ENGINEER’S HVAC HANDBOOK EDITION 4 | AComprehensive Guide to HVAC Fundamentalsprice Chairman's Message I'm pleased to introduce to the engineering community the first edition of the Price Engineer's HVAC Handbook, a compilation of the engineering knowledge related to the application of air distribution and noise control products and approaches gained at Price over the past 60 years. It represents the accumulated knowledge of hundreds of. engineers and is meant to be an applied reference guide and handbook for your use. On page VI we have listed the individuals who have contributed directly to assembling this handbook. We have also vetted this handbook with a large number of accredited practicing engineers outside of Price to ensure accuracy and precision. We thank all of them for their kind assistance in making this Engineer's HVAC Handbook a reality. Throughout my academic career in Mechanical Engineering and in my early career as a research scientist, I leamed to love and value precision, detail and scientific rigor. This dedication to research and data accuracy has carried over to Price. We designed and commissioned our first Air Distribution Laboratory 40 years ago. Since then, we've continued to invest heavily and relentlessly in research and development, culminating with the creation of Price Research Center North, our research and product development facility in Winnipeg, Canada. Today, Price Research Center North contains 11 custom designed research chambers in a complex over 18,000 sq. ft. in size, and includes world- class Sound and Hydronics Labs that are truly unique. Our commitment to research, development, innovation, and precise engineering remains as the comerstone of the company. This dedication to R & D is most evidenced by our ever-expanding product catalog, which has grown from 600 pages in 1993 to some 2,300 pages in 2011. We now have products for every type of air distribution and noise control approach imaginable. This dedication to innovation, along with our relentless commitment to customer service, has allowed us to become the market leader for air distribution products in North America. Through our International Division, we hope to someday become the “worldwide supplier of preference for air distribution and noise control products.” We sincerely hope the new Price Engineer’s HVAC Handbook will be of benefit to all practicing engincers in the air distribution industry and are very happy to provide it for you. We also encourage all engineers to take advantage of the free Price All-In-One Software, which provides performance data and easy-to-use selection tools for our entire array of air distribution products, along with room design software tools, REVIT CAD images for all Price products, and dynamic submittal information. Sincerely, bn Gerry Price, Ph.D., PEng. Chairman and Chief Executive Officer The Price Group of Companies | Copyah Pies nuns Uinta 20, WmDisclaimer The typical properties of products described in this publication and the information stated in this publication are viewed to be reasonably accurate, although there may be some errors and omissions, If you seek technical assistance, or seek information to assist with respect to a particular application, you should consult with a qualified design professional. Accordingly, the publishers, writers, editors, compilers, sponsors, distributors, and others involved with the content, publishing, or distribution of this publication, including without limitation Price Industries Limited, and its employees, affiliates, and contractors, disclaim any and all representations and ‘warranties, and diselaim all loss, injury, or damage that may result from this publication or any use of this publication. This publication is provided “AS IS” without any warranty whatsoever, express or implied. Customers and users of this publication should satisfy themselves from professional consulting and other competent sources other than this publication that products and applications are suitable to their situation, circumstances and requirements. Users of this publication should take into account any applicable material safety data sheets. Nothing in this, publication provides ny license, right, or authorization forany patent or other intellectual property right. The tolerances, applications, and information stated or described in this publication may be nominal, general, or estimated. Nothing in this publication should be construed as indicating that any use, product, or application complies with any law, specification, regulation, process, or procedure, and such are expressly disclaimed. The information contained herein may be subject to change, and no undertaking is made for any update or revision. Comments, criticisms and suggestions regarding the subject matter are invited. Any errors or omissions in the data should be brought to the attention of the Editor. Additions and corrections to the Handbook in print can be found on www.price-hvac.comv/handbook. Copyright © 2011 by Price Industries Limited All rights reserved, No part of this book may be reproduced without permission in writing from Price Industries Limited, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages or reproduce illustrations in a review with appropriate credit; nor may any part of this book be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, ortransmitted in any form orby any means — electronic, photocopying, recording, or other— without permission in writing from Price Industries Limited. Printed and bound in Canada by Friesens Price Industries Limited 638 Raleigh Avenue Winnipeg, MB, Canada R2K 329 wwwprice-hvae.com Cataloging data available from Library and Archives Canada ISBN 978-0-9868802-0-9 1. HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning), 2. Air distribution, 3. Mechanical Engineering, 4, Price Industries a Teck otis Last © Copyright Pie nasties Limited 207@ Preface price Preface Our industry is fairly unique in that we are largely required to be generalists. It is not enough to understand one element of HVAC design; the effort of designing a system requires an understanding of (at minimum) fluid mechanics, heat transfer, thermodynamics, acoustics, equipment selection, water and air distribution, air diffusion, and control systems. Of course, if you have mastered all of these, it may not help you actually draft or model a system. Once built, there is always the chance that the system will not function exactly as designed due to unforeseen conditions on site. For this reason, the importance of experience cannot be overstated. Ironically, mechanical engineering degrees, by and large, leave the graduate with almost no treatment of HVAC concepts or technologies. I graduated from the University of ‘Manitoba in Winnipeg Canada, and as good as this program is, my grand total of HVAC exposure was two of four projects in my graduate lab course, one where we analyzed the efficiency of parallel and cross flow heat exchangers and the other where we studied psychrometries by way of an air conditioning cycle. There are schools with more significant HVAC programs, but these are the exception rather than the rule. Steep though my learning curve was, I could have been much more effective when starting out were there a central resource that combined the application of fundamental concepts with field experience and design guidance. We know that others are confronted with these challenges, and with this in mind, Price started work on such a reference in the spring of 2009. Inmy tenure at Price I have managed a variety of exciting projects, but none as unique as. overseeing the development of this handbook. Intended to be used by anyone interested in HVAC, and more specifically, in technologies related to the control and movement of energy throughout the built environment, this handbook is the culmination of design guides and whitepapers written by Price engineers over the years and covers a range of topics from engineering fundamentals to the application of cutting-edge technologies in modern HVAC systems. The Price Engineer's HVAC Handbook has been structured to provide a connection between research journals, fundamental references and the design guides that are available to the industry today. To this end, you will find a requisite discussion of engineering theory, including the derivation of equations that are used every day. This volume includes sections on acoustics and control theory, thereby providing much needed reference knowledge for those attempting to use many of the design guides that are available today. A detailed discussion ofair and hot/cold water distribution technologies, from mixing ventilation to chilled beams is included, as is the most current research as presented through discussion and Research Highlights. Much of this material is not currently available in other reference materials. With functionality in mind, this handbook has been designed as a reference text, and features the liberal use of examples and graphics to help illustrate and explain concepts and systems. Whitespace is provided on each page to allow the user to make notes or insertions, essentially making the book their own. (© CopyrigPie neues Lime 207 Vv= Preface As we started to plan out this book, it was clear that simply combining the available technical documentation from our catalogs and application guides would not result in the complete reference text as envisioned by our team. Additional content and structure would be required to create the flow and organization typical of a world class reference guide. Experts fromall areas of our industry have worked tirelessly around their everyday roles to make contributions to this handbook. Price resident engineers, industry partners, friends and colleagues, have all contributed in a significant way. ‘Awarm thanks to Price personnel and to their families for having found the time outside of their already demanding schedules to help create this document: Reg Brown, P.Eng, Application Engineering Manager; Rob Brown, Technical Sales Engineer; Angeline Burks, Product Marketing Manager; Rita Chtamm, Designer; Brad Cole, Applications Specialist; Ryan Corder, Project Manager; Piotr Czajko, EIT, Applications Specialist; Randy Dutka, Marketing Manager; Alf Dyck, P.Eng., Vice-President Product Engineering; Samuel Frenette, EIT, Applications Specialist; Kelli Goldstone, EIT, Applications Specialist; Dane Gowryluk, P-Eng., Applications Engineer; Bob Green, Multimedia Developer; Brenda Haynen, Marketing Assistant; Michael Hnatowich, Senior Designer; Nolan Hosking, P.Eng., Product Manager — Critical Environments; Brynne Jonasson, Designer; Mikhail Koupriyanov, M.A.Sc., EIT, CFD Analyst - Application Engineering; Curt Lavallee, EIT, Applications Specialist; Beau Maryniuk, EIT, Product Analyst; Eleanor McEwan, P.Eng., Product Analyst — Application Engineering; Duane McLennan, CET, Product Manager Noise Control; Mike Nicholson, CET, Price Electronics Manager; Dan Nychuk, B.Sc.(ME) Applications Specialist, Application Engineering; Patrick Oliver, P.Eng., Noise Control Engineer; Jarvis Penner, EIT, Design Engineering Manager — Air Movement; Gerry Price, Ph.D., P.Eng., Chairman and CEO; Darron Rempel, PEng., Applications Engineer; Cameron Regier, EIT, Applications Team Leader - Air Distribution; Julian Rimmer, P.Eng., St. Product Manager — Sustainable Technologies; Dennis Sikkema, Director of Technical Sales; Jerry Sipes, Ph.D., PE, Vice President — Engineering; David Surminski, P-Eng., Design Engineering Manager Specialty Products; Colin Tait, EIT, Project Leader~Fan Coils & Blower Coils: Brad Tully, P.Eng., Research and Development Manager.™ Preface A reference guide of this type could not be introduced without a significant effort to ensure that the material is useable and correct. As such, a thorough review of this volume was completed by a notable, imminently capable, and generous group of industry leaders without whose time, this handbook would not be possible. The Price team understands the depth of commitment that is necessary to review this document in detail and provide the candid and constructive feedback that is needed. We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to the review team and their respective organizations for their generous contributions. The following individuals have reviewed specific chapters: Theodore Athanas, P, Eng. BR +A Consulting Engineers, LLC Dave Cowan Global Mechanical Systems Ltd. Rick Davies, CET EH. Price, a division of Price Industries Limited. Dr. Robert W. Derksen, P. Eng. Mech. & Manuf. Engineering, University of Manitoba Gary Fahie Global Mechanical Systems Ltd. Jason P. Forsyth, P. E. Moseley Architects Charles Freeman, P. Eng. Acertus Consulting Group, LLC Thomas E. Gelin Air Flow Ine. Larry Gelin, M.S.M.E CFM Company Peter (Piotr) Gryc, P, Eng, LEED AP SMS Engineering, Ltd. Evan Himelstein, P. Eng. Red River College Gary Hoadley, P, Eng. Crandall Engineering, Inc. Mo Hosni, Ph.D. Kansas State University Philippe B. Jean, P .E., LEED AP Stan Weaver and Company Byron W. Jones, P. E., Ph. D. Kansas State University Robert J. Laneve Air Control Products, Inc. Hetal Lee Brucker Co. © copiigh Price ndusies Lied 21 vuVu ® Preface Vincent Maccarrone Steven M, Nemec Buckley Associates, Inc. Buckley Associates, Ine Iain Macdonald, P. Eng. Mike Thomton National Research Council Canada TMS Johnson John MacLean, P. Eng Stephen Tweedie, P. Eng. John M, MacLean Management, Ltd, ‘Tweedie & Associates Consulting Blair McCarry, P. Eng., P. E., egmegts Lid LEED AP, ASHRAE Fellow Chad Wiginton Perkins + Will H.D. Grant Company, Ine. Michael Meteyer, P. E., LEED AP, BD+C Cogdell Spencer ERDMAN The review of the information contained in this volumeand othercontributions performed by this team are greatly appreciated, but should not be viewed as an endorsement of the information or procedures contained within, ‘The Price team is committed to ensuring that this text remains current and does not become a casualty of progress. This is the first edition of a book that will remain i a publication cycle that will allow correction and updates as needed to include new sections and technologies. We further understand that there may be information in this, edition that could be presented in a different manner, or with more detail and clarity, Asa result, Price has created the website www. price-hvac.conv/handbook and the email address handbook@price-hvac.com as portals to receive and incorporate feedback for subsequent editions. We urge you to pass on any comments or concerns, confident that these will be reviewed and addressed. In the end, this handbook was a pleasure, albeit a significant effort to create and I hope that you will find it valuable and enjoyable. Kind Regards, jh Julian Rimmer, M.Sc., P.Eng. Sr. Product Manager ~ Sustainable Technologies Price Industries= Contents Contents price CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 FUNDAMENTALS OF HVAC 1.1 HVAC Design Basics... : 1.2 HVAC Operating Characteristics... 1.3 HVAC System 1.4. Ventilation Systems 1.5. HVAC Air Distribution Equipment... 1.6 HVAC Selection Guidelines Check List. INTRODUCTIONTO FLUID MECHANICS 2.1 Properties of Fluids... Example 2.1 - Reynolds Number Calculation 2.2 Bernoulli's Equation. Example 2.2 - Head Loss Calculation 2.3 Pressure Measurement... INTRODUCTIONTO HEAT TRANSFER 3.1 Conduction Example 3.1 - Conduction Through a Composite Wall 3.2 Convection. Example 3.2 - Convection in Pipe Flow Example 3.3 - Convection off a Cool Window. Example 3.4 - Heating Energy. 3.3 Radiation... Example 3.5 - Thermal Radiation from Cool Window Example 3.6 - View Factors and Energy Exchange... INTRODUCTIONTO INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 4.1 Overview... Aa. Wostbiandattctiveness aed lado Air Culbey s Example 4.1 - Calculation of Ventilation Effectiveness 4.3 Thermal Comfort... Research Highlight 4.1 - Personal Ventilation Control. 4.4 Local Thermal Discomfort. a Example 4.2 - Determination of Draft Rate.....cjcccosseesnen veel 5 4.5 Measurement Of Thermal Comfott.....:eesee see 12 Research Highlight 4.2 - Stratification and ‘Thermal Comfort... 114 (© Copyraht Pre nausies United 2 Ix= Contents CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHROMETRICS Psychrometties Graph nnn 122 5.1 Terminology... 124 5.2 Psychrometties eee eomeae126, Example 5.1 - Air-Vapor Relationship - Constant Pressure......129 Example 5.2 - Air-Vapor Relationship - Constant Pressure...muc129 Example 5.3 - Air-Vapor Relationship - Constant Pressure........130 Example 5.4 - Air-Vapor Relationship - Constant Pressure.....130 Example 5.5 - Air-Vapor Relationship - Constant Pressure......131 Example 5.6 - Sensible Heating and Cooling of Moist Air. Example 5,7 - Humidification Only (Adiabatic Process) Example 5.8 - Cooling and Dehumidification..... Example 5.9 - Direct Evaporative Cooling... Example 5.10 - Desiccant Dehumidification . Example 5.11 - Mixing of Two Air Streams. Example 5.12 - Room Effect. Example 5.13 - Fan Heat oc Example 5.14 - Impact of Altitude... ‘Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure .. ae 169 ‘Thermodynamic Properties of Water at Saturation. 173 seed SO 15S INTRODUCTION TO CONTROLTHEORY 6.1 HVAC Building Control 6.2 Control Actions 182 sl 87 INTRODUCTION TO ACOUSTICS 7.1 Importance of the Acoustical Environment. 7.2 Fundamental Concepts. 7.3 Sound Measurements... 7.4 Addition of Sound Levels Example 71 - Addition of Sound Levels 7.5 Perception Example 7.2 -NC Rating. Example 7.3 - RC Rating, INTRODUCTIONTO DUCT DESIGN 8.1 General Duct Design... 238 8.2 Duct Design Fundamentals. oo 239 Example 8.1 - Butterfly Damper Pressure Drop. 256 Example 8.2 - Duct Dampers of Various Styles 256 Example 8.3 - Duct Sizing. 2259= Contents CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 price INTRODUCTIONTO MIXING VENTILATION 9.1. Space Air Diffusion....... 284 9.2 Selection Fundamentals... 287 9.3 Air Outlets se 292 9.4 Selection Procedures... 296 Example 9.1 - Throw. 301 Example 9.2 - Throw 302 Example 9.3 - Throw..... 2303) Example 9.4 - ADPI 3S Example 9.5 - ADPI 319 Example 9.6 - Pressure Drop. Example 9.7 - Pressure Drop. 32S Example 9.8 - Room NC ... seven poanid32 Example 9.9 - Small Office NC Level. ene BBB Example 9.10 - Classroom NC Level... 9.5 Low Temperature Systems. 9.6 Industrial Ventilation... Example 9.11 - Throw and Space NC. Example 9.12 - Vertical Throw Example 9.13 - Space NC... 324 342 348 357 358 359 INTRODUCTION TO NOISE CONTROL 10.1. Approach to Noise Control Example 10.1 - Outdoor Noise.... 371 Example 10.2 - Required Insertion Loss... secsnnsne TT Example 10.3 - Outdoor Noise Design... seo 382 10.2. Applicable Standards and Testing, 388 10.3. Products for HVAC Noise Control... 390 368 Example 10.4 - Silencer Pressure Drop 40S Example 10.5 - Breakout Noise Design = AIT Example 10.6 - Equipment Enclosure... 431 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROLS 11.1 Overview of VAV Controllers... 11.2 Thermostat Types 11.3. Control Options.. 448 11.4 Control Terminology. 11.5 Reheat Types... 451 11.6 Control Transformers 54 Example 11.1 - Control Transformers ness 4s7 Example 11.2 - Control Transformers... 11.7 Fuses. enn 11.8 Design and Layout Considerations. 11.9 Building Automation System Network... 11.10 Controls - System Examples.. . 11.11 BACnet - Building Automation and Control Network. Aso (© Copyit ric eien ini 201 XIxn = Contents CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14 INTRODUCTIONTOTERMINAL UNITS 12.1 Terminal Unit... 12.2. Major Terminal Components... 12.3 Air Flow Sensors. Example 12.1 - Determine J Velocity Pressure Signa. Example 12.2 - Determine Air Flow Rate 12.4. Terminal Unit Types. 12.5. Energy Consideration. 12.6 Terminal Unit Acoustics. - 12.7. Terminal Unit Insulation Types. 12.8 Terminal Unit Air Filters....csnsenenee 12.9. Terminal Unit Attenuators / Silencers... Research Highlight 12.1... 12.10 Water Coils (Heat Exchangers). 12.11 Electric Reheat... 12.12 Selection of Terminal Types 12.13 Terminal Unit Selection : Example 123 - Single Duct Selection, “Reheat Example 12.4 - Series Fan Powered Terminal Selection... 12.14 Terminal Unit Acoustical Selection Procedure ..... Example 12.5 - Estimating Sound Power of Outlets. Example 12.6 - Series Fan Powered Terminal Selection... 12.15 Recommendations for Sizing, Installation & Maintenance 12.16 Standards & Certification Programs . INTRODUCTION TO FAN COILS AND BLOWER COILS 13.1 Fan Coil Product Fundamentals 13.2. Fan Coil Unit Types... 13,3 Blower Coil Unit Types. 13.4. Accessories... 13.5 Fan Coil Piping, 13.6. Fan Coil Controls, 13.7 Application of Fan Coil and Blower Coil Units. 13.8. Unit Installation & Maintenance Guidelines, 13.9. Standards and Certification Programs... INTRODUCTION TO VAV DIFFUSERS 14.1 Diffuser Types ... 142. Conventional Design vs. VAV Diffuser Layouts. 14.3 Operating Principles... Example 14.1 - ADPI 14.4 VAV Diffusers and LEED"... 14,5. Zoning Solutions 14.6 Selection Procedure -- . Example 142 - Room NC and Throv.. © Copyright Pes ndustie Lined 20& Contents CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 16 price 14.7 Duct Pressure Control 14.8 Retrofit Applications... 634 FUNDAMENTALS OF DISPLACEMENT VENTILATION 641 643 647 15.1 Concepts and Benefits... 15.2. Displacement Ventilation Characteristics 15.3 Heating with Displacement Diffusers Research Highlight 15.1 - ‘Ventilation Effectiveness in Heating ssn 15.4 Hydronic Products with Displacement Ventilation 15.5. Humidity Control . 656 15.6 Designing with Air Handiing Units... : 657 15.7 Diffuser Types ................ . - 659 15.8. Displacement Ventilation Supply Air Methods 650 652 i665 15.9 Thermal Comfort and Displacement Ventilation. Research Highlight 15.2 - Stratification and Thermal Comfott.......... 12-668 15.10 Room Loads and Air Volume Requirements. 669 15.11 Displacement Ventilation Air Volume Calculations 674 15.12 Design Procedure 680 15.13 Diffuser Selection, Location and LayOUut...ssennnunnnnsnnd 683 Example 15.1 - Office Design 689 Example 15.2 - Boardroom Design A... Example 15.3 - Boardroom Design B... 701 APPLICATIONS OF DISPLACEMENT VENTILATION 16.1 School Design Criteria... sosennennneneeee TOO 16.2. Organizations for Healthy Schools. 721 16.3 Benefits of Displacement Ventilation... 123 16.4 Displacement Ventilation in Schools: “Typical ‘Application 730 Research Highlight 16.1 - Ventilation and Student Health. 16.5. Diffuser Type, Layout and Location. era Example 16.1 - Classroom Design. 731 16.6 Displacement Ventilation in Theaters. Research Highlight 16.2 - 1AQ in Theaters with DV ....0..00-756 Example 16.2 - Theater Desigh ...nsen:ssnnnnnnnessne TOO 16.7 Displacement Ventilation and Health Care.... 766 Example 16.3 - Energy Savings 77) Research Highlight 16.3 -1AQ in Patient Rooms with DV ...778 Research Highlight 16.4 - VE in Patient Rooms with DV.......782 Research Highlight 16.5 - Guidelines for DV in Health Care...785 16.8 Design Procedure .. 189) Example 16.4 Patient Room with DV. 791 Example 16.5 - Waiting Room with DV 799 16.9 Displacement Ventilation in Industrial Spaces Example 16.6 - Machine Shop Design. 818 ‘©Copyright Pie Iasi Lita 200 xuXIV = Contents CHAPTER 17 CHAPTER 18 INTRODUCTION TO UNDERFLOOR AIR DISTRIBUTION 835 851 17.1 Basics of Underfloor Air Distribution... 17.2 Air Distribution Methods . 17.3 Residency Time and Thermal Decay.. 17.4 Leakage .. Example 17.1 - Category | Leakage . Example 17.2 - Category 2 Leakage .....- Example 17.3 - Leakage Through Floor Tiles... 17.5. Plenum Design .. Research Highlight 17.1 - Plenum Air Distribution... 17.6 Mixed System: 17.7 Humidity.. . 17.8 Mechanical Equipment. 17.9 Acoustics . 17.10 Treatment of Heating and Cooling Loads Example 17.4 - Minimum Ventilation... Research Highlight 17.2 - UFAD Load Calculations... 17.11 Diffuser Types ee Example 17.5 - Round Floor Diffuser. Example 17.6 - Selection of Perimeter Diffuser 17.12 Applications. INTRODUCTIONTO RADIANT HEATING AND COOLING 18.1 Concepts and Benefits . — 1950 182. Heat Transfer Differences between Ait-Air and Air-Water Systems... ‘Example 18,1 - Heat Capacity of Air cod Water. 18.3. When to use Radiant Systems... 18.4. Radiant Heating and Cooling Systems. 960 18.5. Thermal Comfort for Radiant Panels and Chilled Sails 963 Example 18.2 - Calculation of Operative Temperature .....-.966 18.6. Products... 970 18:7. Primary and Outside Air System Design 978 Example 18.3 - Calculation of Latent Cooling Capacity 18.8 Chilled Water System Design. 18.9 Zone Piping... : 18.10 Ventilation Strategies... 18.11 Design Procedure - Heating... Example 18.4 - Patient Room. 18.12 Design Procedure - Cooling Example 18.5 - Small Office... 18.13 Product Selection... Example 18.6 - Small Office Panel Selection Example 18.7 - Small Office Chilled Sail Selection Research Highlight 18.1 - Radiant Cooling with DV... 953 954 958 © Copyright Pie Industrie Lite 20= Contents CHAPTER 19 CHAPTER 20 CHAPTER 21 price INTRODUCTIONTO ACTIVE AND PASSIVE BEAMS 19,1 Concepts and Benefits... 19.2 Heat Transfer Differences between Air-Air and Air-Water Systems 0.00 1059 Example 19.1 - Heat Capacity of Air and Water..... 1060 19.3. When to use Active and Passive Beams... 19.4 Active and Passive Beams 19.5 Primary and Outside Air System Design... Exainple 19:3 - Celeulssion of Latent Coaling Capacity 19.6 Chilled Water System Design... 19.7 Zone Piping .. 198 Passive Beam Selection and Design Procedure Example 19.3 - Small Office Passive Beam Selection... 19.9 Active Beam Selection and Design Procedure. Example 19.4 - Small Office Active Beam Selection 19.10 Managing Primary Air Volume and Capacity....... Example 19.5 - Small Office with High Internal Gains . Example 19.6 - Active Beams in a Computer Lab Example 19,7 - Active Beams in Laboratories...... INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH CARE HVAC 20.1 Air Distribution in Hospital and Clinical Spaces... 20.2 Air Filtration. 20.3. Acoustical Considerations for Health Care Spaces..... 1163 Example 20.1 - Calculating NC Values..... 20.4 Cleanliness, Durability and Lint... 20.5. Air Outlets in Health Care..... 20.6 Air Movement in Health Care.. 20.7. Displacement Ventilation and Health Care, Example 20.2 - Energy Savings nn. 20.8 Design Procedure 20.9 Hydronic Products in Health Care. APPLICATIONS OF HEALTH CARE HVAC 21.1 Introduction to Patient Care Areas .....ssnnnnneese 21.2 Waiting and Examination ROOMS... Example 21.1 - Waiting Room with Mixing Diffusers Example 21.2 - Waiting Room with DV... Example 21.3 - Patient Room with Mixing Diffusers... Example 21.4 - Patient Room with DV. Research Highlight 21.1. Example 21.5 - Airborne Infection Isolation (AI) Room. Example 21.6 - Protective Environment (PE) Room... Research Highlight 21.2 - Radiant Panels in Burn ICUs, 21.3 Hospital Operating Rooms........ (© Copynan Price incu Lats 201 xv® Contents CHAPTER 21 Example 21.7 - Operating Room Air Distribution .. 21.4 Hospital Pharmacies..... Example 21.8 - Hospital Pharmacy. 21.5. Laboratori — an Example 21.9 - General Laboratory (Load-Driven). XVI copright Pics nduties Lime 207@ Terminology price Terminology Absorptivity (a): A surface determines the rate at which that surface can accept irradiation, Active Beams: An air distribution diffuser using primary air to induce secondary air through a water coil, used to remove the sensible load. Contrast with passive beam. ach: Air changes per hour (see also Air-Change Rate). Adjacent Zone: Area adjacent to an outlet in which long term occupancy is not recommended because of potential discomfort. Also called clear or near zone. Air: The mixture of two components, water vapor and dry air, Ib,, [kg], (also known as moist air). Air-Change Rate: A measure of air flow rate normalized to the size of the room. Air change rate is specified as the number of times per hour (ach) that a volume of supply air equivalent to the entire volume of a given space is supplied to or exhausted from that space. Analog Electric Control: Control components use analogy circuitry to implement the control function. Aspect Ratio: Ratio of length to width of opening or core of a grille. BACnet: Building Automation and Control Network. BACnet is ASHRAE Standard 135 and is used by many companies as a main communication protocol for Building Controllers. Building Automation System (BAS): Centralized control and/or monitoring system having several forms. Basic BAS may be a computer-based central for an energy management system (EMS) providing operator interface terminal and alarm display with optional audible and/or printout, BAS may further support networks of remote DDC, life safety, and/or security-intelligent processors. BAS may have monochromatic or color graphic monitors with printers for alarm, summary, and custom reports. BAS has ‘one or more operator names. Barometric Pressure (Py,x): Total atmospheric pressure, altitude dependent, psia (Pa). Block Diagram: Control loop shown in symbolic graphical format. Blower/Fan: Multi-bladed, driven rotor enclosed so that air from an inlet is compressed to a higher discharge pressure. Breakout Noise: The sound that is allowed to pass through the walls of the ductwork and/or the silencer casing. CAV: Constant air volume. {© Copia Price Industries Lied 201. XVITerminology Terminology XVII Casing: Structural sheet metal box or shell to which all components are secured. Central Fan System: A mechanical indirect system of heating, ventilating, or air- conditioning. Air is treated or handled by equipment that is usually located outside the rooms served at a control location and conveyed to and from the rooms via a fan and system of distributing duets. Centralized System: A majority of the mechanical systems (chillers, pumps, air handlers, ete.) are located in one mechanical space. Chiller: A machine that removes heat from a heat transfer liquid using a refrigeration cycle. Closed-Loop Control: A closed-loop control directly senses the controlled variable and uses that signal to adjust the controlled device. Coanda Effect: Effect ofa moving jet attaching to a parallel surface because of negative pressure developed between jet and surface. Coil: A heat exchanger in which liquid is circulated to provide heating or cooling to the air which passes through the heat sink fins. Cold Air: General term for supply air, typically between 35 to 45 °F. Cold-Air Distribution System: System that uses a primary air supply with a temperature range of approximately 40 to 50 °F (10 to 15 °C). Note: Typically used with ice storage systems. Compare cold-water distribution system, Cold-Water Distribution System: System that uses a primary air supply with a temperature range of approximately 34 to 40 °F (1 to 10 °C). Note: Typically used with ice storage systems. Compare cold-air distribution system. Condensation: The phase change of matter from a gaseous state to a liquid state ‘Conduction: The process of transferring heat through a medium at rest; it can be roughly described as a diffusion of energy. Constant Air Volume (CAV): Use of constant air flow volume to a zone to thermally condition the zone. Control Loop: Combination of sensor(s), controller(s), and controlled device(s) that provide the desired control of the process. Control Zone: An area of building whose environmental conditions are monitored and controlled by one HVAC controller. Normally, only one set of sensors (thermostat, etc.) is required per control zone. Controller: Device that takes the controlled variable data from sensors and generates, the control signal sent to a controlled device.Terminology Arce Terminology Convection: The process of transferring heat through a fluid due to motion. Cooling Load: The amount of heat that must be removed by cooling equipment in order to maintain a steady-state condition. Core Area: Area of a register, grille, or linear slot pertaining to the frame or border, whichever is less. Damper: Device used to vary the volume flow rate of air passing through a confined cross section by varying the cross-sectional area. Dead Band: Range of values within which an input signal can change without the controller changing the output variable. Density (p): Mass per unit of volume, Ib,/ft [kg/m"]. Dew Point: Temperature at which water vapor has reached the saturation point in air, °F [°C] Diffuser: Outlet discharging supply air in various directions and planes Diffusion: Dispersion of air within a space. Direct Drive: The motor shaft is directly secured to the blower shaft. Each motor revolution is equal to one blower revolution. Direct Expansion: Refrigerant based cooling system. Displacement Ventilation: Displacement ventilation systems introduce air into the space at low velocities, which causes minimal induction and mixing. Distribution: Moving air to or in a space by an outlet discharging supply air. Distributed System: Some of the mechanical systems may be located in a central or general area. At the control zone, additional equipment is used to heat or cool the supply air. Draft: Undesired or excessive local cooling of a person caused by low temperature and air movement. Drop: Vertical distance that the lower edge of a horizontally projected airstream descends between the outlet and the end of its throw. Dry Air (DA): Air without entrained water vapor, Ibs [kg]. Dry-bulb Temperature (ty,): Temperature of air indicated by an ordinary thermometer, °F [°C]. Dynamic Insertion Loss: Insertion loss is the decrease in sound pressure levels that can be expected when a silencer is inserted into the path between the source and the receiver. ‘© Copyright Price industries Limited 207. xIx= Terminology Terminology Economizer: A heat exchanger used to help condition a space using available atmospheric conditions. Effective Area: Net area of an outlet or inlet device through which air can pass; equal to the free area times the coefficient of discharge. Emissivity (¢): of the radiating surface is a property which is strongly dependant on the material and finish of the surface, and determines the capacity of the surface to radiate. Energy Management System (EMS): Formal system of building energy conservation through all available names. Entrainment: Movement of space air into the jet caused by the air stream discharged from the outlet (also known as secondary air motion). Entrainment (or Induction) Ratio: Volume flow rate of total air (primary plus entrained air) divided by the volume flow rate of primary air at a given distance from the outlet. Envelope: Outer boundary of an air stream moving at a perceptible velocity. Exhaust Opening or Inlet: Any opening through which air is removed from a space. Fan Coil Unit: Fan and a heat exchanger for heating and/or cooling assembled within a common casing. Filter: Device used to remove solid material from a fiuid such as water or air. Firewall: In networking, a device used to secure a network by preventing unauthorized access. Forced Convection: is the process of convective heat transfer where there is an external force pushing a fluid across a surface, such as wind over a building or air through a cooling or heating coil. Free Area: Total minimum area of openings in an air outlet or inlet through which air can pass. Free Cooling: A process that uses outdoor air to cool a building and allows heat to be dumped to the outdoors, without requiring mechanical refrigeration. Gain: Ratio of the change in output of the controlled variable to the change in the control signal Generated Noise: is the sound power created when air flows through a silencerata given velocity and direction (forward or reverse). Grains (gr): Measurement of the moisture in air, grains per pound of dry air, Grille: Functional or decorative device covering any area through which air passes. Xx Copyright Pc Indus Limite 21= Terminology price Terminology Heat Flux: Heat flux, or rate per cross-sectional area, due to conduction in Btu/hft? or W/m*. Humidity Ratio (W): A ratio of water vapor to dry air. Hysteresis: A non-linear characteristic ofa control system that occurs when prior inputs affect the current state of the controller, creating a memory effect. Inches Water Column (in. w.c.): Measurement of air pressure using a column of water. Inches Water Gauge (in. w.g.): Measurement of air pressure using a column of water. Indoor Air Quality: The quality of the air that is breathed by occupants in an indoor environment, especially concerning undesirable particles such as bacteria and gasses such as carbon dioxide. Indoor Environmental Quality: The satisfaction that a person has with the indoor environment including such factors as IAQ, thermal comfort, lighting, and noise. Induction: See Entrainment. Isothermal Jet: Air jet with same temperature as surrounding air. Latent Heat: The heat released or absorbed when a phase change occurs from liquid to vapor or vice versa. Does not affect dry-bulb temperature. Latent Load: The amount of heat that must be removed by cooling equipment in order to maintain a steady-state condition. Leakage: Air that flows from a desired path to an undesired space, usually by seeping between cracks and voids, and usually uncontrollably. Lined Ductwork: Used widely for thermal insulation and to provide sound attenuation in a large number of HVAC systems. Lower (Mixed) Zone: In partially mixed systems, zone directly adjacent to floor, in which air is relatively well mixed. Mechanical Ventilation: The use of fans to move the ventilation air into or out of the occupied building space Mixing Plenum: Compartment into which two air supplies are mixed together before being discharged. Natural Conveetion: Air flow caused by differences in the density of a fluid, such as air, which may be caused by temperature variation in the fluid, An example of natural convection is the thermal plume around heat sources in still air. Also known as free convection. © canyoh Pie nasties nt 20 XXITerminology & Terminology XXII Natural Ventilation: The movement of outside air into and out of the building space without the use of a fan, Neck Area: Nominal area of duct connection to air outlet or inlet. Night Setback: A control scenario that specifies a wider dead band to be used during unoccupied hours, usually overnight. The use of night setback effectively creates two separate set-points: a heating set-point and a cooling set-point. Noise: Any unwanted or undesirable sound. Nonisothermal Jet: Air jet with a discharge temperature different from surrounding air. Nozzles: A device used to control the flow rate, pressure, and direction of a fluid. Occupied Zone: Room volume where occupants are located (typi level and 1 ft from walls). ally 6 fl above floor Octave Band: Frequency range is broken down into several smaller diserete sections referred to as octave bands. Each octave band is identified by the center frequency, with the ratio of each successive octave band being 2:1. Open-Loop Control: An open-loop control does not have direet feedback from the control variable to the controller Operative Temperature (°C): The relative temperature felt by an occupant based on air velocity, air dry-bulb temperature, and mean radiant temperature. Outlet Velocity: Average velocity of air emerging from outlet, measured in plane of opening Overhead System: Heating, air-conditioning, or refrigerating piping system in which the supply main is above the heating or cooling units supplied. Packaged Rooftop Unit: A complete air handler system, typically with multiple cooling and heating stages. Passive Beam: A cooling unit that removes heat by naturally convecting air through a coil and transferring heat using water or other transfer fluid Pneumatic Control |: Control components use pressurized air as the energy source. Primary Air: Air delivered to an outlet by a supply duct. Proportional Control (P): Simplest type of modulating control were the output of the controller is proportional to the difference between the input signal and the set-point. Proportional plus Integral Control (PI): Adds a time-based correction factor to the output of a proportional controller.® Terminology price Terminology Proportional, Integral and Derivative Control (PID): A Pl controller with a derivative function that is used to give a level of anticipatory action to the controller. Psychrometric Chart: A plot of the psychromettic properties of moist air. Radiation: The process of transferring heat through space by propagation of heat waves. No medium is necessary for radiation to occur. Radius of Diffusion: Horizontal axial distance an air stream travels after leaving an air outlet before the maximum stream velocity is reduced to a specified terminal level (e.g., 50, 100, 150, or 200 fpm). Raised Floor: A floor that constructed above the structural slab of a building, under which is a void that can contain services such as air distribution, electrical wiring, telephony, networking, etc. Register: Grille equipped with a flow control damper. Reheat: The sensible heat added to previously cooled supply air to raise the supply air temperature. Relative Humidity (RH): Ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the water vapor saturation pressure at the same dry-bulb temperature and barometric pressure, n.d. Room Criteria (RC): A method of rating sound performance primarily used as a diagnostic tool based on perception of rumble, roar, or hiss. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR): A type of thyristor that controls AC current. In HVAC applications, SCR typically refers to solid-state control of an electric heater. Sensible Heat: The energy required to solely affect the dry bulb temperature. Set-Point: The desired value of the controlled variable. Sound: A propagating vibrational disturbance or wave in an elastic medium (solid, liquid or gas). Sound is most commonly thought of as being transmitted in air and detected by a person’s ears. Sound Power: Sound power is the total rate at which sound energy is radiated by a sound source and is measured in watts. It is independent of the environment and only depends on the operating conditions of the equipment. Sound Pressure: The local pressure differential caused by a sound source that can be measured by equipment. It is dependent on the listening environment as well as the distance from the source, measured directly in Pascals and often converted to dB, referencing 20 Pa. {© Copyright Price Infuse Uinta 200 XXLTerminology = Terminology XXIV Specific Enthalpy (h): A composite of three properties: internal energy (u), pressure (p) and specific volume (v); where: h= u + p * v Btu/lb,,,, [ki/kg,,]. Also known as enthalpy, total heat and heat content. Da Specific Volume (v): Unit volume of a unit mass of a material. The reciprocal of density, ft'/Ib,, [m'/kg] Spread: Divergence of air stream in horizontal and/or vertical plane after it leaves an outlet. Stack Effect: Buoyancy driven air movement that is caused by a thermal gradient. Stagnant Zone: Area characterized by stratification and little air motion. This term does not necessarily imply poor air quality, Stratification: The condition of having a measurable vertical temperature or contaminant gradient in a fluid. Stratification Height: Vertical distance from floor to horizontal plane that defines lower boundary of upper mixed zone (in a fully stratified or partially mixed system). Stratified Zone: Zone in which air movement is entirely driven by buoyancy caused by convective heat sources. Typically found in fully stratified or partially mixed systems Supply Air: The air that comes directly from the air handling equipment before it mixes, with any room air. It is typically considered to be filtered or otherwise decontaminated and has a specific designed temperature. Supply Opening or Outlet: Any opening or device through which supply air is delivered into a ventilated space being heated, cooled, humidified, or dehumidified. Supply outlets are classified according to their location in a room as sidewall, ceiling baseboard, or floor outlets. However, because numerous designs exist, they are more accurately described by their construction features. Terminal Velocity: Maximum air stream velocity at end of throw. Thermal Comfort: A condition of the mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment. ‘Thermal Decay: The increase in temperature of supply air before it is delivered to the room due to heat gained while the air travels in the supply path. ‘Thermal Plume: Is a convection current caused by buoyancy forces that causes local air to warm and rise above the heat source, entraining surrounding air and increasing in size and volume as it loses momentum. ‘Thermostat: A device used in a control system for temperature sensing and set-point control.Symbols Symbols (IP) Symbol Description of tem Typical Unit Symbol Description of Item Typical Unit @ acoustic velocity fps or fm & thermal conductivity Burin /nf?°F A area fe K proportionality constant ~ A, measured gross (core) ft JorL length ft area of outlet L—characteristic length ft A, core areaofneck area ft L, sound pressure aB breadth or width fi 1, sound power 4B B barometric pressure psia or in, Hg, morM — mass Ib concentration Ib/A, motif? N rate of rotation rpm ¢, specific heat at constant Bruilb°F P pressure psi pressure Pp, pattial pressure of dry psi ¢, specific heat at constant Bw/lb°F air volume P, partial pressure of water psi C coefficient : vapor in moist air C thermal conductance Btwht*F P, vapor pressure of water psi C, loss coefficient : in saturated moist air C, coefficient of : P power hp, watts performance 4g time rate of heat Bwh d prefix meaning - transfer rate oe t0tal heat transfer Buu dorD diameter ft Q volumetric flow rate fim D,orD, equivalent or hydraulic ft r radius ft ciemnet R thermal resistance feh°F/Btu D, mass diffusivity fs R — gas-constant filb/Ib,R base of natural - s specific entropy BrwIbR logarithms Ss total entropy BwR © energy Bu 1 temperature oF E electrical potential My Af, or AT, mean temperature °F f film eonduetance Biwht?F difference (alternate for h) T absolute temperature R f frequency Hz T. average (control) room °F J, friction factor, Darey-- dry-bulb temperature Weisbach formulation iv | mils oreo - PF force Ib, characteristic length F, view factor (radiation) - Ts supply temperature °F g gravitational fls* Tp set print temperature - socelerauon Tu turbulence intensity : h _eeiling height if T, local airstream dry-bulb °F hh heat transfer coefficient Btwh-ft-*F temperature A specific enthalpy Bru/lb u specific internal energy Btw/Ib A, enthalpy of dry air Btu/lb U total internal energy Bu fy, mass transfer coefficient _ tbvhfi'lb per ft U overall heat transfer Biwhtt?F fh, enthalpy of moist Bulb coefficient air at saturation y normal velocity - total enthalpy Bu vy specific volume fb J electric current A XXVI= Symbols Symbols (IP) price Symbol Description of Item Typical Unit Symbol Description of Item Typical Unit 7 total volume ® @ absorptivity, absorptance 7 linear velocity fps radiation 7 average velocity ¢ @ —_Tinear coefficient of per °F V actual velocity at point - ‘thermal expansion being considered © thermal diffusivity eh V; terminal velocity fpm B volume coefficientof per °F V. centerline velocity fpm thermal expansion W weight Ib, y _tatio of specific heats, - W humidity ratio of Ib(watery/ of . moist air Ib(dry air) y specific weight Ibe wen fib, A difference between 7 W, humidity ratio of moist Ib(watery/ yalues air at saturation Ib(dry air) & emissivity, emittance - X mole fraction E (radiation) x quality, mass fraction = Or time ph of vapor th mass rate of flow xyz length along principal ft 1 efficiency or 2 coordinate axes effectiveness Oy effective draft oF wavelength nm ‘temperature, uw degree of saturation . dynamic viscosity Ib/fth vy kinematic viscosity fe/h p density oie p reflectivity, reflectance - (radiation) p volume resistivity On © Stefan-Boltzmann Brw/hf?R* constant & surface tension Ib/tt < _ stress byte? + time sh + transmissivity, - transmittance (radiation) $ relative humidity 7 XXVIISymbols (SI) Symbol Deseription of Item Typical Unit Symbol Description of Item Typical Unit @—_acoustic velocity mis T_electric current A A area m k thermal conductivity WimK A, measured gross (core) mw? K proportionality constant - area of outlet Tor L length m A, coreareaofneck area m? L characteristic length in b breadth or width m ZL, *%tound pressure B B barometric pressure KPa Z, -:ipound power “B C concentration kg/m’, mol/m motM mass ke mol N rate of rotation rpm ¢, specific heat at constant KN/(kgK) # OP ireseure KPa pressure s P, partial pressure of KPa specific heat at constant Ki/(kgK) Cosepdery abt volume P, partial pressure of water kPa C coefficient - ‘vapor in moist air C thermal conductance Wi(mm"K) P, Vapor pressure of water kPa C, loss coefficient , in saturated moist air C, coefficient of : P power hp, kW performance 4g time rate of heat w d- prefix meaning : pean Zac differential Que total heat transfer J dorD diameter m QO volumetric low rate mis D,orD, equivalent or hydraulic m r radius m diameter R thermal resistance (okyw D, mass diflusivity Is R gas constant kirkmolK base of natural e S— specific entropy kirkgk logarithms S total entropy kK e energy 1 1 temperature °C E electrical potential v At,or AT, mean temperature *¢ f film conductance Wi(m'K) difference (alternate for h) T absolute temperature K f frequency Hz T. average (control) room °C Jy friction factor, Darey- ~ volume resistivity Qem o Stefan-Boltzmann Wim?K* constant o surface tension Nim T stress Nim? t time sh + transmissivity, : transmittance (radiation) 6 relative humidity : ‘© Copyin Pce Indusies inte 2001 XXIXSymbols @ Symbols | Sr Sn ERS SESS SISSIES SSPE XXX Dimensionless Numbers Fourier number ail? Grashof number Dp pg anie Graetz number we fkL Nusselt number Dik Prandtl number ak Reynolds number pyDin Mathematical Symbols equal to not equal to approximately equal to greater than less than steater than or equal to less than or equal to plus minus plus or minus a multiplied by b a divided by ratio of circumference of a circle to its diameter a raised to the power n square root of a infinity percent summation of naturall log logarithm to base 10® Subscripts Subscripts price Subseript Description of Item Subscript Deseription of Item ab, a M referring to different phases, states or physical conditions of a substance, or to different substances air ambient at floor ‘barometric (pressure) referring to critical state or critical value convection dry bulb dew point base of natural logarithms exhaust referring to saturated liquid film floor referring to evaporation or condensation friction referring to saturated vapor referring to change of phase in evaporation water vapor head to foot referring to saturated solid internal referring to change of phase in melting referring to change of phase in sublimation kinetic fatent lighting ‘mean value molar basis oe oz P 7 wh 12, ‘occupants and equipment ‘occupied zone referring to constant pressure conditions or processes potential refrigerant radiant or radiation referring to moist air at saturation sensible referring to isentropic conditions or processes static (pressure) supply surface set point total (pressure) referring to isothermal conditions or processes total referring to constant volume conditions or processes vapor velocity (pressure) wall water wet bulb cross-sectional referring to initial or standard states or conditions different points in a process, or different instants of time XXXI™ Acronyms and Piping Legend Acronyms ene era el St ASHRAE — American Society of Heating, Refrigerating HWR Hot Water Return and Air-Conditioning Engineers HWS Hot Water Supply AHU Air Handling Unit LCD Liquid Crystal Display BACnet _Building Automation and Control Network 1sO Intemational Organization BAS Building Automation System for Standardization BIL BACnet Testing Laboratories LAT Leaving Air Temperature CFD ‘Computational Fluid Dynamics LEED® Leadership in Energy and CHPS The Collaborative for High Environmental Design Performance Schools LWT Leaving Water Temperature CHWR Chilled Water Return OHAD Over-Head Air Distribution CHWS Chilled Water Supply REHVA The Federation of European Heating DDC Direct Digital Controller and Air-Conditioning Associations EAT Entering Air Temperature VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds EMS Energy Management System EWT Entering Water Temperature Piping Legend Water temp sensor Condensation detection sensor Differential pressure sensor Pump, 3 way modulating valve Balancing valve PIPOOO® 2 way valves XXXII © coprgh Pen narra Lind 20,CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF HVAC We all understand the basic operation of the building HVAC systems. When we are cold, we turn the thermostat to a higher setting and when we are hot, we turn the thermostat toa lower setting. How changing the thermostat makes the thermal conditions in the building change remains a partial mystery to most building occupants. Only the HVAC designer, architect, contractor or maintenance personnel have the deeper understanding of how the equipment works in conjunction to maintain the desired conditions. Most ‘occupants merely want to feel comfortable. For a designer, that means taking into account the amount of fresh air required to control airborne contaminants, controlling how the conditioned air is introduced and removed from the space, and the response time of the system when an occupant makes a change to the thermostat. it www price-hvac.con/handbook for the latest updateseee eee eee CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF HVAC ‘Weall understand the basic operation of the building HVAC systems. When weare cold, ‘we tum the thermostat to a higher setting and when we are hot, we tum the thermostat, toa lower setting, How changing the thermostat makes the thermal conditions in the building change remains a partial mystery to most building occupants. Only the HVAC designer, architect, contractor or maintenance personnel have the deeper understanding, of how the equipment works in conjunction to maintain the desired conditions. Most occupants merely want to feel comfortable. For a designer, that means taking into account the amount of fresh air required to control airbome contaminants, controlling how the conditioned air is introduced and removed from the space, and the response time of the system when an occupant makes a change to the thermostat. Visit ww price-hvac-com/handbook forthe latest updates,Chapter 1m Fundamentals of HVAC 1.1 HVAC Design Basics Depending on the type of occupancy — office space, school, factory, hospital, laboratory, etc, the designer has a different set of priorities that must be considered. For example, in a hospital surgical space some of the considerations include controlling airborne contaminants with filtration; controlling how the air distributes in the surgical space by the diffuser selection, layout and air velocity at the surgical site; the sound generation by the air distribution equipment; surgical space pressurization to minimize/prevent infiltration of contaminants from outside the surgical space, etc. These parameters are designed to minimize the risk of an airborne contaminant causing an infection in the patient, An office space would focus on control of the space air temperature, air velocities at the occupant and the amount of fresh air required. Many of the different types of spaces the HVAC designer will be involved with are detailed in the chapters of this book. Function of HVAC Systems Air-Conditioning (Heating and Cooling of Air) Inan occupied building space, the air temperatures sensed by athermostat, and depending upon the control sequence, the control system will maintain the space air temperature by either adding heat or raising and lowering the supply air temperature and/or air volume. For cooling, the heat energy that is removed from the occupied space comes from the equipment, lighting, occupants, solar load and shell gain, The removal of this excess heat energy is performed by either the use of cool supply air or chilled water and supply airin a hydronic cooling system such as a radiant panel, sail or chilled beam. In addition to the temperature of the supply air, the volume of the cool supply air is often varied based on the amount of heat energy that needs to be removed to maintain the desired space temperature. For heating in an air only system, the amount of heat energy that is lost through the building shell is offset by either increasing the volume of warm supply air or increasing the temperature of the supply air, or increasing both the volume and temperature, For heating with hot water only, the amount of heat energy that is lost through the building shell is offset by a radiant baseboard heater, radiant panel or sail, active chilled beam, etc, When using hot water for the primary source of heating in an occupied space, ventilation air will still be supplied to maintain the indoor air quality needed for human ‘occupancy or control of contaminants. Ventilation is the addition of clean, often filtered, air toa building space to controlairborne contaminants and to provide the required volume of fresh air for human occupancy. ‘The ventilation air may or may not be thermally conditioned depending on the type of building space being supplied. The volume of ventilation airrequired forhuman occupied spaces is detailed in ASHRAE Standard 62.1, "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality," Table 6.1: Minimum Ventilation Rates in the Breathing Zone. 2 © conan riences Lined 201.2 HVAC Operating Characteristics Arce 1.2 HVAC Operating Characteristics Zoning Most buildings have areas of different occupancy that require different amounts of heat removal or addition at different times throughout the day due to solar loading. Each of these areas or building exposures would potentially need different volumes of supply air, as well as different amounts of energy removal or addition to maintain the ‘temperature set-points. The most basic building is a one-strueture building with one interior space or one thermostat. When the ambient conditions are cooler than the interior space, the heat energy in the interior space is lost through the building walls and roof to the cooler ‘outdoor environment. Therefore, heat needs to be added to the interior space to maintain the desired temperature set-point. When the ambient conditions are warmer than the interior space, the heat gain through the walls needs to be removed from the interior space to maintain the desired temperature, Figure 1.2: Ambient conditions are warmer than interior space copie nas ed 3Chapter 1 @ Fundamentals of HVAC Often buildings have more than one zone. When two zones exist, the space between them normally experiences no heat gain or loss due to the same space temperature in the zones, As more and more zones are added to a building, at some point there is a zone that does not see the ambient conditions due to the lack of an outside wall surface. This type of zone is called ‘interior zone.’ The zones that do have at least one exterior wall surface are called ‘exterior zones.” Isometric View Plan View 1Zone 5 Exterior Surfaces Figure 1.3: Single zone with five exterior surfaces In Figure 1.4, both zones A and B have four of five surfaces exposed to the elements. The common wall will have heat exchange between the two zones. Isometric View 2 Fwo zones with one common boundary between them Plan View Figure 1 sure 1.5, zone A has three of five surfaces exposed to the elements with one wall being shared with zone D and B, while D has four of six surfaces exposed with one wall being shared with A and E. Zone E has only three walls exposed to the elements as two walls are shared with zones D and F. Zone B has the smallest number of exterior walls as it shares three walls with A, E and C. The common walls will have heat exchange between all six zones. Isometric View Plan View Figure 1.5: Six stacked zones with differing number of exterior and interior bounding surfaces@ 1.2 HVAC Operating Characteristics Arce Figure 1.6 shows a single story building with nine zones, 8 of which are exterior and one is interior. This means there is a total of nine different control points in this building. Isometric View Plan View Figure 1.6: Single story building Figure 1.7 shows a multistory building with five floors and nine zones per floor. This means there is a total of 45 different control points in this building. Isometric View Plan View Figure 1.7: Multistory building Copyright Pie nstiog Loa 200, 5Chapter 1m Fundamentals of HVAC Impact of Solar Loading Solar loading is an important aspect of the operation of a building. As the sun travels during the day, the amount of solar energy that is absorbed on each of the exterior zones varies. Also, different sides of the building will see different amounts of solar energy at different times of the year. Isometric Plan View Figure 1.8: Typical floor multistory building Table 1.1: Typical floor multistory building cfm loading in mid-summer CAV System L 200 2 120 3 205 4 185 3 185 6 200 7 95. 180 120 180 8 90 150 190 190 # 80 95 185 185 10 80 95 185 185 i 280 280 280 280 Total 1540 1540 1645, 2s Table 1.1 shows the volume of air required to counter the energy added due to solar gain, Note that the time of day has a major impact in the amount of solar gain in each of the exterior zones. Only the interior zone would see a constant volume of air for a constant occupancy load. copra Pen Instn Lie 0® 1.2 HVAC Operating Characteristics price Constant Air Volume (CAV) Ina constant air volume system, the amount of air supplied to each zone is the maximum required to condition the zone, This means that for the building in Table 1.1, the total volume of supply air needed is 2115 cfm. Variable Air Volume (VAV) Ina variable air volume system, the amount of air is varied based on the loading in each of the zones. You can see that at various times of the day, the total volume of supply air varies, and is less than the CAV volume. Most buildings see a load that is about 65% of the total CAV volume for about 65% of the time. This is the VAV effect due to solar loading. This effect will be different for each building type and geographic type/weather conditions. 0 B 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 cfm, % Figure 1.9: An example of the VAV effect due to solar loading with a maximum fan cfm of 1645. (Note: this characteristic graphic is specific to a particular building and climate) Reheat When a zone is supplied with more cooling air than is required to satisfy the zone load (over cooled), supplement heatiis often used to heat the supply air to prevent over cooling the zone. This is referred to as ‘reheat.” Looking at an exterior zone for both VAV and CAV applications, the total loads are: Cooling Btw/h 12500 __| Supply Air Temperature (SAT) 55°F Heating Buh 9000 | Zone Temperature Set-Point (Tz) RE Cooling cfm Required: sn, (At) = 0.2407, (Ar) Am pp4 oon Sem (© Copyoh Prieur Lied 20, 7Chapter 1 @ Fundamentals of HVAC q = 1.08 cfm(Ar) fin send a 12500, 1,08(Ar) 1.08(72-55) = 680 Figure 1.10: Typical exterior zone Since a CAV system has a constant air volume, during heating mode, there will be an additional amount of energy required to offset the higher than necessary supply volume of air at 55 °F. Looking at an exterior zone for CAV applications, the total loads are: Total Loads eee E = ae Cooling cfm 680 Heating cfm 680 Heating season Btus required: seeshy : 2 To cancel cooling 12500 To provide heat 9000 Total 21500 If we allow the volume of air to vary (VAV) based on the loading of the zone, the total energy required to maintain the set-point during the winter months is greatly reduced. Looking at an exterior zone for VAV applications, the total loads are: Total Loads iiss Cooling efim 680 Heating cfim (based on mi 230 Heating season Btus required a = aS ee To cancel cooling (due to minimum air for ventilation) 4220 To provide heat 9000 Total 13220 Copyright Pc Industries Lined 200.1.2 HVAC Oper: g Characteristics price CAV Advantages: + Typically have less complex control schemes. * Have the ability to supply a constant volume of air to meet ventilation requirements. + Particularly suited for buildings with specific static pressure control requirements between zones (e.g. hospitals). CAV Disadvantages: + Typically use more energy than VAV. + Fora CAV system to satisfy a partial load in a zone, the system will either reheat cold supply air or mix cold supply air with warmer air. If this CAV system is a constant volume fan powered terminal, the first source of reheat is the return air from the zone. This will lower, but not completely offset the reheat penalty as the fan in this terminal will run continuously. + CAV systems have a higher transport cost due to friction losses (pressure drop) in the ductwork. + Larger fan and ductwork. * Potential for higher sound levels in occupied spaces from HVAC system. VAV Advantages: * Smaller HVAC Systems - Fan & Ductwork. + Ina VAV system with a constant supply air temperature, the system responds to load variations in the zone by varying the amount of air supplied to the zone. There typically is a minimum volume of fresh air applied to an occupied zone, so there is a potential for some reheat. * Under partial load conditions (typical) there is no need to reheat the supply air or mix warmer air with the supply air. * Air handling units (AHU) in a VAV system are typically smaller and require less energy to operate than in a CAV system. * Ductwork can be downsized compared to CAV systems VAV Disadvantages: + Fixed supply air temperature implies that the system is a cooling only system. Since most buildings are located in areas that have exterior temperatures that are cooler than the desired interior temperature during part of the year, some sort of supplemental heating is required. * Pressure control between adjacent spaces is a complex issue. Ifa space needs to have a consistent static pressure as compared to another adjacent space, a complex control scheme is usually required and may involvea tracking supply /return system. where both a supply terminal and an exhaust terminal are used. * Maintaining a precise relative humidity in a zone may be more difficult. + Maintaining minimum ventilation and/orbuilding pressurization may bemore difficult. © Copyright Pres Industries Lined 201. 9Chapter 1m Fundamentals of HVAC 1.3 HVAC Systems HVAC system designs are basically broken down into two different design philosophies: centralized and distributed. The selection of one approach over the other depends on the use of the building (occupancy), the geometry of the building’s occupied spaces, and the ease or restriction in placing distribution ductwork/piping in the building structure. Centralized System Acentralized system would have a majority of the mechanical systems (chillers, pumps, airhandlers, etc.) in one mechanical space and the conditioned air, water, or steam would be piped or ducted to the zone where a local distribution or control system would be located. ‘An example of a large centralized system is a college campus quad where a central plant is used to heat steam, chill water and perhaps generate electricity. The cold or hot water/steam is then distributed through a network of tunnels to the individual buildings Distributed System A distributed system may have some components in one central or general location and then at the control zone, additional equipment would be located to provide the actual tempering of the supply air. An example of a distributed system would be a split refrigeration system, The compressor and condenser are located some distance away from the evaporator and fan. The evaporator and fan would be mounted in the occupied zone, providing local tempering of the zone. Many buildings may have aspects of a centralized system and a distributed system, For example, a building has a central air handler which conditions the fresh air supply to the zones, but has active chilled beams in the occupied zone. The central system provides the air that induces the room air across the cooling coil in the chilled beam. The cooling coil is supplied with cold water from the central system and transfers the heat from the induced room air to the water. 1.4 Ventilation Systems _est oor mes ne EN EEES nub 10 The term ventilation is used to describe the process of moving ‘fresh air’ (outdoor air) into a space in order to: * Control space temperature * — Remove/control moisture * Remove/control odorsprice Control/remove smoke in the event of a fire (life safety) Control airborne contaminants such s airborne bacteria or carbon dioxide (life safety) Provide fresh air for occupant respiration Ventilation involves both the exchange of air within the building space with outside air as well as circulation of air within the building, and is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings. There are two basic types of ventilation of a building: mechanical/forced ventilation and natural ventilation. Mechanical or Forced Ventilation Mechanical or forced ventilation is the use of fans to move the ventilation air into or out of the occupied building space. In the event that moisture control is part of the ventilation process, mechanical cooling systems may be required. Control of odor and other similar contaminants is obtained by using the ventilation air to dilute or replace the air in the occupied space with air from outside the building envelope. It is very common to find a mechanical exhaust system in kitchens and bathrooms. Exhaust systems are typically used to control odors in bathrooms and airborne odors and particulates (e.g. grease) in kitcher Several factors that impact the selection and operation of these exhaust systems include: hood or exhaust opening size, location of exhaust opening relative to source of contaminant under control, exhaust air volume, and the resulting noise generation from the exhaust process. Ceiling fans and table/fioor fans are sometimes used to provide recirculation of room ait. Usually these systems are in residential settings and are used to increase the perception of comfort. Natural Ventilation Natural ventilation is the movement of outside air into and out of the building space Without the use ofa fan. Typically, natural ventilation involves the use of operable (user or automatically opened) windows or ‘trickle vents.” A ‘trickle vent’ is an opening in the building shell that allows control of the movement of air by the adjustment of a damper of some sort. Natural ventilation works best when the ventilated spaces are small and when the architecture allows the air flow path. In a larger building, natural ventilation often involves the use of the stack effect. Stack effect is in essence the movement of air due to density difference, which is the physical movement of warmer air in an upward direction and the settling of cooler air toward the lower building spaces. ‘A well-designed natural ventilation system will use less air movement energy than forced ventilation systems. Comfort of the occupants may be more difficult to achieve ona consistent basis due to the passive nature of this system. In warm and/or humid climates maintaining thermal comfort and controlling the humidity level in the occupied space solely via natural ventilation may not be possible. (©Copyright Pie Indust Lian 207, iChapter 1 & Fundamentals of HVAC 1.5 HVAC Air Distribution Equipment 2 en SE 12 Chiller Achiller is a machine that removes heat from a heat transfer fluid using a refrigeration cycle (vapor-compression cycle or absorption refrigeration cycle). The vapor-compression cycle is one of the most common methods used for conditioning of air in buildings. It is also used in refrigerators, freezers, water and other industrial and commercial services/products. The vapor-compression cycle uses a circulating media (refrigerant) which is used to absorb heat from another media such as water or air. The absorbed heat is then rejected into another media such as water or air, In essence, a vapor-compression cycle can be considered a heat pump. All vapor-compression systems are comprised of four basic components: compressor, condenser, throttling valve (expansion valve), and evaporator. Low Pressure : High Pressure Rettigerant Vapor 4} efigerant Vapor ——_ 98% | insecticide dust Copier toner ‘Most face powder ‘Most paint pigments 13 | 801090% | >98% Bag Filters ‘Non supported (flexible) microfine fiberglass or synthetic media. 12 to 36 in. deep, 6 to 12 pockets Box Filters Rigid style cartridge filters 6 to 12 in. deep may use lofted (air-aid) or paper (vetlaid) media 1.0 t0 3.0 um Particles | Superior residential 12 | 751075% | 795% | Legionella Better commercial Humidifier dust buildings 11 | eorwes% | 298% | Lead dus Hospi Milled flour 10 | Soross% | >959% | Coal dust Auto emissions Nebulizer drops 9 4010.45% | 90% Welding fumes Bag Filters ‘Non supported (flexible) microfine fibenglass or synthetic media, 12 to 36 in, deep, 6 to 12 pockets Box Filters Rigid style cartridge filters 6 to 12 in. deep may use lofted (air-laid) or paper (wet-laid) media ‘Note: MERV fans for non-HEPA/ULPA filters also includes test airflow rate, but itis not shown here because it is of no significance for the purpose of ths table. © Copy kane Lind 20, 1Gruen y santa GUILE URES eu (eure 0.3 to 1.0 um Particles Commereial Pleated Filters 8 301035% | 790% | Mold buildings Disposable, extended surface, 1 to 5 snes Better residential | in thick with cotton/polyester blend is Industrial media. Hair 5] 7 | PROM ig SN 0 | pea grmrcees workplaces Cartridge Filters ae Paint booth Graded-density viscous-coated cube . Shemp a inlet air or pocket filters, synthetic media 10.90% | Coment dust ota Pudding mix Disposable synthetic 5 os leprae’ ST? media panel filters Powdered milk . cam | 750 sox |= HOP HM Particles | Minimum filtration | Throwaway : SE | pane Residential Disposable fiberglass ; Window air or synthetic panel filters 2 <20% 70 to 75% 5 moe conditioners Washable Ce ‘Aluminum mesh, latex coated animal A 0% | 65t0 70% | Sending dust hair, or foam rubber panel filters Spray paint dust Electrostatic . | Textile fibers Self-changing (passive) woven 1 <20% <65% polycarbonate panel filter ‘Note: MERV fans for non-HEPA/ULPA filters also includes test airflow rate, but it is not shown here because it is of no significance for the purpose of this table.@ References price References ASHRAE (2004). Standard 62. 1-2004—Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality. Atlanta, GA: American Society for Heating, Refrigerating and Air- Conditioning Engineers. ASHRAE (2007a). ASHRAE handbook—HVAC applications. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers. ASHRAE (2007). Standard 52.2-2007—Method of testing general ventilation air- cleaning devices for removal efficiency by particle size. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers. ASHRAE (2008). ASHRAE handbook—HVAC systems and equipment. Atlanta, GA: ‘American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers. ASHRAE (2009). ASHRAE handbook— Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Avallone, E. A., Baumeister IIl, T., eds. (1987). Marks’ standard handbook for mechanical engineers (9" ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Clifford, G. (1984). Modern heating, ventilating and air conditioning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, E.H. Price (2007). Catalog 6, volume 3: Price terminals, Winnipeg, MB: EH. Price Ltd. Hinds, W.C. (1982). Aerosol technology: Properties, behavior, and measurement of airborne particles. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Janis, R. R., & Tao, W. K. Y. (2009). Mechanical and electrical systems in buildings (4" ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ‘National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (2003). Filtration and air-cleaning systems to protect building environments from airborne chemical, biological, or radiological attacks. Cincinnati, OH: Department of Health and Human Services: NIOSH, NIOSH Publications. Sun, T. (1994). Air handling system design. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book ‘Company, © copyriah Pendent 2 23Chapter 1 & Fundamentals of HCHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS HVAC systems rely on fluids in order to serve their function of providing comfort. Whether it is the control of refrigerant flow in a pipe or the diffusion of supply air ina room, fluid mechanics define many of the rules used in the HVAC industry. This field of engineering can be complex and is wildly varied in application. This chapter will focus on the fundamental concepts of fluid mechanics which are specifically related to the HVAC indusiry, including friction losses, pressure measurement and induction. Visit www.price-hvac.com/handbook for the latest updates.Chapter 2 @ Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 2.1 Properties of Fluids A fluid is a substance that continuously deforms or flows when exposed to an external force. Examples of fluids include air, water, glycol and mercury. In general, both gases and liquids are fluids and have certain properties in common. Density The density of a fluid is the mass per unit volume. For most HVAC applications, we can assume that the density of a fluid does not change, and is therefore considered to be incompressible. Certain buoyancy-driven flows, as in displacement ventilation, require that variations in density be taken into account in order to predict how the system operates. For these flows, refer to Chapter 15—Fundamentals of Displacement Ventilation for more detail. Figure 2.1 shows the classic flow example of a fluid between two plates of area, A = XZ, with the top plate in motion with 7 = Vp, wre, and the bottom one stationary. The no-slip condition, a fundamental concept of fluid flow, requires that the velocity of the fluid at the wall be the same as the velocity of the wall, as shown below. Vouid yar = Y plate, upper 21 V puis »-0 2.2 Figure 2.1: Fluid between two plates of area, A=XZ In Figure 2.1 above, the fluid element of cross sectional area d4 = dydz and volume dV = dxdydz has a density, p, of: dm __dm Oy Gadvde 23 Copyright ce Industies Lined 2072.1 Properties of Fluids Arce where: p= density in Ib/ft! or kg/m? m = mass in Ib or kg = volume in ft? or m* The velocity profile of the fluid between the two large plates is linear where: VV pe. sgper dy Y 2.4 Viscosity Viscosity is a fluid property which is defined as the resistance by adjacent layers in the fluid to shear, or slide, across each other. In Figure 2.1, the fluid will exert some resistance, F, to moving, which will be exerted on adjacent fluid layers, and ultimately on the plates themselves. In most fluids the proportionality factor between the shear stress, or the force per unit area, and the velocity gradient is the absolute viscosity, j: oe 25 y where: 1 =shear stress in Ib/ft? or Nim? F = resistive force Ib; or N A =area in f orm? k= viscosity in Ib,s/ft? or Ns/m? V = velocity in fi/s or m/s The higher the viscosity, the higher the internal resistance is to flow. Fluids with low viscosity, such as air, have very little resistance. In contrast, highly viscous fluids, such as oil, have much higher resistance. Most flows do not result in the linear velocity profile shown in Figure 2.1. In these cases, the shear stress is obtainable by using the more general form of equation 2.5 where the viscosity relates the shear stress to the velocity gradient in the y-direction: T= a 2.6 * . where: v= velocity normal to the cross-sectional area in fU/s or m/s Itis often convenient to use the kinematic viscosity instead of the absolute (dynamic) viscosity. The kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the viscous force to the inertial force characterized by the absolute viscosity and density of a fluid, respectively: 27 nematic viscosity in f/s or m/s ‘© Copan ee nau Liss 2 27Chapter 2. # Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Table 2.1: Properties of air and water at standard conditions for temperature and pressure (Incropera and DeWitt, 1996) Fluid TP. Si ‘Temperature 70°F 20°C Pressure 14.696 psi 10.325 kPa Density 0.0753 Tbm/ft® 1.21 kg/m’ i. Viscosity 3.79. 107 Ibssi 18.1 wNs/m? Kinematic Viscosity 1,62 x 10“ fs 15 mm/s Specific Heat 0.24 Btw/lb °F 1.007 ki/keK. Density 62.4 Ibn 998 kg/m? wile. 2.10 x 105 Tbs 1010 Nein’ 08 x 10 12) 1.01 mi Specific Heat 0.88 Buu/lb °F 4.183 ki/keK Flow Regimes There are some fundamental principles that govern the movement of fluids. The first of these is continuity, which essentially states that mass cannot be either created nor destroyed in a system. For example, the mass of a fluid entering a pipe of cross-sectional area, A, must equal the mass exiting the pipe: tin = pVA = constant 28 wher V = average velocity in the pipe rh = mass flow rate in Ib/s or kg/s The volumetric flow rate, Q, is: A 2.9 Fluid flow can be categorized into two primary flow regimes, each with unique flow characteristics. The first is laminar flow where the flow stream lines do not cross. This flow can be said to appear smooth. In laminar flow, fluid layers do not cross each other and energy (such as heat) diffuses through the layers. The viscosity of the fluid has a stabilizing effect, helping to maintain the fluid layers. When internal disturbances become strong enough to overcome the dampening effect of viscosity, which occurs when the fluid travels at higher speeds or over a rough surface, the flow becomes turbulent. Figure 2.2: Profile of duct with laminar flow Figure 2.3: Profile of duct with turbulent flow © Copyiot Pres Industrie Lied 2® 2.1 Properties of Fluids price As the flow passes from laminar to turbulent flow, itis said to be transitional. Transitional flows are unpredictable and not well understood. In practice, these flow regimes typically follow the design procedures for turbulent flows. Whether a typical engineering or HVAC flow is laminar or turbulent, certain flow characteristics can be predicted by the Reynolds number, Re. The Reynolds number is the dimensionless ratio of the inertial forces to viscous forces: _ (ov’) _ pvt Re= 2.10 where: L_ =the characteristic length in ft or m For IP units, there is often a conversion factor from 1b,, to Ib,, g = 32.3 ft/s’, that is required but omitted from equations. In the case of Reynolds number for IP units, equation 2.10 becomes: pelo’) ay (nV) ¢ 211 UL Table 2.2: Values for Reynolds number for internal pipe flows that correspond to each of the flow regimes are as follows (Fax and MeDonald, 1992): Flow Regime ‘Typical Range of Reynolds Number Laminar <2300 Transitional 2300 — 4000 Turbulent > 4000 In order to determine the Reynolds number for a particular case, a characteristic length must be used. Table 2.3 gives typical values for the characteristic length for common applications. Table 2.3: Typical values for the characteristic length for common applications Room flow Circular pipe flow Non-circular pipe flow (ducts, ete.) where: V_ =the room volume in ft° or m* the pipe diameter in ft or m the hydraulic diameter of the pipe in ft or m A, = the internal cross-sectional area of the pipe in ft? or m? P= the pipe internal perimeter in ft or m ©Copyright Price Industrie Lites 2001 2930 Chapter 2m Introduction to Fluid Mechanics gg Example Reynolds Number Calculation For the case of water flowing in a 0.5 in. inside diameter smooth pipe, determine the average velocity and Reynolds number for both a volume flow rate of 0.35 gpmand 2 gpm. Water at 60 °F has the following properties: Temperature, ¢ 60°F Viscosity, a 2.28 x 10" Ibis/ft Density, p _ 62.4 Thal ‘Thermal Conductivity, & 0346 Biwh iF & 7 0.975 Buullbn °F Pr 7.46 For the 0.35 gpm case: The average velocity can be determined from equation 2.9: 0350 i 7.48 gallon x(_03Sin )? 4(i2in/t And the Reynolds number can be calculated using the velocity found above and equation 2.11: v We we i 62.4 Ib, / ft? (34.3 fpm)(min/60s)(0.5in)(ft/12in) 2.2810" Ib, s/ ft? (32.2 Ib. ft/s” Ib,) 10262.1 Properties of Fluids price For the 2 gpm case: 7. Wi eR a(n) And calculate the Reynolds number, again using the velocity found above and equation 2M: Re=o") 1 _ ott BY) se L = 62.4 Tb, / f° (200 fipm)(min/60s)(0.5in)(fr/12in 2.28%10" Ib, s/ ft7(32.2 Ib, ft/s? Ib,) Re 11569 In the first case, the calculated Reynolds number is less than 2300, therefore we expect the flow to be laminar. In the second case, the Reynolds number is significantly higher than 4000, thus the flow is expected to be turbulent,Chapter 2m Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Ei Example 2.1 - Reynolds Number Calculation For the case of water flowing in a 12 mm inside diameter smooth pipe, determine the average velocity and Reynolds number for both a volume flow rate of 90 L/h and 450 L/h. “Water at 15 °C has the following properties: ‘Temperature, ¢ Se Viscosity, 11.1 wNsim? Density, p 999 kg/m? Conductivity, & 0.597 WimK) op 4082 W(kgK) Pr 7.58 For the 90 L/h case: The average velocity can be determined from equation 2.9: 2 ot (ates) mar] pn E2600 0001). 2m af 2mm . 4\1000 mm/m, And the Reynolds number can be calculated using the velocity found above and equation 2.10: Re®@ 2.1 Properties of Fluids price For the 450 L/h case: And calculate the Reynolds number, again using the velocity found above and equation 2.10: pvL uw Re 999 kg./m’ (1.1 m/s)(0.012 m 1.1110? Ns/m’ Re 11880 In the first case, the calculated Reynolds number is less than 2300, therefore we can expect the flow to be laminar. Conversely, in the second case, the Reynolds number is significantly higher than 4000, thus the flow is expected to be turbulent. © Copyright rice Industries Lite 201 33Chapter 2. @ Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 2.2 Bernoulli’s Equation Energy in fluids takes several forms: 1. Kinetic energy or energy due to the fluid being in motion. 2. Potential energy due to the elevation of the fluid. 3. External work done on the fluid, such as by a pump or fan. 4, Internal energy of the fluid due to temperature, changes in phase, etc. ‘Any change in the fluid energy is accomplished by performing work on the fluid, such as pumping it; or by adding heat to or removing heat from it, such as through a heating or cooling coil. In order to ensure that the fluid energy, £, is balanced, the increase in the various forms of fluid energy must equal the total work done on the fluid minus any system losses, ignored here. Therefore, for a given unit mass of fluid, we can write: AE=W+q 2.12 where: AE = change in energy, Btu or W W = work done on the fluid in Btu or W q = total heat transferred to/from the fluid in Btu or W Or in the form of Bemnoulli’s equation for turbulent flow, the change in the sum of the kinetic energy, potential energy and internal energy of the fluid equals the sum of the work done on and heat transferred to/from the fluid: ra Al get us2 |= By tq 213 2 p average velocity in the duct or pipe gravitational constant (32.2 fi/s? [9.81 m/s*]) elevation, ft [m] = specific internal energy of the fluid = pressure, psi or Pa Ey, = external work done on the system Ignoring external work, heat transfer and friction losses, equation 2.13 becomes: 4-924 = Constant 214 2 p or, multiplying by the density, p: +y2+ p= Constant 245 where: y= specific weight of the fluid defined by y= pe 34 © Copyright ce Indus Limite 21@ 2.2 Bernoulli's Equation Aree Flow Losses Expanding equation 2.13 so that Ap = p; - p,, assuming that changes in the internal energy of the fluid, Av, can be attributed to wall friction in the conduit, E;, and assuming no heat gain/loss gives: rz rz Fort 2 gab Cater” 2.16 2 PJ, z p), As an alternate form, equation 2.16 can be divided by gravity, g: p rn eee he he eRe. 217 2g 1) 2g V5 where: f= energy per unit weight, or hydraulic head The form equation 2.17 is particularly useful in HVAC applications because it can be used to evaluate the changes in head as fluid passes from station 1, increases in head through a pump (/,,) and decreases in head through a pipe (/,), to provide the head at station 2, as shown in Figure 2.4: Figure 2.4: Flow changes in head InHVAC systems, the losses through pipes, valves and other mechanical equipment are major design considerations. Losses through a pipe vary with the average pipe velocity according to the Darcy-Weisbach equation (ASHRAE, 2009): Le b= fo 2.18 a ID where: f =the friction factor The friction factor for laminar flow can be determined from: 64 — 2.19 Z Re Unfortunately, the values for the more common case of turbulent flow are not so easily determined, though correlations may be used. Many references include methods and correlations for obtaining this factor, based on the flow conditions (ASHRAE, 2009; Fox & McDonald, 1992; Incropera & DeWitt, 1996). An extended discussion on friction factors in ductwork can be found in Chapter 8—Introduction to Duct Design. (©Copyright Price Indutes Lines 200, 35Chapter 2m Introduction to Fluid Mechanics iP | Example 2.2 - Head Loss Calculation For the flows in Example 2.1, calculate the head loss through the smooth pipe if the pipe is 100 ft long. From Example 2.1 Pipe Diameter, D = O5in, Pipe Length, 100 R uae “Temperature, 60°F Viscosity 228% 10° Ibs Density, 4 Toy? Conductivity, k 0346 Buh o. zs 0.975 aes @ 0.35 gpm ‘ F @2 gpm Re @ 0.35 gpm ig Re @ 2 gpm For the ease of laminar flow (0.35 gpm): Equations 2.18 and 2.19 can be used to determine the head loss: ee ae " D2g Re D2g 64 {100 _)(43fpm(min/60 sec)) = 038 3026 \05im(R/i2in)) —_2@22R/e) For the case of turbulent flow (2 gpm): Equation 2.18 can be used along with a value of f= 0.027, determined from a Moody diagram (Fox & McDonald, 1992) nape 2g ( 196 fo (in /60 so) rey (eee es ei aE \osin(R/i2in)) _ 2G228/s 36 oni ennai i 22.2 Bernoulli’s Equation price | st | Example 2.2 - Head Loss Calculation For the flows in Example 2.1, calculate the head loss through the smooth pipe if the pipe is 30 m long. From Example 2.1: Pipe Diameter, D 12mm Pipe Length, L 30 mm ‘Temperature, ¢ 15°C Viscosity, 11.1 giNs/m? Density, p 999 kg/m? ‘Conductivity, k 0.597 WimK) Ge 4082 JkgK) Pr 758 F@80Lh 0.2 mis 7 @450Lh Limis Re @80L/h 2180 Re @ 450 L/h 11880 For the case of laminar flow (80 L/h): Equations 2.18 and 2.19 can be used to determine the head loss: 64 30m (0.2 m/s)’ I ee 2180 12mm (m/1000 mm) 2(9.81 m/s?) For the case of turbulent flow (450 L/h): Equation 2.18 can be used along with a value of f= 0.027, determined from a Moody diagram (Fox & McDonald, 1992): LP pape SO 3g 30m (1m. hy= 0.027 ___V Eis e 12mm (m/1000 mm) 2(9.81 m/s’) © Copyright Pie Indusiee Lined 201 37Chapter 2. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 2.3 Pressure Measurement 2st ene eee eres FESS PPPS ESTES ERSTE The pressure, p, used in the derivation of equation 2.15 is commonly known as the static pressure. This pressure is the pressure that would be experienced by a particle moving with the flow. With most flows in straight ducts, the static pressure does not vary normal to the flow direction, therefore we can measure this pressure with a tap on the duct wall. For cases where there may be some flow variation in the duct, the static pressure can be measured with a probe that is mounted in the conduit, parallel to the flow, with small holes on the side, as shown in Figure 2.5, to pressure readout instrument Figure 2.5: Static tube The stagnation pressure, also known as the total pressure for incompressible flows, is the pressure that would be measured when the flowing fluid is brought to rest without loss due to friction. This value can be obtained by using Bernoulli’s equation (equation 2.15), assuming no change in elevation: 7 7 a p= Constant 2.20 Equation 2.20 suggests that a change in velocity will cause a corresponding change in the static pressure, p. As the velocity increases, the static pressure will decrease, Conversely, a reduction in the velocity will cause an increase in the static pressure. If the static pressure, p, is measured at a point where the velocity is V, then the total pressure, p,, can obtained when the velocity is equal to ze 2.21 In equation 2.22, the term pV 7/2 is known as the dynamic or velocity pressure. A common form of equation 2,22 used in the HVAC industry is: PPPs, 2.23 = total pressure static pressure p, = velocity pressure= 2.3 Pressure Measurement Arce The velocity pressure in equations 2.22 and 2.23 can be measured using a pitot tube, shown in Figure 2.6. Total pressure Static pressure Outer tube communicates static pressure to readout instrument Middle tube communicates total pressure to readout instrument Figure 2.6: Pitot-static tube 2.24 If the total pressure and the static pressure can be measured at the same location, the velocity, /, can be determined using equation 2.23. A pitot-static tube allows for this double measurement and is typically used by the industry to measure flow velocity. In order to achieve an accurate reading, the tube must be oriented parallel to the direction of the flow. Pressures for flow measurement are generally measured in in. w.c. for IP units and Pa for SI units. Simplified equations are typically used in order to convert the dynamic pressure into a velocity: IP Units: IP. IP ash ae ee ee 2(p, )(5.1972)(32.2)(3600), f IP. y mit Pp For Standard Air (p = 0.074 Ib,,/ft): P V = 4005p, afiy min {© Copyright Pie Industries Lined 201 3940 Chapter 2m Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Alternatively, IP SI Units: SI Sl For Standard Air (p =1.21 kg/m’): SI V =091, P= Altematively, si Flow in Pipes and Ductwork In pipes and ductwork, the flow is bounded by the walls of the conduit. The no-slip condition requires that the fluid at this wall is stationary, causing a velocity profile that varies from zero at one wall to Fax at some point in the flow, and back to zero at the opposite wall, as depicted for a pipe in Figure 2.7. The velocity gradient between fluid at the wall and the fluid in the pipe causes shear stress. This stress causes drag on the flow, converting a portion of the fluid’s kinetic energy into heat. This drag, often denoted as h, is a function of the pipe length, diameter and fluid velocity (ASHRAE, 2009) It takes some length of the pipe to develop the flow pattern seen in Figure 2.7, known as the entry length. The flow in this region has a profile that may be unpredictable and non-symmetrical, Consider the flow through an elbow, shown in Figure 2.8. As the fluid enters the elbow, the pressure gradient causes a shift in the location of maximum velocity away from the inside surfaces. In cases where the pressure gradient is very strong, itis possible for the fluid to detach from the surface, forming a recirculation zone. This is called separation and is shown just downstream of the inside bend of the conduit in the figure. As the flow continues downstream, the wall shear stress causes the flow to return to a fully developed flow pattem after a length, L.@ 2.3 Pressure Measurement ‘ price Figure 2.7: Flow in a pipe The entrance length, and separation in particular, becomes important when designing HVAC systems where performance is based on inlet conditions. An elbow located immediately upstream of a diffuser may cause the air pattern to be unpredictable, as discussed in Chapter 9—Introduction to Mixing Ventilation. Similarly, an elbow immediately before a flow sensor may give incorrect readings. —vp— Separation ee ey ——— pet Figure 2.8: Flow in an elbow pipe Flow in a Conduit with Obstruction In cases where there is a sharp obstruction in the conduit, as shown in Figure 2.9, separation is nearly assured. These obstructions cause a significant pressure gradient across the pipe, causing a recirculation region immediately downstream of their location. The fluid flowing through the pipe is then forced through the contracted flow area, increasing the velocity and dynamic pressure accordingly. An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in its center that is inserted into a pipe. This device causes a pressure drop across the plate which can be measured to determine the flow velocity according to equation 2.24. Inserting equation 2.24 into equation 2.9 gives the theoretical volume flow through the pipe: 2p) 2.25 Qantas “7A Ay 5 [©Copyright Priests Umit 207, 41Chapter 2m Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Figure 2.9: Sharp obstruction in a conduit In reality, many factors affect the flow rate. Correlations have been developed to obtain actual flow rates based on equation 2.25 (ASHRAE, 2009). In practice, the factors that affect the variations of flow rate are combined into one coefficient, or K-factor: Qactut = KOpsoretcat = KAgrifce 2.26 where: K = the correction coefficient Ah = hy-h,=(Ap)/pg as measured in Figure 2.10 Figure 2.10: Sharp obstruction in a conduit Shear and Mixing Layers The shear stress caused by viscosity, described by equation 2.6, along with the dependency between the velocity and static pressure in equation 2.15, causes a phenomenon known as induction, If a portion of fiuid is moving at a higher velocity than the surrounding fluid, shear stress will exist wherever there is a difference in velocity. This shear stress exerts a force on the fluid in motion, causing it to slow down. It also exerts a force on the fluid at rest, causing it to move. The differences in static pressure between the fluid in motion and that at rest causes flow from the region of higher static pressure to that ata lower static pressure.@ 2.3 Pressure Measurement price In the case of a jet in a room, shown in Figure 2.11, the interface between the jet and the room air where the velocity gradient exists is known as a shear (or mixing) layer. ‘The jet, initially at an average velocity, /, starts to slow down when it comes in contact with the room air, which has an initial velocity of 7 = 0. This layer causes the fluids of the jet and the surroundings to mix, blending the velocity and temperature so that after the jet travels a distance, x, within the room the jet and the surrounding air have similar velocities and temperature. Figure 2.11: Schematic of jet decay Coanda Effect The Coanda effect is the phenomenon of an air jet attaching itself to a nearby surface. This is a direct result of the pressure-velocity relation defined by equation 2.15. Because the surface is stationary, the lower static pressure caused by the air motion that would ordinarily draw adjacent air into the jet, instead pulls the jet towards the surface. This is particularly useful in HVAC because an engineer can rely on the Coanda effect to keep the air attached to a ceiling, as shown in Figure 2.12, instead of falling into the room on top of occupants and potentially causing draft. Coiling Coanda Effect Figure 2,12: The Coanda Effect ‘© Copyiht r ndurias Unita 201. 4BChapter 2 ® Introduction to Fluid Mechanics References ASHRAE (2009). ASHRAE fundamentals. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Fisher, D.E. (1995). An experimental investigation of mixed convection heat transfer in a rectangular enclosure. PhD thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL. Fox, R. & McDonald, A. (1992). Introduction to fluid mechanics (4" ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. Incropera, F.P. & DeWitt, D.P. (1996). Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer (4" ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. Wright, J.D., Johnson, A.N. & Moldover, M.R. (2003). Design and uncertainty analysis for a PVTt gas flow standard. Journal of research of the national institute of standards and technology, 108 (1), pp. 21-47. 44 Copyright Price nduses Limited 207CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO HEAT TRANSFER The transport and transfer of heat are primary design criteria for HVAC systems. It is the transfer of heat by conduction, convection, radiation, evaporation, etc. which leads to the heat losses and gains in building, and ultimately the need for an HVAC system. This introductory chapter reviews the basic heat transfer processes that are relevant to the HVAC industry, as well as defines several concepts which are used later in the Handbook. Visit www:price-hvac.comv/handbook for the latest updates.Overview Chapter 3m Introduction to Heat Transfer 2 TSE EE tr SR SSS 3.1 Conduction Heat transfer is energy in transit due to a temperature gradient. As with a pressure differential causing fluid flow, heat transfer is driven by a differential of temperature. Excluding evaporation, there are three (3) primary processes (or modes) for transferring heat in an occupied space. When a temperature gradient exists in a stationary medium, such as a wall, slab or glass of water, conduction is the process by which heat moves through it. When there is a surface at a different temperature from the air surrounding it, such as at a perimeter wall or window, convection is one of the heat transfer process. In cases where two nearby surfaces are at different temperatures, such as a radiant panel and a perimeter wall, radiant heat transfer occurs. Conduction, shown in Figure 3.1, is the process of transferring heat through a medium at rest; it can be roughly described as a diffusion of energy. Conduction can occur in gasses, liquids and solids, and is always in the direction of decreasing temperature. This can be through a piece of glass, an exterior wall or floor, and is typically a relatively stable process, though in perimeter zones conduction through the wall will see some variation due to the solar loads changing throughout the day, changes in weather, and building occupancy. Figure 3.1: Conduction pathways@ 3.1 Conduction price The rate of heat transfer by conduction is defined by Fourier’s Law, for which the one dimensional steady-state heat transfer shown in Figure 3.2 is expressed by: 3.1 32 where: q = heat transfer rate due to conduction, Btu/h [W] q" = heat flux, or rate per cross sectional area, due to conduction, Btwhft? [Win?] k = thermal conductivity of the medium, Btu/hft?F [W/mK] A, = cross-sectional area of the medium, f? [m2] t= temperatures at location 1 and 2, respectively L = thickness of the medium, in, [m] The thermal conductivity, &, is an important property of the material and determines how much heat can travel through it for a given temperature difference. ‘Table 3.1: Thermal conductivities for common building materials (ASHRAE, 2009) z Thermal Conductivity () Mate — Buwh?r Wink) Air at 68 °F [20 °C] 0.0149 0.0257 Concrete 0.54 0.93 Copper 227 393 Glass 0.59 10 Glass fiber insulation 0.022 0.038 Gypsum board 1.12 0.16 Spruce 0.84 0.12 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient In most HVAC applications, it is the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, or the total thermal resistance of a material or assembly that is used to determine the heat transfer in buildings. The advantage of the overall heat transfer coefficient is that it takes all heat transfer modes into account and provides the user with a simple relation: q=UA(t, - ty) 33 The overall heat transfer coefficient can be determined in.a similar manner to electrical conductivity where the resistance, 2, is a function of the material dimensions and the material of fluid properties shown in Figure 3.2 and Figure 3.3, and where q and temperature are analogous to current and voltage, respectively: ae mde 34 © Copyrgn Piee nus Limite 201 47Chapter 3- m1 Introduction to Heat Transfer ‘Warm aoe cold amie ppaselee 1, Figure 3.2: Conduction through a wall or slab Pipe ta Warm — 2 —> te pa tla/n) 2nLk Figure 3.3: Conduction through a pipe “©copyine es nias Utes 2, 35 3.6@ 3.1 Conduction price Example 3.1 - Conduction Through a Composite Wall Consider the private office shown below. The building is located in Austin, TX with 1% design conditions as follows: oft Sins —— 2t —___ _ Heating DB ASHRAE (2009) 29.6 °F 97.8 °F 75.1°F Simplified 30°F 95°F 15°F An 18 in. section of the office’s 10 ft high composite exterior wall, shown above, is comprised of exterior architectural sheathing, glass fiber insulation, and drywall. The outdoor surface temperature is 4, eaux = 30 °F and indoor surface temperature is 4, nite = 70 °F. For this room: Problem: a) Determine the conductive heat transfer through an 18 in. wall section. b) Determine the conductive heat transfer through a 12 in. wall with a 4 in. tall window across the room. Solution: a) The wall construction is as follows: [©Copyright Pie Industrie Litas 2001 4950 Chapter 3. Introduction to Heat Transfer wD From the above image of the wall construction, heat can pass through the sheathing, the insulation, and the wood framing. These paths are parallel to each other and some heat will travel though each path. As such, the equivalent thermal circuit looks like: Rona Retr From Table 3.1, the values for the thermal conductivity are: zits Thermal Conductivity, k — Bwhi?F Architectural glass siding 69 Glass fiber insulation 0.226 Gypsum board 112 Spruce stud 0.84 The U-value for the wall can be calculated using equations 3.4 and 3.5: 7 1 1 1] Ta ER Rae ag Bo 1 L sreashing +[ famine teat] Laat A | Lenton — Eats | Kaya eae] Lin (f/12 in) 6.9Btu/hft? °F(I0 fY1.5 fi) . 1 |, [0.226Btu/hit? °F (10 AYi4 in) (10 RLS ft) 2 °F (10 £4 in) 6in = {0.000805 + 0.0920 +-0.00372}" 104 9.6918 15 15 hit °F The conduction through the 18 in. wall section can now be calculated using equation 3.3: Bu =UA(t, - )=0.691 q=UA(t, - by) Ate (15 #)G0 °F-70 “F)=- 41s ‘©Copyright Pie ndusies Limited 20@ 3.1 Conduction Arce b) The double pane window has an R-value of 2 hft’°F/Btu (Krigger & Dorsi, 2004). The total heat transfer through the wall assembly can be determined from: =U pair Arat (th ~ £2) + U indow Arindow th ~ £2) Bu 1 = 0.693 12 f)(10- 4 8)(30 °F -70 °F) +" _(4 f)(12 (30°F 70°F) 4 paeep (2 AICO 4.) )+ ree 102 M6 ) q=— 1996 BY _ 969 BY 2956 BU h h h © Copyright Pie industri Loita 200, 512 Chapter 3. @ Introduction to Heat Transfer st | Example 3.1 - Conduction Through a Composite Wall Consider the private office shown below, The building is located in Austin, TX with 1% design conditions as follows: Window ASHRAE (2009) Simplified A 450 mm section of the office’s 3 m high composite exterior wall, shown above, is comprised of exterior architectural sheathing, glass fiber insulation, and drywall. The outdoor surface temperature is fs, ouside = 0 °C and indoor surface temperature is 4, inside = 20 °C. For this room: Problem: A) Determine the conductive heat transfer through a 0.45 m wall section. B) Determine the conductive heat transfer through a 3.5 m wall witha 1.25 m tall window across the room. Solution: A) The wall construction is as follows: 30mm +4+<—150mm—> + 13mm out © Copyright rics nduses Limited 201.@ 3.1 Conduction price From the above image of the wall construction, heat can pass through the sheathing, i the insulation, and the wood framing. These paths are parallel to each other and some ig. Pa re +heat will travel though each path. As such, the equivalent thermal circuit looks like: _ Rite YS e—_ wo Ri From Table 3.1, the values for the thermal conductivity are: i Condi = i # Wink) Architectural glass siding 1.0 Glass fiber insulation 0.038 Gypsum board 0.16 Spruce stud 0.12 The U-value for the wall can be calculated using equations 3.4 and 3.5: : 1 = 1 1 a hae. a 4 ee FaE Pe ~Ranaset| gg] Ray i _ Lstating {Sen Faas |: Lat KereomingA | Linton — Estuts | Kerywott A vad) 0.02 m ] 1 1W/mK (1.35 m?) 1 (0.15 m)(0.15 m) 135 me | "(015 m)0038 WimK ( m)(0.350 m)+(0.15 m)0.12 Wink @ m\O.1m) 0.013m 0.16 WimK (1.35 m’) = boss +1.96 + 0.0602]" The conduction through the 450 mm wall section can now be calculated using: q=UA(t,~t)= 0.364 ag aK 35 nr)(0 °C — 22 °C) =-10.82 W54 Chapter 3. @ Introduction to Heat Transfer b) The double pane window has an R-value of 0.35 m°K/W (Krigger & Dorsi, 2004). The total heat transfer through the wall assembly can be determined from: q=0.364 Y_ (3,5 m)(3-1.25 m)(0°C-20°C)+ mK =U yar va 1 ~ fe )+ Unt rato ft) (1.25 m\(3.5 m)(0°C-20°C) oasarkw! mfasm ) q=~45W—250W=-295 W3.2 Convection Aric cf 3.2 Convection Convection, shown in Figure 3.4, is a dual process of transferring heat from solid to fluid or from fluid to fluid, and is driven by a temperature gradient as well as by the motion of the fluid itself, ‘The first type is known as forced convection. Forced convection is the process of convective heat transfer where there is an external force pushing a fluid across a surface, such as wind over a building or air through a cooling or heating coil. The second convection process is known as natural convection or free convection, and is where the flow is caused by differences in the density of a fluid, such as air, which may be caused by temperature variation in the fluid, An example of natural convection is the thermal plume around heat sources in still air, as shown in the Figure 3.4 Figure 3.4: Convection pathways Forced Convection ‘The heat transfer rate by convection is defined by: g=hAs(t, - 1) 37 and the flux by: A(t, - 6) 38 where: q_ = heat transfer rate due to convection, Btu/h [W] q”" = heat flux, or rate per cross sectional area, due to convection, Btu/hft? [Wim] f= local convection coefficient, Btwhft?F [W/(mK)] As = surface area of the medium, f [m’] copie Panui Lind 2, 5556 Chapter 3m Introduction to Heat Transfer In order to include convection in the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, as well as in thermal circuit analysis, the following correlation for resistance may be used: 39 ds In general, values for the convective heat transfer coefficient are difficult to determine. They depend on the geometry of the problem (i.e. the procedure for determining h for flow in rooms is different from that for flow in pipes), the velocity and fluid type, as well as other factors. Due to the dependency between velocity and h, it is common to express /i in terms of the non-dimensional Nusselt number (Nu): Nu 3.10 where: k= thermal conductivity of the fluid L__ = characteristic length, ft {m] Typical relations for L are found in Table 2.3 ‘The Nusselt number is in tum a function of the Reynolds number, Re VL Nu= f(Re)= Ae) Bul " Much work has been done to identify values for h and Nu in the built environment, with various correlations having been developed including those by Min, Schutrum, Parmelee, & Vouris (1956), Khalifa & Marshall (1990) and Fisher (1995) [all correlations are for SI units]: ‘Table 3.2: Correlations for convective heat transfer, SI units Min et al. (1956) pee = 2.301 97% Khalifa & Marshall (1990) h=2.30A1 0% Fisher (1995) Nu =~24.8 + 0.36 Re®® ASHRAE (2009), laminar Nutye = 0.592 Re®> In practice, these correlations, or variants thereof, are programmed into energy modeling programs such as EnergyPlus to simplify the heat transfer and load calculations for building spaces. As a simplified approach, ASHRAE (2009) provides values for the wall convective heat transfer coefficient to be: Table 3.3: ASHRAE (2009) standard convective heat transfer coefficients, Location Pies Z Btu Ww. 1.46 ——— 83 Indoor Toy WK Btu W 51 29 Outdoor ee mK@ 3.2 Convection Aree Rearranging equation 3.8 and equation 3.9 allows us to solve for h the heat transfer due to convection: Nuk a ZL Nuk q f=iilt,-4)= “(1 - t2) 3.13 ls For flow in pipes, the analysis of convective heat transfer processes is more straight forward. Correlations for internal flow are provided in Table 3.4. ‘Table 3.4 Convective heat transfer correlations for internal flows (ASHRAE, 2009) Flow Condition ‘Correlation Laminar, fully developed, Re , < 2300 Constant Surface Temperature Nu = 3.66 3.14 Constant Surface Heat Flux Nu = 4.36 3.15 ‘Turbulent, fully developed, Re . >10000 Cooling Fluid Nu=0.023 Re?’ Pr* 3.16 Heating Fluid Nu=0.023 Re?* Pr°* 3.17 where: Pr =the non-dimensional Prandtl number, which is a property ofa fluid equal to the ratio of the fluid’s momentum and thermal diffusivities: G, pen: Aan k pa wher a = the thermal diffusivity, f/h [m/s] vy =kinematic viscosity, ft/s? [m/s] ©Copyright Pie Industrie Ltd 200, 5758 Chapter 3. @ Introduction to Heat Transfer 1 | Example 3.2 - Convection in Pipe Flow Using the flows from Example 2.1, determine and compare the heat transfer coefficient in the pipe for a chilled water supply, CHWS, pipe with constant heat flux. Pipe Diameter, D a 05 in Pipe Length, L 7 100 ft ‘Temperature, 1 60°F Viscosity, 1 2.28 x 10% Iby Density, p (2A Tb, /ft Conductivity, & 0346 Buhi°F & 0.975 Btu/lb,°F Pr 7.46 7@0.35 gpm 34.3 fpm 7@2 gpm 196 fpm Re @ 0.35 gpm 2026 = Re @2 gpm 11569 0.35 gpm 038 H.@2gpm 10.7% ‘The Nusselt aumber, Nu, for the flow can be calculated using the correlations in Table 3.4 40 fpm This flow rate is in the laminar range (Re < 2300). As a result, the Nusselt number for a constant heat flux is 4.36. 200 fpm This flow rate is in the fully developed turbulent range (Re > 10000). The Nusselt number can be calculated from equation 3.16: Nu=0.023Ref* Pr"? ‘Nu = 0.023(11569)""(7.46)"" = 74.85 Using equation 2.33 to determine the convective heat transfer coefficient, A: Nuk _ 4.36 (0.346 Bu/hi'F) _ 40 f he - ae L 0.5 in(ft/12 in) 5 Nuk _ 74.85(0.346 Btu/hfF) Buu 200 fpm he Sea — D 0.5 in(ft/12 in) hft'F The convective heat transfer coefficient of the water flow in the pipe is 622/36.2, or ~17 times higher with the turbulent flow than with the laminar flow. This dramatic increase in heat transfer coefficient occurs even though we have only increased the velocity in the pipe by a factor of five (and the pressure drop by a factor of ~10.7 £40.38 fi, or ~28 times from Example 22). Asa result, for maximum heat transfer, it is advisable to ensure turbulent flow in cooling or heating coils as well as hydronic heating and cooling products under design conditions. ‘© Copygn rca nau Limiad 20® 3.2 Convection price Convection Example 3.2 Pipe Flow Using the flows from Example 2.1, determine and compare the heat transfer coefficient in the pipe for a chilled water supply, CWS, pipe with constant heat flux. Pipe Diameter, D 12mm Pipe Length, 30m ‘Temperature, 7 158C. Viscosity, pt 1.11 wNsime Density, p 999 kg/m* Conductivity, & 0.597 WimK) & 4082 J/(kgK) Pr 7.58 ¥@80Uh 0.2 mis 7@450 Lh Lims Re @80L/h 2056 Re @ 450 Lih 11567 H,@ 80 Lh 0.16m H.@ 450 Lh 4.2m ‘The Nusselt number, Nu, for the flow can be calculated using the correlations in Table 3.4. 0.2 m/s This flow rate is in the laminar range (Re < 2300). As a result, the Nusselt number for a constant heat flux is 4.36. 1.1 m/s This flow is in the fully developed turbulent range (Re > 10000). The Nusselt number can be calculated from equation 3.16: Nu=0,023Re#* Pr 5 Nu = 0.023(11569)" (7.46)"’ = 74.85 Using equation 2.33 to determine the convective heat transfer coefficient, h: oon y-Nuk 4.36(0.597 Wim) _ 5 14, Ww L 0.012 m aK Lie Nuk 75.2(0.597WimK) _ 5749 Ww L 0.012 m mK The convective heat transfer coefficient of the water flow in the pipe is 3740/217,or~17 times higher with the turbulent flow than with the laminar flow. This dramatic increase in heat transfer coefficient occurs even though we have only increased the velocity in the pipe by a factor of five (and the pressure drop by a factor of ~4.2 m/0.16 m, or ~28 times from Example 2.1). As a result, for maximum heat transfer, it is advisable to ensure turbulent flow in cooling or heating coils as well as hydronic heating and cooling products under design conditions. © Copyright Pin naustos Unitas 200, 5960 Chapter 3 # Introduction to Heat Transfer Natural Convection So far, the convection phenomena presented has been a result of air motion caused by external forces, such as air out of a diffuser or wind on a facade. Convection flows can also be caused by internal forces such as a draft off a window and a thermal plume forming around an occupant or computer, as Seen in Figure 3.4, These flows are caused by buoyancy forces due to thermal expansion. As the temperature of a fluid changes, so does its density. As the fluid becomes more or less dense than the surrounding fluid, the buoyancy force will cause it to rise or fall, respectively. Natural convection, or free convection, is the convective heat transfer resulting from these flows. Equations 3.7 and q=hAs(t - b) 3.7 q =Leh(y-4 a (4-5) 38 are still valid for natural convection, but the procedure for determining the convective heat transfer coefficient is a little more complex. The amount that a fluid expands due to a change in temperature is defined by a fluid property, the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, B, which is generally obtained from a fluid's property table for non-ideal gases. In most HVAC applications, air can be assumed to be an ideal gas. In these cases B can be determined from (Incropera & DeWitt, 1996): where: 4; = the film temperature which is the average of the absolute surface temperature and the absolute fluid temperature, R [K] Values for the Prandtl number can be calculated or obtained from a heat transfer textbook. ASHRAE (2009) provides a correlation to determine the inside surface temperature of an exterior wall: U h Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and h is the convective heat transfer coefficient of the wall in Btu/hft°F and W/(m’K) for IP and SI units, respectively. The Grashof number, Gr, is the ratio of the buoyancy force to the viscous force acting ona fluid: =t at) twall,exterior = tar — 3 Gr, = SBlts= to) 321® 3.2 Convection price The Nusselt number is again used to determine the convective heat transfer coefficient, ‘A, but in the case of natural convection, the Nusselt number is a function of the Grashof and Prandtl numbers, not the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers as in the case of forced convection. For laminar natural convection, the Nusselt number is defined by: no, (or )=( Sel) a2 where: Nu, = Nusselt number at a point x and is dimensionless g(Pr) is a function of the Prandtl number defined by: 0.75 Pr® al he 3.23 (0.09 +1.221 Pr’? +1.238 Pr} ‘The average Nusselt number is obtained by integrating equation 3.22 over the length of the surface and then dividing by the surface length, Z, arriving at or, 4 =, _4(Gr 4 Nu, = & Pr)=—N 3.24 L 4 1) (Pr) je As in the case of forced flows, naturally driven flows are also subject to division into the Jaminar, transition and turbulent flow regimes. ‘These flows use the Raleigh number, not the Reynolds number, to determine the flow regime. The Raleigh number is defined by: Ra, =Gr, Pr 3.25 For vertical surfaces, such as a perimeter wall, the value of Ra where the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is ~10°. Churchill and Chu (1975) provide a correlation for the Nusselt number in relation to the Raleigh number which may be used for both laminar and turbulent flows: Nu, = 40.825 + 0.387Ra/’ f [va ) [1+(0.492/ Pr 6162 Chapter 3. Introduction to Heat Transfer Ee Example 3.3 - Convection off a Cool Window For the window in the private office in Example 3.1, determine the heat transfer due to natural convection assuming a surface temperature of 60 °F. Window Height, 7 4ft ‘Window Width, 7 12 ft Window Surface Temperature, fyiniow 60 °F Room Air Temperature, from 10 °F The fluid properties must be evaluated at the film temperature, ¢: (teoom + 459.67) + (tyindow + 459-67) 2 (70 +.459.67) + (60 + 459.67) _ an oe ae Dynamic Viscosity, 0.0438 Ibys/ft? Density, p 0.0756 Ib,,/f Kinematic Viscosity, v 0.57 fh Conductivity, k 0.0147 Btwhft°F &p 0.24 Btw/lb,°F Pr 0.716 ‘Thermal Diffusivity, a 0.81 7h Thermal Expansion Coefficient, B 0.00222 UR Characteristic Length = Window Height aft (© Copyright Pie Industries Limite 20@ 3.2 Convection price ‘The Raleigh number can be determined from equations 3.23, 3.19 and 3.18: BBlts ~ to )E av Ra =Gr,Pr= ft 1 2 32.2; | 0.00221 10 R)(4 ft) 2 57 fait h )3600s In both cases, Ra < 10° and therefore the flow is in the laminar range. Using equation 3.26 to determine the Nusselt number: Ra= = 0.12810" = 0.387 Raf® ; Nu, = 40.825 + -—— £ : | [1+ (0.492/p0p"*] | 2 0.387(0.128 x10") | Nu, = loses + ( [H0. 492/0.716) 9/16] 8/27 Using equation 3.12 to determine the average heat transfer coefficient: pee L 65.8(0.0147 Btu/h ft°F ) 4ft h = 0.242 Btu/h f°F Finally, using equation 3.7 to determine the heat transfer: q=hds(t ~ t) q = 0.242(12 ft)(4 ft)(60 °F—70 °F)=116 Btu/h In problems with both natural and forced convection, which is the case for most applications, there are instances where the effect of natural convection may be neglected. In cases where Gr,/Re’, is much less than 1, the forced convection becomes dominant. "Sentero ESS EES EESTI ‘© Capi Peseta inte on 6Chapter 3m Introduction to Heat Transfer Ei Example 3.3 - Convection off a Cool dow For the window in the private office in Example 3.1, determine the heat transfer due to natural convection assuming a surface temperature of 15 °C. ‘Window 3m Window Height, 1.25 m Window Width, 17 3.5m Window Surface Temperature, Trinine ise Room Air Temperature, Tico 20°C The fluid properties must be evaluated at the film temperature, (7: = {00m +273) + (trinow +273) p= Seon £278) Uaioe +273) (20 +273) + (15 +273) y= =291K e 2 Dynamic Viscosity, 18.1 wNsim? Density, p 1.21 kg/m? Kinematic Viscosity, » 14.9 wmels? Conductivity, & 0.0254 Wimk) & 1006 kek) Pr 0.716 ‘Thermal Diffusivity, a 20.85 mm/s Thermal Expansion Coefficient, 6 0.00343 17K Characteristic Length = Window Height 1.25 m® 3.2 Convection price ‘The Raleigh number can be determined from equations 3.23, 3.19 and 3.18: 3 Ra =Gr,Pr= SBlts= to) av 9. si (oonsas Jox)(.2s m)’ s Ra= =0.106 x 10" a ee aye 2.09 x10 eh 49x10 | In both cases, Ra < 10° and therefore the flow is in the laminar range. Using equation 3.26 to determine the Nusselt number: > bw y6 Nu, = foms fp ee Bay, | 14 (0.492/Pr)"* f°” ove)? Fae nforsstartembsele,| ee [1+(0.492/0.716)"9]*” Using equation 3.12 to determine the average heat transfer coefficient: pe Nuk L 62.2(0.0254WimK) _ | 54 _W 1.25 m mK Finally, using equation 3.7 to determine the heat transfer: q=hds(t ~ &) q=1.26(3.5 m)(1.25 m)(15 °C— 20 °C)= 27.6W In problems with both natural and forced convection, which is the case for most applications, there are instances where the effect of natural convection may be neglected. In cases where Gr,/Re*, is much less than 1, the forced convection becomes dominant. © conyan Prise Indu Lines 200 6566 Chapter 3m Introduction to Heat Transfer Heat Capacity of Fluid Flows The total energy of a fluid is defined by: Q=mh 3.27 where: Q = total energy, Btu [kJ] m =mass, Ib, [kg] h enthalpy, Btu/h°F [ki/(kgK)] Dividing equation 3.27 by time in order to get the mass flow rate: q= mh 3.28 where: q = energy per unit time, Btu/h [W] tm = mass per unit time, 1b,,/h [kg/s] From equation 3.28, the amount of energy gained or lost by the fluid flow can be expressed by: 9; — 9, = mh, — h,) = rincy(t,— 4) 3.29 Equation 3.29 is most often used in determining the energy transported by a fluid in HVAC systems. This fluid is most often air or water (or an air-water mixture / water glycol mixture). Inserting equation 2.9 into 3.29 gives: P q=mAh = pVAMh=60pc,OAt 3.30 si thSh = pVAMh =pc,QAt 330 for IP and SI units respectively. where: p= fluid density, Ib, /ft [kg/m’] Q =fluid volume fiow rate, efim [L/s] At_ = fluid change (¢; - f.) in temperature, R (K] In HVAC applications, typical values for Ar include the water temperature rise through .C0il (fou ~ fy) OF the air temperature rise through @ 00M (teary — fages)- », values for standard air from Table 2.1, equation 3.30 can be Using density and simplified to: ‘Table 3.5: Common forms of equation 3.30 for standard air and water IP (Btu/h) SLW) Air = 1.08940, Qin efin 2041, Qin Lis Water q = 500QA1, Qin gpm q = 418071, rh in ke/s3.2 Convection price gg Example 3.4 - Heating Energy Problem: a) Calculate the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 500 cfm from 55 °F to 75 °F. b) Determine the amount of water flow required to transport the same amount of energy with only a 5 °F temperature rise. Solution: a) Using the relations in Table 3.5: q=1.080At =1,08(500cfim)(75 °F — 55 °F)=10800 Btu/h b) Using the relations in Table 3.5: q=500QA¢ =10800 Btu/h =5000(5 °F) 1 = 10800 —— = 4.32 gpm * 2500 Example 3 Problem: a) Calculate the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 250 L/s from 12.5 °C to 24°C. b) Determine the amount of water flow required to transport the same amount of energy with only a 3 °C temperature rise. Solution: a) Using the relations in Table 3.5: q=1.2QAt =1.2(250 L/s)(24 °C-12.5 °C)=3450W b) Using the relations in Table 3.5: = 4180 mAL =3450 W= 41807(3°C) 7 1 = ———~ = 0.275 kg/s th MOT aay kgs (© Copyaht Pre Indes its 201 6@ 3.3 Radiation price Figure 3.6: Photograph of a desk in visible and infrared light (ASHRAE, 2009) Table 3.6: Typical emissivity values for some building materials Material Emissivity, & Concrete 0.91 Glass 0.91 Paint 0.87 — 0.92 Plaster 0.89 The emissive power, W, of a surface, in Btu/ft?, is defined by the Stefan-Boltzmann. equation as: = cory 331 where: ts = the surface temperature, R [K] = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant: IP 6 =0.1712 x 10° Btu/hft?R* SI 6 =5.67 x10 Wim?K* While surfaces radiate energy, they also receive energy from other sources. This phenomenon is known as irradiation. The absorptivity, a, of a surface determines the rate at which that surface can accept irradiation. Like the emissivity, the absorptivity is a property with a value that ranges from 0 to 1, where 1 is an ideal absorptive surface. Most surfaces, however, also reflect or transmit a portion of the irradiation to other surfaces. The material properties that govern these behaviors are the reflectivity, p, and the transmissivity, t, which are the fractions of the incident radiation that is reflected and transmitted, respectively. Figure 3.7 shows the effect of varying the value of a. The incident radiation on a surface must be absorbed, reflected or transmitted through the material, In order to ensure that the energy is conserved, the sum of these material properties must be equal to 1: a+ptt=l 3.32 © Copyright Price Industies Line 21 6970 Chapter 3m Introduction to Heat Transfer Black Finish Reflective Finish Radiant energy from surroundings = 4 Radiant enargy from surroundings = q 0374 mitted Figure 3.7: Effect of varying the material properties ‘The radiant heat exchange from a surface, i, to another, j, can be expressed as: 4 = 004g Fy( (4 — t= hy. 3.33 or g = paenkylut—i)=nla- 4) 334 As wher q__ = total radiant heat transfer, Btw/h [W] "= heat flux, or rate per cross sectional area, due to conduction, Brw/hft® [Wim] As = Surface area of the radiant surface, ft [m"] & = emissivity of the radiant surface 6 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant F, = view factor, or angle factor, from surface ito surface j 1, = temperature of the radiating surface, R [K] 1, = temperature of the receiving surface, R [K] 1h, = temperature of the receiving surface, R [K] given by: h, =e0F,(t? + e+ 4) 3.35 In order to include radiation in the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, as well as in thermal circuit analysis, the following correlation for resistance may be used: 3.36 In the case of mixing ventilation (see Chapter 9—Introduction to Mixing Ventilation), ‘most of the internal surfaces are approximately the same temperature. In these situa- tions, the radiant heat transfer equation 3.33 is simplified to: a= e0As(1'- #4.) 3370 Chapter 3 m Introduction to Heat Transfer Black Finish Rottectve Finish Radiant surrouni Radiant energy from surroundings = q 085q reflected 0974 mitted Figure 3.7: Effect of varying the material properties The radiant heat exchange from a surface, i, to another, j, can be expressed as: a= ods it 1h, 4) as o 3.34 where: q = total radiant heat transfer, Btu/h [W] q” = heat flux, or rate per cross sectional area, due to conduction, Btwhft™ [Wim*] As = Surface area of the radiant surface, ft [m"] £ = emissivity of the radiant surface o ‘Stefan-Boltzmann constant F,, = view factor, or angle factor, from surface / to surface j 1, = temperature of the radiating surface, R [K] 1, = temperature of the receiving surface, R [K] +h, = temperature of the receiving surface, R [K] given by: h, =c0F y(t? + #\(t,+ 5) 3.35 In order to include radiation in the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, as well as in thermal circuit analysis, the following correlation for resistance may be used: lee R= 7a 3.36 In the case of mixing ventilation (see Chapter 9—Introduetion to Mixing Ventilation), most of the internal surfaces are approximately the same temperature. In these situa- tions, the radiant heat transfer equation 3.33 is simplified to: = cos (t'- 1f,,,) 3.37 Scoprah Pe utara 201®@ 3.3 Radiation Arce In cases where the surface temperatures in the space vary, such as in an underfloor air distribution system, a displacement ventilation system or any air distribution system with radiant panels, it is not a valid assumption that the irradiating surfaces can be treated as one, In these cases a more complex view factor analysis may be required. An example of this situation is a radiant wall used in conjunction with a displacement ventilation system (for a complete discussion on displacement ventilation, see Chapter 15—Fundamentals of Displacement Ventilation). The ceiling will be significantly warmer than the floor surface and will therefore have a different rate of heat transfer; the walls, however, can be considered to have an average temperature. In this situation, the radiant heat transfer per unit area from the radiant surface, i, to the fioor, j, the ceiling, k, and the other walls, /, can be expressed as: a'=50F, (1 ef) +e,0m (14 08) +8:0F (14 0) 338 The view factor is important for several metrics used to evaluate the built environment, In particular, the incident radiation experienced by an occupant, known as the mean radiant temperature, as well as the difference between the incident radiation from opposite surfaces, known as radiant asymmetry, both require the view factor to be evaluated. This will be discussed more in Chapter 4—Introduction to Indoor Environmental Quality. View Factors The view factor (also known as the area factor or configuration factor), F, is defined as the proportion of radiation emitted from surface i that is incident on surface j: 3.39 Equation 3.35 also implies that the sum of the view factors must be equal to 1.0, so that the total radiant output is equal to gq. This is known as the summation rule: > Fix =1 3.40 Fos Note that for flat surfaces such as walls and floors, the view factor from the surface to itself is: 3.41 A mathematical relation that is a useful tool in determining view factors is the reciprocity relation. This relation helps the engineer to determine a reciprocal view factor if one is known according to: AF = AP 3.42 The correlations to determine view factors are quite complex, and itis therefore common to use charts for typical values. ASHRAE (2009) offers the charts shown in Figure 3.8 and Figure 3.9. {© Copyright Pcs Industrie Liitad 200, n