ≥90 kg
* Either of the above can be used depending on availability (STK is cheaper and is the usual
fibrinolytic agent used in our set-up)

Indicators of successful thrombolysis:

Resolution of ST segment elevation by ≥ 50%
Resolution of ischemic discomfort or chest pain or hemodynamic instability
Early peak of biomarkers (12-18 hours) suggests reperfusion

Medical Therapy (To consider as per the available facilities at the setup) :

Hospitalize in the critical care unit with continuous ECG monitoring.

Intravenous line for emergency arrhythmia treatment
The pneumonic for medicines used for ACS can be remembered as [MONA + BAH]

• Morphine (Analgesia, reduces pain & anxiety, decreases sympathetic tone, systemic
vascular resistance and oxygen demand)
• 2–4 mg IV every 5–10 minutes until pain is relieved or side effects develop side
effects. (nausea and vomiting, respiratory depression, hypotension)
  28

• Oxygen (May limit ischemic myocardial damage by increasing oxygen delivery and
reducing ST elevation )
• 2–4 L/min by nasal cannula to maintain oxygen saturation > 90%
• Up to 70% of ACS patient demonstrate hypoxemia.
• Nitroglycerin (Dilates coronary vessels—increase blood flow & reduces systemic
vascular resistance and preload)
• Sublingual: sorbitrate 5-10 mg every 5 minutes, up to 3 doses (If systolic blood
pressure > 100 mmHg)
• Intravenous: Begin at 10 μg/min and titrate upward to a maximum of 100μg/min
with monitoring of blood pressure closely.
• Avoid when there is clinical suspicion of RV infarction.

• Aspirin (Irreversibly inhibits platelet aggregation, stabilizes plaque and arrests thrombus,
reduces mortality in patients with STEMI)
• Administer aspirin immediately, unless the patient is aspirin intolerant.
• Dosage: 150-300 mg chewed at presentation, then 150 mg PO OD
• Be careful with active PUD, hypersensitivity and disorders. If contraindicated,
give clopidogrel instead

• β-Blocker (Reduces myocardial oxygen consumption, limits infarct size, and reduces
mortality. Specially useful in patients with hypertension, tachycardia, or persistent
ischemic pain)
• Oral beta-blocker therapy should be initiated in the first 24 hours (metoprolol,
25-50 mg every 12 hours, titrate dose upto 100 mg every 12 hours based on BP
and HR)
• Contraindications: signs of heart failure , increased risk for cardiogenic shock (
age > 70 years, systolic blood pressure < 120 mm Hg, heart rate > 110 or < 60
bpm), systolic blood pressure <100 mmHg, heart rate <60 beats/min, PR interval
> 0.24 secs or second- or third-degree heart block, active asthma or COPD.
• Reassess for therapy as contraindications resolve
• ACE inhibitors (Reduces systemic vascular, resistance and cardiac afterload, also reduce
aldosterone release with consequent reduction of circulating fluid load and lower cardiac
preload, attenuation of the remodelling process after large infarctions, reduces
reinfarction & sudden cardiac death)
• ACE inhibitors should generally be started within the first 24 hours, ideally after
fibrinolytic therapy has been completed and blood pressure has stabilized.

• ACE inhibitor therapy after STEMI should start with low dose oral administration
and increase steadily to achieve a full dose within 24 to 48 hours. (Captopril 6.25
mg TID, titrate up to 50mg BD, Ramipril 2.5-5mg BD)
• May be discontinued at six weeks in low risk patients (without heart failure,
diabetes or uncontrolled hypertension, and with small infarctions and relatively
preserved left ventricular function). In the higher risk patient,ACE inhibitors can
be justified for up to one year.
• Indefinite treatment: patients with symptomatic heart failure, patients with
diabetes, particularly with nephropathy, and hypertensive patients who have
  29

achieved normotensive control on these agents. Use of ACE inhibitors should

never preclude treatment with beta blockers in postinfarction patients in whom
long term benefit has been well established.

• Heparin
• LMWH (subcutaneous Enoxaparin 1mg/kg BD, Dalteparin 120 unit/kg BD till
hospitalization), easy to administer & no need of monitoring. Should be initiated
with fibrinolytic agents other than streptokinase. Elective use with streptokinase (
after 6 hours of thrombolysis).
Use heparin in combination with aspirin and/or other platelet inhibitor.

Additional medication therapy

• Clopidogrel (Irreversible inhibition of platelet aggregation)

• A 300-mg loading dose ( not to be given to elderly > 75 years especially when
they have been thrombolysed) followed by a 75-mg/d maintenance dosage is
useful for fibrinolysis-enhanced patency
• Clopidogrel 75 mg per day orally should be added to aspirin in patients with
STEMI regardless of whether they undergo reperfusion with fibrinolytic therapy
or do not receive reperfusion therapy. Treatment with clopidogrel can be given
for atleast 1 year. ( Continue clopidogrel maintenance for at least 12 months in
patients who have undergone PCI with drug-eluting stents and at least 1 month in
patients with bare metal stents).
• Continue clopidogrel indefinitely in patients intolerant to aspirin.
Additional standard treatment

• Activity: Bed rest for first 12 hours. In the absence of complications, allow ambulating in
room by second to third day. By day 3, increase ambulation progressively.

• Mild sedation and anxiolysis: Alprazolam (0.25-0.5 mg) sos or at bedtime for sleep if
required.

• Diet : Nothing by mouth or clear liquids for first 4–12 hours followed by soft diet

• Stool softeners.

• Patients with anterior location of the infarction, severe LV dysfunction, CHF, a history of
embolism, 2-dimensional echocardiographic evidence of mural thrombus, or atrial fibrillation
should receive full-dose IV heparin (partial thromboplastin time 1.5–2 times control values)
or Low-molecular-weight heparin (e.g., enoxaparin, 1 mg/kg SC every 12 hours) followed by
3–6 months of warfarin therapy with INR = 2-3 x normal.

• Calcium channel antagonists are not recommended.

• If chest pain or ST elevation persists >90 minutes after fibrinolysis, consider referral for
rescue PCI.
  30

• Later coronary angiography after fibrinolysis generally reserved for patients with recurrent
angina or positive stress test

• Usual duration of hospitalization is 4–5 days.

• Recommended activity on return home from hospital

ƒ First 1–2 weeks: Increase activity indoors and outdoors.
ƒ After 2 weeks: Coordinate level of activity with patient on the basis of exercise
tolerance. May resume normal sexual activity
ƒ Patients after an acute myocardial infarction (MI) without complications such as left
ventricular dysfunction or exercise-induced myocardial ischemia may safely resume
their previous work: for light office work 2 weeks of sickness absence are
recommended, for average manual work 3 weeks, and for strenuous physical work 6
weeks.

Recommended antithrombotic therapy in unstable angina/NSTEMI

Oal antiplatelet therapy

Tab Aspirin, 300 mg (enteric coated) to be chewed stat followed by 150 mg OD

Tab Clopidogrel (alone if Aspirin sensitive or in combination with Aspirin) 300 mg stat
followed by 75 mg OD

Heparins

Inj LMWH (Enoxaparin1 mg/kg SC Q12 h for 48 to 72 h or Dalteparin 120 IU/kg SC

(max 10,000 IU) Q12 h, until PCI or till hospital admission usually 5-7 days)

Recommendations for early invasive strategy in NSTE ACS/ Unstable angina:

Recurrent angina/ischemia at rest or with low level activities despite intensive anti-ischemic
therapy

Homodynamic instability, CHF symptoms, S3 gallop, pulmonary edema, worsening rales, new or
worsening mitral regurgitation, sustained VT or elevated Troponin T or I

High risk findings on non-invasive stress testing or depressed LV systolic function (EF<40%)

PCI within previous 6 months or prior CABG

15. MANAGEMENT OF POST MI COMPLICATIONS

Complications of Myocardial Infarction

In-hospital mortality from AMI is primarily caused by circulatory failure from severe LV
dysfunction or from one of the complications of MI. These complications may be classified as:

A. Mechanical: Ventricular septal defect, papillary muscle rupture, large ventricular

aneurysm, LV pump failure, RV failure, cardiogenic shock
  31

B. Electrical or arrythmic :Bradyarrythmias (sinus bradycardia, sinus node dysfunction, AV

conduction block), Tachyarrythmias (Supraventricular {Atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter,
PSVT}, Ventricular {Idioventricular rhythm, premature ventricular beats, NSVT,
sustained VT})

C. Ischemic: Infarct extension, Post infarct angina, Inhospital reinfarction

D. Embolic (higher with AWMI): Stroke, limb ischemia, renal infarction, intestinal
infarction

E. Pericarditis: Early pericarditis, Late pericarditis (Dressler’s syndrome)

Management

• LV failure - Diuresis (Furosemide as per requirement)

- IV NTG
- Ionotropes if CHF despite diuresis, use Dopamine, Dobutamine.
- For cardiogenic shock: Ionotropes, IABP, revascularization (Refer to higher center
where invasive facilities & surgical therapy available)
• Heart block: Atropine, temporary pacemaker (preferable).

• Hypotension: IVF to optimize preload, dobutamine, pacing as necessary, reperfusion,

mechanical support.

• Mechanical complications (Brackets includes the preferred managements)

– Free wall rupture (Volume resuscitation, ionotropes, pericardiocentesis,

surgery)

– VSD, Papillary muscle rupture (Diuresis, vasodilators, IABP, surgery)

– LV thrombus (Anticoagulation for 3-6 months)

– Ventricular aneurysm, pseudo-aneurism (Surgery if recurrent CHF)

– Pericarditis (High dose aspirin, minimize anticoagulation)

– Dressler’s syndrome (High dose aspirin)

Arrhythmias during acute phase of STEMI:

The electrical instability during acute phase of ACS are mentioned below in table 6 with
preferred management

Table 6: The common arrhythmias during ACS and the management

  32

Arrhythmia Treatment
VPBs Monitoring K+ , Mg++, beta blocker
VT Amiodarone, DC shock
AIVR Observe unless hemodynamic compromise
Sinus tachycardia Treat cause; beta blocker
AF/ A. flutter Treat cause; slow ventricular rate; DC shock (if hemodynamic
compromise)
PSVT Vagal maneuvers; beta blocker, DCshock (if hemodynamic compromise)

Prognosis
• Natural history of MI evolves through following temporal stages
– Acute (first few hours to 7 days)
– Healing (7–28 days)
– Healed ( ≥29 days)
• The prognosis in STEMI is largely related to the occurrence of complications such as
arrhythmias and pump failure.
• Community studies have consistently shown that the overall case fatality rate of patients
with presumed myocardial infarction or acute coronary syndrome in the first month is
_50%, and of these deaths about half occur within the first 2 h. With the widespread use
of coronary interventions, fibrinolytic agents, antithrombotic therapy, and secondary
prevention, the overall 1-month mortality has since been reduced to 4–6%, at least in
those who participated in the latest randomized large-scale trials and qualified for
fibrinolysis and/or coronary interventions.
• Most out-of-hospital deaths are due to sudden development of ventricular fibrillation.
Most deaths due to ventricular fibrillation occur within the first 24 hours of the onset of
symptoms, and, of these, over half occur in the first hour.
• Survival is markedly reduced in elderly patients (age >75 years).
• Factors associated with increased cardiovascular risk after recovery from STEMI are
– Persistent ischemia (spontaneous or provoked)
– Depressed LV ejection fraction (<40%)
– Rales above the lung bases on physical examination or congestion on chest
radiography

16. PRE-DISCHARGE CHECK LIST AND LONG-TERM ACS MANAGEMENT

• Risk stratification:
– Stress test if anatomy undefined or residual CAD
– Echocardiogram to assess left ventricular ejection fraction
• Medications (baring contraindications):
– Antiplatelets (aspirin, clopidogrel for atleast 1 year) , B-blocker, ACEI, Statin,
Nitrates, Aldosterone antagonist ( LVEF < 40%)
• Risk factors and lifestyle modification
• Patient education before discharge ("teachable moment")
  33

• Cardiac catheterization with coronary angiography is advised for patients at high risk for
recurrent MI such as:
– Angina induced at relatively low workload
– Large reversible defect on perfusion imaging or a depressed ejection fraction
– Demonstrable ischemia
– Symptomatic ventricular arrhythmia provoked by exercise

17. MANAGEMENT BASED ON HEALTH CARE SYSTEM

Chronic stable angina

Level 1

Explain lifestyle modifications to the patient. Stress on counseling and health education Refer to

Level 2 for detailed evaluation.

Level 2

A detailed history should be taken including risk factor assessment. Physical examination should

be done. Order an ECG. A haemoglobin, blood sugar, serum creatinine and total cholesterol

should be obtained. Chest X-ray should be ordered in patients with signs or symptoms of

congestive heart failure or suspected valvular heart disease, or aortic dissection/aneurysm.

Aortic Stenosis and Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) can also cause angina. An ejection

systolic murmur radiating to carotids suggests Aortic Stenosis. Left ventricular hypertrophy in the

absence of significant hypertension suggests HCM.

If the history and ECG changes are typical of angina, treatment for CAD should be started. If pain

is atypical then refer to level 3 for TMT.

Identify precipitating factors such as anemia, hyperthyroidism and severe hypertension. The

treatment should include

  34

• Start sublingual nitroglycerin (for sos purpose), oral nitrates, ß-blockers, aspirin, statins

and consider ACE inhibitors.

• Start risk factor modification such as statins medication to the ATP III goal of cholesterol

<200 mg and LDL cholesterol <100, life style modification inclusing healthy diet,

smoking cessation, regular exercise & weight reduction.

• Optimize beta blocker dose with check on pulse rate and blood pressure..

• Count the use of sublingual nitroglycerin to monitor the success of treatment.

• Use of nitroglycerin patch at bedtime for nocturnal angina.

• Refer to level 3 for TMT if angina not controlled despite medication for risk stratification

and prognostication. Refer for coronary angiography (Level 4) if angina pectoris

symptoms are refractory, Canadian class III, IV or if the exercise electrocardiogram is

abnormal, especially with poor work capacity.

Level 3

Evaluation and management as for level 2. At this level patients can be undertaken for TMT (if

available) to prognosticate the symptoms. Patients with intermediate to low Duke scores can be

managed on optimal medical treatment and can even be referred to level 2 for follow-up. A

detailed evaluation of left ventricular function can be performed with use of echocardiography.

Echocardiography can also identify secondary causes for angina like valvular heart diases or

hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

• Refer for coronary angiography (Level 4) if angina pectoris symptoms are refractory,

Canadian class III, IV or if the exercise electrocardiogram is abnormal, especially with

poor work capacity.

Level 4

Level 4 will work as referral centre.

  35

• The risk stratification of the referred stable angina patients will be done at this level if

facilities not available at level 3.

• Angiography and revascularization at centre having these facilities.

The patients after definitive management should follow up at the nearest Level 2 or 3 centre.

Acute Coronary Syndromes

Level 1

The recommendations are as below:

• Take History, Prompt ECG (if available), if diagnosis suggestive of ACS:

• Tab Aspirin 300 mg (non-enteric coated) stat to be chewed followed by 150 mg OD

• Tab Clopidogrel 300 mg stat PO followed by 75 mg OD

• Nitrates (Tab sorbitrate 5mg or angised 0.5 mg) sublingual stat and s.o.s not more than 3

times with an interval of 5 minutes each

• Refer the patient quickly after above medications to Level 2 or higher depending on the

possibility.

Level 2

Reassess history

Evaluate to rule out other causes of acute chest pain, give s/l nitrate

Order an ECG on arrival and analyse

If ECG suggestive of ACS:

• Check patient has received Aspirin and clopidogrel, if not loaded as above

• I/v morphine if pain is continuing

  36

• Intravenous nitroglycerine if ongoing pain with LV failure, hypertension.

• Thrombolyse with intravenous streptokinase under ECG monitoring if STEMI within

window period after checking for contraindications

• Start

- betablocker (start in small doses, titrate according to BP & HR)

- ACE inhibitors (initiate in small doses & then titrate)

• Statins

• Anticoagulation therapy ( LMWH)

• Oxygen by ventimask or nasal prongs

• ECG monitoring.

• NSTEMI/USA :

• Refer level 3 for further risk stratification if associated with low risk

features

• Refer level 4 for early invasive therapy if associated with high risk

features

• STEMI :

• Refer level 3 for further risk stratification if lysis successful

• Refer level 4 for primary PCI in case of contraindication for lysis or

rescue PCI for failed lysis or further invasive management in case of

high risk features ( LV failure or shock )

Level 3

• Reassess history

• Directed physical examination ( to detect hemodynamic instability, pulmonary

congestion, murmurs, limited neurological and vascular examination i.e. pulse and bruit)

• Analyze ECG
  37

• Check patient has received aspirin and clopidogrel

• Send cardiac markers (CPK-MB)

• Administer oxygen and obtain IV access

• Continuous ECG monitoring and standby defibrillator should be readily available

• Regular monitoring of pulse and blood pressure

• In STEMI:

• Assess window period, if less than 12 hours and there is ongoing pain, consider

thrombolysis with intravenous streptokinase under ECG monitoring after

checking contraindications for thrombolysis

• Betablocker, ACE inhibitor, high dose statin, i/v NTG if ongoing pain with

LV failure, hypertension. ( Nitrates contraindicated in RVMI)

• LMW Heparin (enoxaparin) 6 hours after thrombolysis followed by 12 hourly

for 7 days .

• Watch for resolution of pain and ST segment ( successful thrombolysis if pain

subsides and /or ST resolution more than 50% within 90 minutes)

• Refer to higher centre for urgent coronary angiography and intervention if

failed thrombolysis, post infarct angina, LV failure or shock (if transferrable)

• In NSTEMI:

• LMWH(e.g. enoxaparin 1 mg/kg/dose) should be given stat and every 12 horly

for 7 days

• Betablocker, ACE inhibitor, high dose statin, i/v NTG according to

indications.

• Refer to higher centre for coronary angiography and intervention if ongoing

angina, high risk features.

  38

Level 4

Level 4 are the referral centres.

• Facilities for emergent and experienced PCI

• High risk ACS patients will be managed at this level.

After management of the acute coronary syndrome, the patient can follow up at the nearest Level

2 or 3 centre.
  39

18. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS

OF HEALTH CARE  

* At sub‐centre: give Tab. Aspirin 300mg stat with prompt referral to Level 1 care 
  40

19. TREATMENT GUIDELINES AT HEALTH SUB-CENTRES

A health sub-centre has one male health worker and one female health worker and covers
population norms of 5000.

The recommendations for Sub-centre is “Tab Ecospirin 150 mg- 2 tablets stat to be chewed
along with prompt and quick referral to PHC or CHC ( Level 1 care) whichever is nearer
including counseling and health education”

20. TREATMENT GUIDELINES AT PRIMARY HEALTH CENTRE (PHC), Level 1

PHC is a 4-6 bedded hospital which covers population norms of 30,000 and has Medical Officer,
Pharmacist, Staff Nurse, Female Health Worker, Health Educator, Health Assistant (M & F).
There is provision of limited blood tests, oxygen trolley & facility for ECG.

The recommendation for PHC for ACS is as below:

• Take History, if suggestive of ACS:

• Tab Aspirin 300 mg (non-enteric coated) stat to be chewed followed by 150 mg OD to

be continued lifelong

• Tab Clopidogrel 300 mg stat PO followed by 75 mg OD to be continued 12 months

• Nitrates (Tab sorbitrate 5mg or angised 0.5 mg) sublingual stat and s.o.s not more than 3
times with an interval of 5 minutes each

• Every attempt should be made to obtain an ECG as quickly as possible for early
diagnosis of STEMI.

• Prompt referral to Level 2 or higher level care ( as per possibility) for further
management.

21. TREATMENT GUIDELINES AT COMMUNITY HEALTH CENTRES (CHC) & SUB-

DIVISIONAL HOSPITALS, Level 2

CHC is a 30 bedded hospital covering 1,20,000 population norms, while sub-divisional hospitals
have 30-100 beds catering to a population of 5-6 lakhs. Medical staff includes physician, surgeon,
obstetrician, pediatrician, anesthetist, staff nurses, dresser, pharmacist/ compounder, ophthalmic
assistant, laboratory technician, radiographer and ward boys. They have facilities of ECG,
defibrillation, X-ray, ultrasound, blood tests and essential drugs facility.
  41

The management recommendations at CHC & sub-divisional hospitals are as below:

Reassess history
Evaluate to rule out other causes of acute chest pain, give s/l nitrate
Order an ECG on arrival and analyse
If ECG suggestive of ACS:
• Check patient has received Aspirin and clopidogrel, if not load as above
• Send cardiac markers (CPK-MB, Trop T/I)
• I/v morphine if pain is continuing
• Intravenous nitroglycerine if ongoing pain with LV failure, hypertension.

• Prepare to thrombolyze (IV acess) for STEMI or new onset LBBB if within window
period
• Start
- betablocker (start in small doses, titrate according to BP & HR)
- ACE inhibitors (initiate in small doses & then titrate)
• Statins
• Anticoagulation therapy ( LMWH,)
• Oxygen by ventimask or nasal prongs
• ECG monitoring.

If no changes, repeat ECG after 30 minutes:

• If changes present manage accordingly (refer above)

• If no changes, reassess patient
If contraindication to lysis, refer to higher centre ( Level 4 care ) for primary PCI.

If failed thrombolysis or ongoing chest pain with non resolution of ECG, refer patient ( Level 4
care). Even patient can be referred with ongoing thrombolytic drip if high risk

Refer to higher centre ( Level 4 care ) for early invasive therapy for high risk ACS patients.

Refer to district hospital ( Level 3 care ) for risk stratification of patients with chronic stable
angina & low risk ACS.

22. TREATMENT GUIDELINES AT DISTRICT LEVEL, Level 3

District level hospitals have specialist care for optimum medical management and thrombolysis
of ACS. The recommendations are:
  42

• Reassess history
• Directed physical examination ( to detect hemodynamic instability, pulmonary
congestion, murmurs, limited neurological and vascular examination i.e. pulse and bruit)
• Analyze ECG
• Check patient has received aspirin and clopidogrel
• Send cardiac markers (CPK-MB, Trop T/I)
• Administer oxygen and obtain IV access
• Continuous ECG monitoring and standby defibrillator should be readily available
• Regular monitoring of pulse and blood pressure
• In STEMI:

• Assess window period, if less than 12 hours and there is ongoing pain, consider
thrombolysis under ECG monitoring after checking contraindications for
thrombolysis.
• Betablocker, ACE inhibitor, high dose statin, i/v NTG if ongoing pain with

LV failure, hypertension. ( Nitrates contraindicated in RVMI)

• LMW Heparin (enoxaparin) 6 hours after thrombolysis followed by 12 hourly

for 7 days .
• Watch for resolution of pain and ST segment ( successful thrombolysis if pain
subsides and /or ST resolution more than 50% within 90 minutes)
• Refer to higher centre for urgent coronary angiography and intervention if
contraindications to lysis, failed thrombolysis, post infarct angina, LV failure or
shock (if transferrable) .

• In NSTEMI:

• LMWH(e.g. enoxaparin 1 mg/kg/dose) should be given stat and every 12 horly

for 7 days

• Refer to higher cente for coronary angiography and intervention if ongoing

angina, LV failure or shock .
  43

* Markers of successful lysis : decrease in chest pain, ST resolution of 50% or more and the
development of a terminal negative T wave in the lead with the highest ST elevation

Figure12. Reperfusion strategies for STEMI: valid for all levels

23. MEDICATION DOSING & ADMINISTRATION

Aspirin
• 300 mg chewed and swallowed (150 mg × 2) upon presentation, then 150 mg daily indefinitely.

Clopidogrel
• 300-mg oral loading dose, then 75 mg PO daily for 9 to 12 mo.

Heparin
• LMWH (Enoxaparin1 mg/kg SC Q12 h or Dalteparin 120 IU/kg SC (max 10,000 IU) Q12h or,
until PCI or till hospital admission)

ß-Blockers (should be initiated in first 24 hours if no contraindications in small doses)

• Oral Metoprolol 25-50 mg PO BD.
• Carvedilol 6.25-25mg BD. ( if LV dysfunction)
• Patient with early contraindication should be reevaluated for b-blocker therapy for secondary
prevention

Nitroglycerin
  44

• 0.4 mg sublingual Q 5 min × 3 for persistent ischemic pain or IV infusion starting at 5-10
μg/min with up titration for persistent ischemic pain. Oral long acting nitrates once/twice daily.

Morphine sulfate
• 2–4 mg IV every 5–10 minutes until pain is relieved or side effects develop
•Side effects: Nausea, vomiting, respiratory depression and hypotension .

Oxygen
• 2–4 L/min by nasal cannula to maintain oxygen saturation > 90%

ACE inhibitors
• Captopril 6.25 mg TID, titrate up as tolerated
• Ramipril 2.5-5mg BD
• ARBs, (Losartan 25-50 mg OD, Valsartan 20-160 mg BD) in patients intolerant to ACE
inhibitors with evidence of LV dysfunction.
• Aldosterone blockers (spironolactone 25mg OD, eplerenone 25-50 mg OD)
• Post-STEMI patients who meets the following
• No significant renal failure (Cr < 2.5 men or 2.0 for women)
• No hyperkalemia > 5.0
• LVEF < 40%
• Symptomatic Congestive heart failure or Diabetes Mellitus

Insulin consider insulin infusion in first 48 hours to normalize blood glucose

  45

References and suggested readings

1. Anderson, J, Adams, C, Antman, E, et al. ACC/AHA 2007 guidelines for the

management of patients with unstable angina/non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a
report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on
Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to revise the 2002 Guidelines for the
Management of Patients with Unstable Angina/Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial
Infarction): developed in collaboration with the American College of Emergency
Physicians, American College or Physicians, Society for Academic Emergency Medicine,
Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, and Society of Thoracic
Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 50:e1.
2. Antman, EM, Hand, M, Armstrong, PW, et al. 2007 focused update of the ACC/AHA
2004 Guidelines for the Management of Patients With ST-Elevation Myocardial
Infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association
Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Group to Review New Evidence and Update
the ACC/AHA 2004 Guidelines for the Management of Patients With ST-Elevation
Myocardial Infarction). J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 51:XXX.
3. Thygesen, K, Alpert, JS, White, HD, et al. Universal definition of myocardial infarction:
Kristian Thygesen, Joseph S. Alpert and Harvey D. White on behalf of the Joint
ESC/ACCF/AHA/WHF Task Force for the Redefinition of Myocardial Infarction. Eur
Heart J 2007; 28:2525.
4. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors
associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-
control study. Lancet 2004; 364:937.
5. Third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on
detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment
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Experts Participated and contributed to finalize CAD guidelines 

1 Dr KK Talwar, Director  & HOD, Dept. of Cardiology PGIMER, Chandigarh 

2  Dr Harshvardhan, Consultant  & HOD, Dept. of Cardiology, Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, 
hwardhan@hotmail.com 

3  Dr VK Bahl, Professor & Head, Dept. of Cardiology, AIIMS, New Delhi : 
vkbahl@satyam.net.in  

4  Dr YP Sharma, Additional Professor, Dept. of Cardiology, PGIMER, Chandigarh, 
ypspgi@gmail.com  

5  Dr Rajiv Mahajan, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Cardiology, PGIMER, Chandigarh, 
rajivmahajan20@yahoo.co.in  

6  Dr Shiv Bagga, PGIMER, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Cardiology Chandigarh 
shivbagga@gmail.com  

7 Dr. P.C. Negi, Professor and Head, Dept. of Cardiology, IG Medical College, Shimla.  

8  Dr Mohan Lal, Professor, Dept. of Cardiology, GMC, Jammu, Bakshi Nagar, Jammu,  ph:
2472472, 2000698, 0191-2584890, Fax 019-2584226.

9  Dr P K Goel, Professor of Cardiology, SGPGI, Lucknow pkgoel@sgpgi.ac.in 

10  Dr Rabindra Bhattacharya, Associate Professor, Dept. of Cardiology, Medical college 
and hospital. Kolkatta 

11  Dr. Prashant Mathur, Scientist D, 406, Division of NCD, ICMR, New Delhi 

12  Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Prof. and Head, SPH, PGIMER, Chandigarh 

13  Dr Roshan Kurmi, Senior Research officer, WHO‐CVD Guidelines, PGIMER,    Chandigarh, 
dr_roshankurmi@hotmail.com  

World Health Organization 

14  Dr JS Thakur, Cluster Focal Point, Non Communicable Diseases and Mental Health, 
WHO, New Delhi. jsthakur64@gmail.com  

 Directorate General Health Services 

15  Dr. Sudhir Gupta, CMO, NCD, New Delhi.: drsudhirgupta@gmail.com 

Directorate of Health Services, Chandigarh 
  49

16  Dr. SK Bhandari, SMO In‐charge Medicine, GMSH ‐16, Chd. 

17  Dr. Manjit Singh, Medical Officer‐cum Programme Officer, NCD, GMSH, Sec16, 
Chandigarh. 

18  Dr. Gurinder Singh, Medical Specialist, GMSH, Sec. 16, Chd. 

19  Dr. Soma, State Training Coordinator, NRHM, Chandigarh 

20  Dr. Satbir Singh, Medical officer, CHC‐22, Chandigarh 

Directorate of Health Services, Punjab 

21  Dr. Deepak Bhatia, Nodal Officer, NCD Cell and NRHM, Punjab 

22  Dr. V.K. Harjai, Medical Specialist & Assistant Civil Surgeon, Civil Hospital Mohali. 

23  Dr. Sandeep Singh Gill, Medical Officer, Civil Hospital, Anandpur Sahib, Distt. 
Ropar