Statistics defined in singular sense (as a statistical method) «Statistics in its second, singular sense, refers to the methods adopted for scientific empirical studies. Whenever a large amount of numerical data are collected, there arises a need to organize, present, analyze and interpret them. device which is employed for the purpose of —) collection, classification, presentation, comparison and interpretation of data. + The purpose is to make the data simple, lucid : and easy to be understood by a common man @ of mediocre intelligence. + According to Croxton and Cowden “Statistics may be defined as a science of collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data.” + Simple and comprehensive meaning of statistics, in singular sense, can be that aINTRODUCTION Sampling is the process of selecting observations (a sample) to provide an adequate description and inferences of the population. ae ome, © Itis a unit that is selec m population © Represents the whole population © Purpose to draw the inference = Why Sample??? = Sampling Frame Listing of population from which a sample is chosen Population (N) ‘Sample (n)» Population or Universe: It refers to the group of people, items or units under investigation and includes every individual. The larger group from which individuals are selected to participate in a study. = . £ “43 ig» A sample is ‘“‘a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a population used to determine truths about that population” (Field, 2005) > The sampling frame A list of all elements or other units containing the elements in a population. ——Sampling... The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way e individuals represent the larger group from which they were selected ee» Atrue representative of the population. » Free from error due to bias. » Adequate in size for being reliable. » Units of sample should be independent and relevant » Units of sample should be complete precise and up to date » Free from random sampling error » Avoiding substituting the original sample for convenience.1. Simple Random Sampling: Here all members have the same chance (probability) of being selected. Random method provides an unbiased cross selection of the population. For Example, We wish to draw a sample of 50 students from a population of 400 students, Place all 400 names in a container and draw out 50 names one by one, Advantages 1. Easy to conduct 2. High probability of achieving a representative sample 3. Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures Disadvantages 1, Identification of all members of the population can be difficult 2. Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult Selection process + Identify and define the population * Determine the desired sample size + Listall members of the population + Assign all members on the list a consecutive number + Select an arbitrary starting point from a table of inion rhumbers and read the appropriate number of igitsAdvantages 2, Systematic Sampling: Each member of the sample * More accurate sample jj i + Can be used for both proportional and non- comes after an equal interval from its previous eeanoriond| earnies member. + Representation of subgroups in the sample © Order all units in the sampling frame Saas ping + Identification of all members of the population can ©Then every nth number on the list is selected be difficult + Identifying members of all subgroups can be N= Sampling Interval axi' ction process ff v7 J * Identify and define the population + Determine the desired sample size + Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e., strata) for which you want to guarantee appropriate representation * Classify all members of the population as members of one of the identified subgroups3, Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into smaller homogenous group or strata by some characteristic and from each of these strata members are selected randomly. Finally from each stratum using simple random or systematic sample method is used to select me | final sample,‘, Cluster Sampling (Area Sampling): A researcher] late hen po ee 7 1 » Very useful when populations are large and spread over a enumerator selects sampling units at random AIM targe gendaphid reat then does complete observation ofall units in the Convenient and expedient group. » Do not need the names of everyone in the population » Disadvantages , . » Representation is likely to become an issue For example, the study involves Primary schools. Selection process + Identify and define the population + Determine the desired sample size Identify and define a logical cluster Select randomly 15 schools. Then study all the children Ustal clusters that makeup the population of clusters af 15 schools. In cluster sampling the unit of sampling. Estimate the average numberof population members . a . er Cluster consists of multiple cases. itis also known as ated. Determine the numberof clusters needed by dividing sampling, asthe selection of individual members made. ee oe es ane ae ee on the basis of place residence or employment, # day in the study all individuals in each selectedNon-Probability Methods1. Purposive Sampling: In this sampling method, the researcher selects a "typical group" of individuals who might represent the larger disadvantages. population and then collects data from this ae group. Also known as Judgmental Sampling. potential for inaccuracy in the researcher’s *~criteria and resulting sample selections2. Convenience Sampling : It refers to the procedures of obtaining units or members who are most conveniently available. It consists of units which are obtained because cases are readily available. In selecting the incidental sample, the researcher determines the required sample size and then simply collects data on that number of disadvantages... .».difficulty in determining how much of the effect (dependent variable) individuals who are available easily. results fromthe cause {independent coun i ; variable) tty tlt No ppl % a3, Quota Sampling: The selection of the sample is made by the researcher, who decides the quotas for selecting sample from specified sub groups of 4/Sadvantages... the population. . Gee, «people who are less accessible (more » For example, an interviewer might m 40 adults and 20 adolescents in order to study Be ae : difficult to contact, more reluctant to students’ television viewing habits, participate) are under-represented Selection will be 4 » 20 Adult men and 20 adult women » 10 adolescent girls and 10 adolescent boysAdvantages «. Snowball Sampling: Low cost © Useful in specific circumstances & for locating rare populations » In snowball sampling, the researcher Identifying and selecting available Disadvantages respondents who meet the criteria for er neoder 7 7 ®Projecting data beyond sample not justified inclusion. — u naa After the data have been oe z the ‘ subject, the researcher asks for a referral of —fii ies i other individuals, who would also meet the fi OR; Ny criteria and represent the population of wii? hi iit any ai amg > pAb > eat fea mag sampling UW i i] aie !BS C5 . ée “es She £fn Sem Jat Ax 54 iV sid A+ =a A ereARITHMETIC MEAN (DIRECT METHOD) Discrete Series Marks | No. of Students oo ea f @ @y se Fx 20 10 2oVU 30 40 jr 40 20 aco 80 28 isso t&n= 15H %hk= 4500ARITHMETIC MEAN (DIRECT METHOD) Individual Series a ae a Ke tho A 120 B 180 c 180 D 200 E 250 F 300 cS 220 H 350 I 370 J 260 N=10 Bx=2400 ooo @ARITHMETIC MEAN (DIRECT METHOD) Continuous/Grouped Series ree an Cet Tt oe) a a 4 12 0-10 10-20 20-30 18 30-40 ll 40-50 1 80-60 18 60-70 12 70-80 13 80-90 9 90-100 4 ZENE Sfin=ARITHMETIC MEAN (SHORTCUT METHOD/ASSUMED MEAN METHOD) Individual Series = xd D Workers: |) Daily Income tin) X=A+ NN oi A 120 a 180 D 200 0 E 280 +50 F 300 +100 G 220 420 H 360 +150 I 370 +170 J 260 +60 i 5 iARITHMETIC MEAN (SHORTCUT METHOD/ASSUMED MEAN METHOD) Discrete Series Se af x f d 10 5 20 10 30 40 0 40 20 +10 50 25 +20 tae, t= FeatReto mp ces mea ry i ES fa 0-10 4 8 40 -160 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 10-80 80-90 90-100 ereed@iraicam - Gra 12 15 ist T 18 12 13 9 3 SI=N= 104 ARITHMETIC MEAN (SHORTCUT METHOD/ASSUMED MEAN METHOD) Continuous/Grouped Series 18 25 38 45 85 68 18 85 98 -30 20 -10 o +10 +20 +30 +40 +50 -360 300 -110 ° +180 +240 +390 +360 +180 2id= reayn, N a4 US TH, Yst 45 -4n 15 @©een MEDIAN (INDIVIDUAL SERIES) Name of ori cid oer (ween Se (eS) Students ey Eee Rajiv 151 Harsh 140 Harsh 140 Neeraj 142 Dev 149 Riya 144 St] = u ¢ Neeraj 142 Sameer ua YK ese Atul 147 Atul ao LY L wo Riya 144 Dev 149 Sameer 145 Rajiv 151 Shubham: 188 Se] 2b [M4 alle ee Le es 2 116 n®Peerrarere Otte mm cits stati (Ges! 0-100 MEDIAN (CONTINUOUS SERIES) Pome / ered es ao i _ Median= 7 +| 2 xh S129 CF a f = 380 (907 It iy ee 200 + Tue fing 2 ets 148 RKlower limit of the modal class, ize of the class interval (assuming all class sizes to be equal), f; = frequency of the modal class, (9 = frequency of the class preceding the jodal class, fz = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.MEDIAN (CONTINUOUS SERIES) Size of land holdings | No.ofFamilies | Cumulative per) frees 9-100 40 40 Median= + 100-200 89 129 200-300 148 211 300-400 64 341 400-500 39 380 Wx \pre nerd ete Mean Deviation from Medi: rae ers P er ae omy Pecos a Fy] f 10-20 10 ‘Bef 18 10 120-30 204 35 28 if l 30-40 5 40 35 10 40-60 10