A Laboratory Investigation of the Effects of Cyclic
Heating and Cooling, Wetting and Drying, and
Freezing and Thawing on the Compressive
Strength of Selected Sandstones
PAUL A. HALE
Gannett Fleming, Inc., Foster Plaza III, Suite 200, 601 Holiday Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15220
ABDUL SHAKOOR
Department of Geology, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242
Key Terms: Heating and Cooling, Wetting and
Drying, Freezing and Thawing, Sandstone, Durability,
Unconfined Compressive Strength
ABSTRACT
Six different sandstones were studied to investigate
and quantify the effects of heating and cooling,
wetting and drying, and freezing and thawing
(climatic changes) on their unconfined compressive
strength values. The unconfined compressive strength
was measured on NX-size (54-mm) core samples after
subjecting them to 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 cycles of
heating and cooling, wetting and drying, and freezing
and thawing treatments. Results indicated that
neither heating and cooling nor wetting and drying
reduced the strength of the sandstones tested by any
significant amount, but freezing and thawing did
significantly diminish the strength of at least three of
the six sandstones. The results also indicated that
there is a range of porosity values (2 to 7 percent)
over which significant deterioration occurs during
multiple freeze-thaw cycles.
INTRODUCTION
Sandstones have been a common construction material
throughout human history all over the world. They are
widely used as building stone, flagstone, road fill, riprap,
road metal, and railroad ballast. One reason why sand-
stones are so widely used as a construction material is their
abundance. According to Pettijohn and others (1984),
sandstones comprise one quarter of all the sedimentary
rocks covering the earth. Another reason for their
widespread use is that some high-quality sandstones have
become well known for their strength (resistance
to breakage, particularly crushing) and durability
(resistance to weathering) (Bell, 1990). Such sandstones
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130
generate both regional and international sales. However,
sandstones overall range from very weak to very strong,
and from very durable to not at all durable. Generally,
strength and durability are considered to be proportional
(Winkler, 1986; Shakoor and Bonelli, 1991; and Bell,
1992).
Mineral composition, texture, cementation, and alter-
ation are the important factors affecting the strength and
durability of sandstones. Winkler (1986) reports that
strength of sandstones depends primarily on the strength
of the cementing agent and the degree of kaolinization of
feldspars in arkosic sandstones. Shakoor and Bonelli
(1991) report that density and the percentage of sutured
grain contacts exhibit a direct relationship to compressive
strength, whereas percentage absorption, total pore
volume, and other grain contact types are inversely
related to compressive strength. In another study,
Shakoor and Haney (1993) report that the percentage of
angular grains and percentage of matrix/cement are
directly proportional to compressive strength, whereas
grain size is inversely proportional.
There are three generally accepted physical processes
that are found to deteriorate building stones: heating and
cooling, wetting and drying, and freezing and thawing.
Heating and cooling damage is thought to result from the
differential thermal expansion and contraction of the
individual mineralogic components and of the interior
and exterior portions of a stone. Anisotropic thermal
expansion occurs both within and between individual
grains of a stone. For example, the thermal expansion of
quartz is three times that of feldspar. In a single grain,
thermal expansion coefficients can differ by a factor of
20 along perpendicular crystallographic axes (Krynine
and Judd, 1957; Bloom, 1997). Adjacent grains can also
exert variable pressures upon heating. These processes
lead to cumulative fatigue and formation of inward
stresses, which can combine to generate tensile strain
sufficient for fracturing to occur (Selley, 1988; Osipov,
1990). On a larger scale, heating can create a sharp
117
 Hale and Shakoor
thermal gradient between the outer few centimeters of
a stone and its core. If the rate of heating is rapid enough,
as in the case of thermal shock (e.g., forest fires,
lightning strikes), spalling can occur, in which the outer
surface of the stone expands at a faster rate than the in-
terior. More common is the situation where a stone
gradually warms throughout the day. After sundown, the
exterior of the stone cools much faster than the interior,
presumably resulting in a spalling of the stone surface.
Both of these mechanisms are a result of the generally
poor thermal conductivity of rock. However, there is
considerable doubt as to the efficacy of mild dry thermal
stress as an agent of weathering. Most research has
shown that little degradation occurs in the absence of
water (Blackwelder, 1933; Griggs, 1936; Birkeland,
1984; and Bloom, 1997). The presence of water initially
delays the heating of the rock by absorbing some of the
heat energy. However, as water heats within the surface
of the rock (even becoming steam during building or
forest fires), it can become a very effective dissolution
agent of available solvable materials.
Wetting and drying processes can also deteriorate
a rock mass through a variety of physical and physico-
chemical processes. Water increases in volume by 1.5
percent when heated from 0 to 608C, which can lead to
stress formation. Water-absorbing minerals commonly
swell in the presence of water, thereby increasing
intergranular pressure (Michalopoulos and Triandafilidis,
1976). Constituent minerals may also take on water of
crystallization, resulting in swelling. The presence of
these swelling minerals can result in buildup and release
of cyclic stress, which can lead to rock fatigue.
Dissolution of cementing material, constituent mineral
grains, or both, sometimes in association with re-
precipitation of dissolved ions as salts, comprise a set of
chemical processes of deterioration that can occur
during wetting and drying (Bell, 1992; Dove, 1994).
Salts dissolved in pore waters are often carried near to
the surface of a stone and are re-precipitated, which
results in spalling of the surface (Bell, 1990). It should
be noted that building stones often have an abundant
external source of nearby dissolvable salts. Many
mortars used in stone construction provide salts that
can precipitate in downgradient stones. In addition to
simple dissolution and precipitation of minerals, chem-
ical transport by migrating fluid can also alter minerals
in situ. For example, pyrite is readily altered to iron
oxide, a lower-density and higher-volume mineral.
Thus, alteration of pyrite within a stone can result in
higher internal stress due to the higher volume require-
ments.
Freezing and thawing action results when pore water
freezes within a stone. Freezing and thawing in the
absence of water is simply thermal cycling and fatigue.
The expansion of water upon freezing creates a 9 percent
118 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130
increase in volume. This value increases to 13.5 percent
in a closed system (which rarely occurs in nature but is
more likely in the case of building stones). As the sur-
face of the stone freezes inward, the advancing ice front
drives pore water further into the stone. At the interface
of the ice front and liquid water, pore fluid actually
migrates outward via capillary action. If sufficient
pressure is generated, then hydrofracturing may result,
further opening any pre-existing microfractures
(Lienhart, 1988). Sufficient pressure generation requires
ample moisture and permeability. If moisture is too low,
the ice front will halt before reaching the center of the
stone. If permeability is too low, then pore fluid will be
unable to migrate toward the interior of the stone. This
will result in excess pore pressure at the leading edge of
the advancing ice front, which is most often expressed as
spalling of surface material (Lienhart, 1988, 1993). The
duration and frequency of the freeze-thaw cycles
encountered also control the type of freezing and
thawing damage experienced by a stone. A sustained
freezing cycle (as would occur in the northernmost
regions of the United States) is required for hydro-
fracturing to occur. This is necessary for the ice front
within a stone to reach its center and generate sufficient
stress to cause bursting. Multiple freezing and thawing
cycles can lead to fatigue of a stone through repeated
stress buildup and release (Lienhart, 1988). The curing
state of a stone can also affect its response to freezing
and thawing (Lienhart and Stransky, 1981; Marcus,
1995) Successive cycles of freezing and thawing action
also cause a change in the pore symmetry within a rock
(Fitzner, 1990; Winkler, 1993). This type of weathering
is prevalent in climates with numerous freezing and
thawing cycles and is most effective during spring thaw
(Selley, 1988).
Although the aforementioned processes are known to
influence the strength and durability of building stones,
their effects have not yet been quantified. The study
presented here was undertaken to investigate and quantify
the effects of these processes on the compressive strength
of selected sandstones. The specific objectives of the
study were to:
1. Determine the index engineering properties of a select
group of sandstones, namely specific gravity, dry
density, porosity, absorption, durability (in terms of
second-cycle slake durability index), and unconfined
compressive strength.
2. Determine the effect of cyclic heating and cooling,
wetting and drying, and freezing and thawing on the
unconfined compressive strength.
3. Relate the effects of cyclic heating and cooling,
wetting and drying, and freezing and thawing with the
index engineering properties, durability, and petro-
graphic characteristics of the sandstones.
 A Laboratory Investigation on the Compressive Strength of Selected Sandstones
SELECTION OF SANDSTONES AND SAMPLE
PREPARATION
Six sandstones, spanning the range of unconfined
compressive strengths for this rock type (approximately
3,600 to 36,000 psi), were selected for this study. All of
the sandstones came from northeastern Ohio and western
Pennsylvania (Figure 1). The sandstones collected were
from the Tuscarora Formation (the sandstone that holds
up the ridges of the Valley and Ridge physiographic
province in central Pennsylvania), the Rockwell Forma-
tion, the Catskill and the Berea Sandstone formations (the
two sandstones that are regionally important as building
stones), the Pottsville Formation (abundant but used only
locally as building stone), and the Sharon Conglomerate.
Besides varying in strength, the selected sandstones also
displayed a wide variation in other characteristics
(amount and type of cement, grain size, etc.).
The Tuscarora Sandstone is Early Silurian in age. It
has been described as an orthoquartzite with up to 5
percent argillaceous content (Heald and Anderegg, 1960;
Swartz, 1964; and Sibley and Blatt, 1976). Because of its
high silica content, this stone was extensively quarried as
ganister (a term applied to a fine-grained quartz sandstone
or quartzite) for the production of silica brick (Geyer and
Wilshusen, 1982). The Rockwell Formation, Middle to
Late Devonian in age, is a mixture of discrete and
interbedded brown shales and argillaceous, coarse-
grained, cross-bedded sandstones. The Catskill Forma-
tion is of Middle Devonian age and is made up of shales,
siltstones, and fine- to coarse-grained sandstones. The
sandstones of this formation are less widely used, but
their distinctive red color can be seen in older buildings
(especially churches) across the central portion of
Pennsylvania (Geyer and Wilshusen, 1982). The Berea
Sandstone is of Late Devonian to Early Mississippian
age. It is quarried primarily in the Cleveland area of Ohio,
although thin outcrops extend south to West Virginia and
east to Pennsylvania. The Berea Sandstone has served as
one of the most widely used building stones in America
for over a century (Bownocker, 1915). It is present in
both the Ottawa Parliament building and the Michigan
State Capitol building, and locally it provides the decor
for the Lorain-Carnegie Bridge in Cleveland, OH, most
of the old buildings on the Oberlin campus (Hannibal and
Schmidt, 1992), and many other public and private
buildings. The Berea Sandstone has also been used as
armor stone for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
breakwaters on Lake Erie (Lienhart and Stransky, 1981).
The sandstone from the Pottsville Formation is the Elliot
Park equivalent of the Pottsville Group and is Pennsyl-
vanian in age. The weakest sandstone collected was the
Sharon Conglomerate. The quartz pebbles distributed
throughout the member give it its name. The Sharon
Sandstone is a member of the Pottsville Formation that is
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130
Figure 1. Locations of sampling sites.
Pennsylvanian in age. It is a friable sandstone that has
been used locally as foundation stone, road metal, and as
a source of loose sand (Fuller, 1967).
The samples of the selected sandstones were collected
in large blocks from various road cuts and quarries. Prior
to sample collection, preliminary strength determinations
were made with a portable point load testing apparatus.
Unweathered samples, visually homogeneous and defect-
free, were targeted for collection. The blocks for
individual sandstones had to be large enough to obtain
48-NX-size (54-mm-diameter) cores. When more than
one block was required, they were all taken from a tightly
constrained area (i.e., the same bed, adjacent blocks, etc.).
The rock blocks were cored using a 15-amp Milwaukee
coring machine equipped with an NX-size diamond
drilling bit. The cores were then cut and lapped to meet
the specifications set by the American Society for Testing
and Materials in method D 2938 (American Society for
Testing and Materials [ASTM], 1993). Most of the
prepared cores had a length-to-diameter ratio of 2.0–2.5
(where bedding permitted this) and sides free of abrupt
irregularities.
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
Petrographic Analysis
One thin section of each of the six sandstones, cut
perpendicular to bedding, was used for petrographic
analysis. The petrographic characteristics of the sand-
stones were investigated to determine their average grain
size, modal composition, amount and type of cement, and
types of grain-to-grain contact. The grain size analysis
was performed using an eyepiece micrometer to measure
grain dimensions as suggested by Hutchinson (1974).
Fifty randomly selected grains per thin section were
119
 Hale and Shakoor

Table 1. Number of samples used for different tests.

Number of Core Samples of Each Sandstone Subjected to Test

Test Sharon Berea Pottsville Catskill Rockwell Tuscarora

1
Measurement of index properties (non-destructive testing)
Dry density 49 50 52 50 48 48
Bulk specific gravity 49 50 52 50 48 48
Percentage absorption 49 50 52 50 48 48
Porosity 49 50 52 50 48 48
Second-cycle slake durability2 — — — — — —
Measurement of unconfined compressive strength (destructive testing)3
Untreated 4 5 7 5 3 3
Heating and cooling 15 15 15 15 15 15
Wetting and drying 15 15 15 15 15 15
Freezing and thawing 15 15 15 15 15 15
Total4 49 50 52 50 48 48
1
Non-destructive testing was performed on all core samples prior to the destructive testing.
2
This test does not require core samples; random fragments were tested.
3
Destructive testing was performed following the non-destructive testing.
4
The total number of cores subjected to destructive testing is equal to the number of cores subjected to non-destructive testing.

studied to obtain the mean grain size. Random grains
were selected using a mechanical stage on the petro-
graphic microscope. The grains were measured along two
axes, mutually perpendicular, passing through the center
of the grain. The average of these two measurements
provided the average size of each grain. For the same 50
grains, mineral composition and grain contact types were
also recorded. The petrographic data obtained were used
to classify the sandstones studied as well as to interpret
their strength behavior upon cyclic treatment.
Determination of Engineering Properties
Laboratory tests were conducted for determination
of specific gravity, absorption, porosity, dry density,
second-cycle slake durability index, and unconfined
compressive strength. A summary of the number of
samples subjected to each of these tests is presented in
Table 1. Specific gravity and absorption were determined
for all core specimens in accordance with ASTM pro-
cedure C 97 (ASTM, 1993). Dry density was de-
termined by dividing the dry weight of each core by its
volume. Slake durability testing was performed in ac-
cordance with the specifications of ASTM method D 4644
(ASTM, 1993). Unconfined compressive strength was
determined for all samples using ASTM method D 2938
(ASTM, 1993). For determination of this parameter, three
cores of each of the six sandstones were tested, and the
average values were taken. The unconfined compression
test was performed after 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 cycles
of each of the cyclic treatments described in the next
section. A minimum of three untreated cores was also
tested to establish a baseline unconfined compressive
strength value.
Cyclic Heating and Cooling, Wetting and Drying, and
Freezing and Thawing Treatments
Heating and cooling cycles were performed by
alternately heating the samples to 1108C for 24 hours,
then cooling them to room temperature for 24 hours. This
was done in standard ovens for a maximum of 50 cycles
per sample. For wetting and drying treatments, samples
were submerged in water for 24 hours, then oven-dried
at 1108C for 24 hours. Samples were subjected to a
maximum of 50 cycles. The freezing and thawing treat-
ments were conducted at Master Builders Technologies,
Inc., Cleveland, OH. The procedure involved the use of
a refrigeration unit as specified in ASTM method C 666
(ASTM, 1993). Because method C 666 is used for testing
rectangular concrete beams, it was modified to accom-
modate the sandstone cores. The modification consisted
of using one sleeve to hold six cores during the treat-
ment cycles. Samples were subjected to a maximum of
50 freeze-thaw cycles.
Data Analysis
The data from all laboratory tests were analyzed
to determine the range, mean, standard deviation, skew-
ness, kurtosis, and variance of each parameter measured.
This was accomplished using the statistical tools in the
Quattro Pro 7.0 spreadsheet package (Corel Corporation
Ltd., 1996). Linear regression analyses were employed
to investigate the relationships between unconfined

120 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130
 A Laboratory Investigation on the Compressive Strength of Selected Sandstones

Table 2. Results of petrographic analysis based on 50 grains from each sandstone.

Modal Composition (%) Grain Contact (%)

Quartz and Lithic Sutured þ Concavo- Grain Size2

Sandstone Feldspar Clay and Matrix1 Fragments Cement Convex Point þ Straight (mm)

Sharon 88 10 2 0 41 59 0.34
Berea 76 12 12 12 48 52 0.11
Pottsville 70 22 8 5 56 44 0.2
Catskill 86 10 4 10 67 33 0.04
Rockwell 78 12 10 16 73 27 0.07
Tuscarora 96 4 0 20 54 46 0.12
1
This category included fine material indiscernible as quartz, feldspar, lithic fragments, or cement.
2
This value is the mean size of 50 grains. Each grain size was defined as the mean of the longest and shortest axis measured.

compressive strength, index engineering properties,
cyclic treatment results, and petrographic characteristics.
The correlation coefficient (r) values were used to
evaluate if significant relationships existed between these
parameters. For this study, an r value of 0.81 or greater
was considered to suggest a significant relationship
(Johnson, 1984).
PETROGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
Petrographic Characteristics
The results of petrographic analyses for the six
sandstones are presented in Table 2, and the respective
photomicrographs are provided in Figure 2. The sand-
stones were classified on the basis of their modal
composition, using the classification proposed by Okada
(1971). According to this classification system, the
Tuscarora Sandstone is a quartz arenite; the Sharon
Sandstone, Catskill Sandstone, and Berea Sandstone are
quartzose arenites; and the Rockwell Sandstone and
Pottsville Sandstone are lithic wackes.
Engineering Properties
Table 3 shows the average values of the engineering
properties measured for the six sandstones. The Tusca-
rora Sandstone exhibits the highest values of dry density
and specific gravity and the lowest values of porosity and
absorption. This sandstone is very dense and has
secondary quartz cement. The fractures present in this
stone, as observed in both the hand samples and the thin
section, result in negligible porosity and absorption. The
large interlocking quartz grains of the Tuscarora
Sandstone explain the compact nature of this rock. The
Berea Sandstone exhibits the highest porosity and
absorption and the lowest dry density and specific gravity
values. The Berea Sandstone also contains significant
amounts of clay minerals (most likely illite or kaolinite).
According to Gamble’s slake durability classification
system (Gamble, 1971), all of the sandstones, except the
Sharon Sandstone, are highly durable with second-cycle
slake durability index (Id2) values greater than 95
percent. The Sharon Sandstone, with an Id2 value of
89.4 percent, classifies as having medium durability.
Table 4 and Figure 3 indicate the variability of
compressive strength values for the untreated core
samples. The compressive strength ranges from 1,453
to 30,375 psi. The Catskill Sandstone has the largest
range in unconfined compressive strength values. The
Tuscarora Sandstone, which was presumed to be the
strongest, turned out to be only intermediate in strength
because of its fractured nature. These fractures are visible
in both the core samples and the thin section (Figure 4).
None of the other stones exhibited this type of fracturing.
The presence of fractures in the Tuscarora Sandstone may
be caused by the sampling site’s being near the axis of
a large anticline in the Valley and Ridge physiographic
province. The other sandstones were sampled from the
relatively horizontal beds of the Appalachian Plateau
province. Although the strength of the Tuscarora
Sandstone was reduced because of the presence of
fractures at the scale of an NX-size core, the fracturing
did not affect the durability at the scale of the pieces used
in the slake durability test. This is evident from the fact
that the Tuscarora Sandstone had the highest durability
rating of the sandstones tested (Table 3).
The failed cores of the sandstones exhibited three
primary modes of failure: vertical, curved, and conjugate
(Figure 5). Conjugate shear failure is the typical failure
mode for homogeneous sandstones free of irregularities.
This failure mode was commonly observed in the
Rockwell, Catskill, Pottsville, Sharon, and Berea sand-
stones. Although the Sharon Sandstone (a conglomerate)
cannot be considered as a homogeneous stratigraphic
unit, the outcrop from which samples were collected was
visually homogeneous and relatively free of quartz
pebbles. The vertical and curved failure modes were
commonly observed in the Tuscarora and Catskill

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130 121
 Hale and Shakoor

Figure 2. Photomicrographs of the sandstones studied. Field of view is indicated in parentheses.

sandstones. Both of these failure types are indicators of
either discontinuities within the rock or poor sample
preparation. Improper sample preparation (i.e., upper and
lower core surfaces not exactly parallel to each other) can
lead to stress concentration within the core. The
Tuscarora Sandstone is a very hard stone, and therefore
it is difficult to prepare high-quality core samples from it.
The presence of inhomogeneities within the samples is
another likely source of vertical or curved failure. The
Catskill Sandstone is much softer and easier to work
with, so sample preparation is not considered an
important factor in the development of curved failure
surface. However, the sampling site is close to an area
blasted out to accommodate a municipal water tank. The
blasting operation created some microfractures in the
rock involved, which were observed during thin-section
analysis of this rock.
RESULTS OF THE CYCLIC TREATMENTS
Heating and Cooling Treatment
Regression analyses were performed to investigate if
a significant relationship existed between the unconfined

122 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130
 A Laboratory Investigation on the Compressive Strength of Selected Sandstones

Table 3. Mean values of engineering properties measured (see Table 1 for number of samples subjected to each test).

Dry Density Bulk Specific Absorption Unconfined Compressive Second-Cycle Slake

Sandstone (g/cm3) Gravity (%) Strength (psi) Porosity (%) Durabilty Index (%)

Sharon 2.14 2.12 5.76 2,636 12.32 89.4

Berea 2.12 2.09 6.58 3,162 13.94 96.1
Pottsville 2.44 2.39 2.85 7,580 6.94 97.1
Catskill 2.6 2.51 1.55 16,899 4 98.6
Rockwell 2.62 2.55 1.12 23,739 2.94 99
Tuscarora 2.65 2.61 0.32 14,224 0.86 99.1

compressive strength values of the sandstones and the
number of heating and cooling cycles. In these analyses,
the number of heating and cooling cycles was considered
to be the independent variable, whereas the average of
three values of unconfined compressive strength for each
treatment interval was taken as the dependent variable.
The results of regression analyses, presented in Table 5,
indicate that there is no significant linear relationship
(maximum r ¼
0:44) between the unconfined com-
pressive strength values and the number of heating and
cooling cycles to which the sandstone samples were
subjected. Furthermore, as can be seen from Table 5, the
heating and cooling treatments produced no significant
decrease in the strength of the rocks tested, at least not
large enough to exceed the inter-sample variability of the
strength values between individual core samples. Table 4
shows the range of unconfined compressive strength
values obtained by three determinations of this property.
For example, strength values for the Sharon Sandstone
range from 1,453 to 4,219 psi, giving rise to a range of
2,766 psi. Any decrease in strength caused by the heating
and cooling treatments could easily be hidden in this
range of values. Stated simply, the inherent variability of
the unconfined compressive strength values may be
masking the effects of the heating and cooling treatments.
These results are consistent with those of previous
researchers (Blackwelder, 1933; Griggs, 1936; Kessler
et al., 1940; and Roth, 1965). This may result from several
causes. Rock is a poor conductor of heat, and therefore
the thermal treatments may have affected only the surface
of the cores. Second, the thermal expansion of quartz
over the temperature range used in this study (20 to
1108C) causes only a 0.36 percent volume increase
(Clark, 1966). This volumetric expansion is easily
absorbed by the elastic response of the minerals in the
sandstones (Tarr, 1915).
Wetting and Drying Treatment
This experimental treatment is actually more than
wetting and drying alone. Because the samples are oven-
dried, this treatment resembles heating and cooling in the
presence of moisture. The presence of moisture has been
cited as being a prerequisite for heating and cooling
degradation to occur (Blackwelder, 1933; Easterbrook,
1993; and Bloom, 1997). The efficacy of heating and
cooling degradation of moisture-laden rock stems in part
from the ability of the heated water to mobilize soluble
minerals toward the rock surface. Therefore, if these
soluble minerals are not present in the rocks of concern,
degradation still may not occur, even with numerous
treatment cycles. Regression analyses were performed to
detect any significant relationship between unconfined
compressive strength of the sandstones and the number of
wetting and drying cycles. In these analyses, the number
of wetting and drying cycles was considered as the
independent variable, and the average of three values of
unconfined compressive strength for each treatment

Table 4. Results of unconfined compressive strength measurements.

Maximum Minimum Mean Standard Number

Sandstone (psi) (psi) (psi) Deviation of Tests

Sharon 4,219 1,453 2,636 937 4

Berea 4,320 2,059 3,162 1,415 5
Pottsville 10,121 5,487 7,580 2,285 7
Catskill 30,875 8,699 16,899 7,191 5
Rockwell 24,410 22,652 23,739 5,966 3
Tuscarora 20,225 10,700 14,224 8,762 3 Figure 3. Range of unconfined compressive strength values for the
untreated core samples of each sandstone.

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130 123
 Hale and Shakoor

Figure 5. Failure modes exhibited by the cores tested. From left to

right: vertical, curved, and four examples of conjugate shear failure.

the number of wetting and drying cycles would result

Figure 4. Fracturing in the Tuscarora Sandstone. (top) In hand sample
(an NX-size core). (bottom) As seen in thin section (magnification 200
times).
interval was taken as the dependent variable. The results
of regression analyses are shown in Table 6. Note that all
of the correlation coefficient values in Table 6 are less
than 0.81, indicating the lack of any significant
correlation. Table 6 also reveals that there is no
significant decrease in unconfined compressive strength
due to wetting and drying treatments. As stated pre-
viously, any reductions in unconfined compressive
strength may have been masked by the inter-sample
variability inherent in the strength measurements. Al-
though the variability of strength is thought to be the
primary reason for lack of observable unconfined
compressive strength reduction, the following factors
can also be considered relevant:
1. The mineral constituents of the samples were not those
particularly sensitive to dissolution, precipitation,
dehydration, hydration, or swelling.
2. The number of cycles to which the samples were
subjected was not sufficient to cause a significant
reduction in strength. It is possible that an increase in
in an observable strength reduction. The number of
cycles required to cause a strength reduction that
would be large enough to overcome the inherent
strength variability of a given sandstone is unknown.
Freezing and Thawing Treatment
Regression analyses were also performed to investi-
gate the effect of freezing and thawing treatments on the
unconfined compressive strength of the sandstones
studied. In these analyses, the number of freezing and
thawing cycles was considered as the independent
variable, and the average of three values of unconfined
compressive strength for each treatment interval was
taken as the dependent variable. The results of regression
analyses are presented in Table 7. The freezing and
thawing cycles show significant negative correlation with
the unconfined compressive strength values of the
Catskill, Pottsville, and Rockwell sandstones, the corre-
lation coefficient values being equal to or greater than
0.81. The data in Table 7 also indicate that the freezing
and thawing treatments induced an observable reduction
in unconfined compressive strength for these three
sandstones. More important, these treatments were severe

Table 5. Effect of heating and cooling cycles on unconfined compressive strength of the sandstones studied.

Mean Unconfined Compressive Strength (psi) by

Number of Heating and Cooling Cycles

Sandstone 0 10 20 30 40 50 Correlation Coefficient

Sharon 2,636 2,722 3,221 3,252 2,832 2,127
0.27

Berea 3,163 4,568 3,330 4,530 2,565 1,957
0.44
Pottsville 7,580 9,545 5,012 8,268 7,385 8,588
0.2
Catskill 16,899 17,332 17,553 27,846 24,278 13,210
0.05
Rockwell 23,739 24,037 23,937 22,320 22,893 18,794
0.31
Tuscarora 14,224 19,740 11,329 16,895 16,382 8,992
0.31

124 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130
 A Laboratory Investigation on the Compressive Strength of Selected Sandstones

Table 6. Effect of wetting and drying on unconfined compressive strength of the sandstones studied.

Mean Unconfined Compressive Strength (psi) by

Number of Wetting and Drying Cycles

Sandstone 0 10 20 30 40 50 Correlation Coefficient

Sharon 2,636 3,357 1,483 3,160 3,085 2,314
0.07

Berea 3,163 4,003 2,178 3,886 5,361 2,263
0.03
Pottsville 7,580 9,438 6,476 7,544 8,127 6,240
0.38
Catskill 16,899 14,891 25,530 15,357 19,020 9,625
0.36
Rockwell 23,739 27,335 24,322 25,042 27,030 13,321
0.52
Tuscarora 14,224 16,762 8,038 12,659 12,276 7,713
0.17

enough to produce an observable effect in sandstones
exhibiting a wide variation in unconfined compressive
strength values prior to any treatment. The regression
plots for the Rockwell, Pottsville, and Catskill sandstones
are shown in Figures 6, 7, and 8, respectively.
The Rockwell, Pottsville, and Catskill sandstones are
susceptible to freeze-thaw damage because they are prone
to both fluid intrusion and pressurization. The extent to
which a fluid can enter into a stone can be expressed in
terms of porosity. All sandstones included in this study
except the Tuscarora Sandstone are susceptible to fluid
intrusion, as indicated by their respective porosities
(Table 3). The connectivity and sizes of the pores present
within the stone determine the extent to which the
intruding fluid can pressurize upon freezing. The results
indicate that the Sharon Sandstone and Berea Sandstone
have porosity values large enough to preclude the pres-
surization of the intruding fluid upon freezing (a principal
agent of freeze-thaw damage). Pore-size distribution was
not addressed in this research. Therefore, the results of
the freeze-thaw treatments are interpreted in terms of
porosity. Figure 9 shows a plot of freeze-thaw sensitivity
versus porosity. Freeze-thaw sensitivity was taken to be
the slope of the regression line for the plot of number of
freezing and thawing cycles versus unconfined compres-
sive strength (Figures 6, 7, and 8). The closer this value is
to zero, the less change in strength is expected upon
freezing and thawing treatments, and therefore the less
sensitive the sandstone is to freezing and thawing. The
graph indicates that there is a narrow range of porosity
values (;2 to 7 percent) over which a majority of
freezing and thawing damage occurred in the sandstones
studied, with the maximum damage occurring at 4
percent porosity. These results are in agreement with
those by Litvan (1984), who has shown that building
materials with very high and very low total or effective
porosities have generally good service records. Litvan
(1984) also noted problems displayed by materials with
intermediate values of porosity. This intuitively makes
sense. If the porosity is too low, then water cannot enter
the rock to degrade it. An example of this situation is the
sandstone of the Tuscarora Formation, which has
porosity of less than 1 percent. If the porosity of the
sandstone is too high, then the pressure of the advancing
ice front will have room to dissipate (in an open system,
or closed one with limited moisture).
THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN INDEX
PROPERTIES, PETROGRAPHIC
CHARACTERISTICS, AND UNCONFINED
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
The index properties and petrographic characteristics
of the sandstones were correlated with the mean values of
unconfined compressive strength, measured on untreated
core samples, using linear regression analyses. Prior to

Table 7. Effect of freezing and thawing on unconfined compressive strength of the sandstones studied.

Mean Unconfined Compressive Strength (psi) by

Number of Freezing and Thawing Cycles

Sandstone 0 101 20 30 40 50 Correlation Coefficient

Sharon 2,636 — 1,480 2,214 743 1,723
0.69

Berea 3,163 — 4,152 1,696 2,687 3,715
0.09
Pottsville 7,580 — 6,543 7,597 4,506 5,777
0.81
Catskill 16,899 — 16,264 12,963 10,896 8,186
0.95
Rockwell 23,739 — 19,567 16,021 18,885 15,724
0.98
Tuscarora 14,224 — 14,947 11,933 16,500 9,878
0.37

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130 125
 Hale and Shakoor
Figure 6. Decrease in mean unconfined compressive strength (N ¼ 3)
of Rockwell Sandstone with increasing number of freezing and
thawing cycles. The dashed lines represent the 95 percent confidence
band.
regression analyses, the strength values were transformed
to their log values to improve the linearity of the
correlations. The correlation coefficients resulting from
regression analyses are presented in Table 8.
As can be seen from Table 8, absorption, porosity,
specific gravity, and dry density exhibit very strong
correlations with the unconfined compressive strength
values of the sandstones studied. Those sandstones with
lower absorption values exhibit higher unconfined
compressive strength values. The same relationship is
exhibited between porosity and unconfined compressive
strength. Previous studies (Smorodinov et al., 1970; Bell,
1978; Critescu, 1982; Winkler, 1986; Singh, 1988; and
Shakoor and Bonelli, 1991) have also found that rock
strength decreases with an increase in absorption and
porosity values. These studies cite the following reasons
for this trend:
Figure 7. Decrease in mean unconfined compressive strength (N ¼ 3)
of Catskill Sandstone with increasing number of freezing and thawing
cycles. The dashed lines represent the 95 percent confidence band.
126 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130
Figure 8. Decrease in mean unconfined compressive strength (N ¼ 3)
of Pottsville Sandstone with increasing number of freezing and thawing
cycles. The dashed lines represent the 95 percent confidence band.
1. Stress concentration on the boundary of the pores re-
duces strength.
2. A decrease in the bearing area of the rock causes a
decrease in strength.
3. Larger proportion of void spaces facilitates rock di-
latancy, which is required for failure plane propagation.
4. The pores may be filled with water or some other
liquid that may help in crack propagation by pres-
surizing at the point of stress concentration or by reduc-
ing the surface energy of the grains.
As the dry density and specific gravity of the
sandstones increase, so does their unconfined compres-
sive strength. This trend has also been found by previous
researchers (D’Andrea et al., 1965; Bell, 1978; Shakoor
and Bonelli, 1991; and Shakoor and Haney, 1993). These
results can also be explained in terms of the decrease in
Figure 9. Relationship between porosity and freeze-thaw sensitivity of
the sandstones studied. Note the increase in sensitivity in the range of
porosity from 2 to 7 percent.
 A Laboratory Investigation on the Compressive Strength of Selected Sandstones
Table 8. Results of linear regression analyses between uncon-
fined compressive strength, index properties, and petrographic char-
acteristics.
Property of Characteristic Correlation Coefficient
Index properties
Absorption
0.94*
Dry density 0.96*
Porosity
0.93*
Slake durability 0.83*
Specific gravity 0.95*
Petrographic characteristics
Percentage quartz grains
0.12
Percentage matrix þ clay 0.48
Percentage sutured þ concavo- 0.87*
convex contacts
Percentage point þ straight contacts
0.87*
Mean grain size
0.73
* Statistically significant.
the bearing area with decreasing density and specific
gravity. The less is the solid material present in a given
volume of rock under a given load, the higher are the
stress concentrations at contacts of the solid material. In
other words, absorption, porosity, dry density, and spe-
cific gravity are all expressions of the same information
(i.e., solid material versus open voids).
The second-cycle slake durability index values exhibit
a significant linear correlation (r . 0:81) with the
unconfined compressive strength values, as shown in
Figure 10. Although the correlation coefficient for this
regression is lower than that of the other index properties,
it is still significant, with all data points falling within the
95th percentile level of confidence. Note the gap in the
distribution of points on the graph. The outlying point on
the left is the Sharon Sandstone, which was classified as
having a lower durability than the other five sandstones.
A very strong relationship (r ¼ 0:87) was found
between the percentage of interlocking grain contacts
and unconfined compressive strength. Interlocking grain
contacts are defined as the sum of sutured and concavo-
convex grain contacts. The sandstones with a higher
percentage of interlocking grain contacts exhibit higher
values of unconfined compressive strength, as such
contacts result in a more tortuous path for the failure
plane. Fahy and Guccione (1979), Howarth and Row-
lands (1987), Shakoor and Bonelli (1991), and Shakoor
and Haney (1993) also found similar results.
Because porosity is found to be closely related to
unconfined compressive strength (r ¼
0:93), the in-
teraction of porosity and freezing and thawing degrada-
tion needs further consideration. This has been previously
researched by Lewis and others (1953), Shakoor and
others (1982), Litvan (1984), and Fitzner (1990) in terms
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130
Figure 10. Relationship between second-cycle slake durability index
and unconfined compressive strength. The dashed lines represent the
95 percent confidence band.
of pore radii and pore-size distribution. Fitzner (1990)
concluded that the mineral interface (pore spaces) was the
primary location of weathering reactions. He also noted
that the pore-size distribution and average pore radii
increased with increasing freezing and thawing cycles.
Litvan (1984) concluded that pore-size distribution is of
paramount importance in evaluating durability, citing
total porosity as less critical. Shakoor and others (1982)
concluded that those rocks with a larger percentage of
small pores (,0.1 mm) experienced more freeze-thaw
degradation. Lewis and others (1953) state that the most
controlling physical properties of a building material,
with respect to durability, are its porosity, pore-size
distribution, and capillarity. The Catskill Sandstone,
which is most sensitive to freeze-thaw deterioration, is
characterized by intermediate porosity and the presence
of very small voids (as observed in thin section).
Presumably, only the smaller voids allow significant
hydraulic pressure to develop in the voids during
freezing. The Rockwell and Pottsville sandstones both
have a wide range of pore sizes. Their decreased
sensitivity to freezing and thawing, compared with the
Catskill Sandstone, is believed to be related to the
presence of a relatively smaller volume of voids of
critical diameter. The Tuscarora Sandstone, with a mea-
sured porosity of 0.86 percent, permits neither the
infiltration nor the pressurization of fluid required for
freeze-thaw damage. The Sharon and Berea sandstones
are both highly porous, with voids larger in size
(qualitatively speaking) than those of the freeze-thaw–
sensitive sandstones. Although these stones allow the
infiltration of fluid, they are open enough to prevent the
pressurization required for freeze-thaw damage to occur.
Linear regression analyses were also performed between
freeze-thaw sensitivity and all the recorded petrographic
characteristics. The results of these analyses indicate that
127
 Hale and Shakoor

Figure 11. Outcrop of Tuscarora Sandstone showing closely spaced

jointing.

the only petrographic characteristic that exhibits a signif-
icant linear relationship (an r value of
0.85) with freeze-
thaw sensitivity is the percentage of interlocking grain
contacts. This is simply a restatement of the positive
correlation between interlocking grain contacts and
unconfined compressive strength.
Figure 12. Examples of freeze-thaw deterioration of the Catskill
Sandstone. The upper photo shows increasing surface deterioration for
cores after 10, 30, and 50 freeze-thaw cycles in the lab (from left to
right). In the bottom photo, the top row of stone block is much rougher,
whereas the blocks on the lower row are much smoother because of
freeze-thaw deterioration under field conditions.

DISCUSSION sylvania, has been used as a source of building stone,

riprap, and sand. This stone was shown to be susceptible
The sandstones collected for this research were chosen to freeze-thaw deterioration in the laboratory. The effects
for both their physical properties and use as natural of cyclic freezing and thawing on the Pottsville
resources. Therefore, the observations made in the Sandstone can also be observed in the field (Figure 13).
laboratory should have their corollaries in the field. The damage is most notable along the lower course of
Laboratory observations showed that the Tuscarora blocks, where snow and ice are allowed to build up.
Sandstone contains numerous microfractures. The frac- The Berea Sandstone has also been widely used as
tured nature of this stone is also observed in the field. The a natural resource. Many of the buildings at Kent State
outcrop from which the sandstone was collected exhibits University are faced with this sandstone. The Berea
pervasive jointing, resulting in joint blocks that are 0.5 to Sandstone was unaffected by any of the treatments
2 ft wide (Figure 11). Because of this, the stone has been
used as a source of silica and riprap material, but not as
a building stone. The outcrop is on a bare mountain ridge
where it is susceptible to the agents of weathering.
However, it exhibits no signs of freeze-thaw weathering in
the field, which is in agreement with the laboratory results.
The Rockwell Sandstone has only limited outcrop in
the area from which it was collected, so the extent to
which the performance of this sandstone as a resource can
be evaluated is limited. The outcrop from which it was
collected exhibits evidence of freeze-thaw deterioration
(pitting of smooth surfaces) similar to that exhibited by
the laboratory specimens.
The Catskill Sandstone has been widely used as
a building stone across Pennsylvania. Equally prevalent
is the evidence of freeze-thaw deterioration to which this
stone is susceptible. The deterioration is most apparent
near the lower portions of the outer walls, where water,
ice, and snow can accumulate (Figure 12). Figure 13. Examples of freeze-thaw damage to the Pottsville Sandstone
The Pottsville Sandstone, abundant in western Penn- in the laboratory and in the field.

128 Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130
 A Laboratory Investigation on the Compressive Strength of Selected Sandstones
performed in this research. This holds true in the field
also. Walkways paved with Berea Sandstone often
exhibit spalling, but this is most likely because of the
use of salt in the winter. Stones subject to ponding water
and snow in areas where salts are not used (banisters,
sills, etc.) exhibit no signs of deterioration.
Several stone buildings constructed from the Sharon
Sandstone are located in the vicinity of the sampling site.
Although one of the weaker sandstones collected, Sharon
Sandstone is still a popular building stone. Because of its
high porosity and larger void size, this stone proved to be
less susceptible to freeze-thaw deterioration. None of the
buildings made of Sharon Sandstone exhibited any sign
of freeze-thaw damage.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from this
study:
1. The physical processes of heating and cooling and
wetting and drying have no observable effect on the
unconfined compressive strength of the sandstones
studied for the number of cycles used. Any change in
unconfined compressive strength that may have been
induced could be masked by the large variability of
unconfined compressive strength values of individual
core samples. The large inter-sample variability of
strength measurements precludes a conclusion con-
cerning the magnitude of any indiscernible effect of
these treatments.
2. The physical process of freezing and thawing
produces an observable reduction of the unconfined
compressive strength of some of the sandstones. This
statement must also be qualified by the fact that
although the freezing and thawing treatments appar-
ently induced a reduction in strength of the Catskill,
Rockwell, and Pottsville sandstones, the magnitude of
strength reduction attributable to the treatments can
not be exactly evaluated because of the large inter-
sample variability in strength measurements.
3. The abundance and size of the voids present control
the sensitivity of the sandstones to freezing and
thawing cycles. Those sandstones with porosity values
between 2 and 7 percent exhibit the greatest sensitivity
to the freeze-thaw treatments. Although this range of
susceptible porosity values is intuitive, the presence of
small void spaces in which fluid pressures can
concentrate may be more critical than bulk porosity.
4. Freeze-thaw sensitivity may be expressed as the slope
of the regression line between the number of freezing
and thawing cycles and the unconfined compressive
strength values of the sandstones at the selected
number of treatment cycles.
5. The unconfined compressive strength of the sand-
Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IX, No. 2, May 2003, pp. 117–130
stones studied correlates well with the index properties
measured (absorption, porosity, dry density, specific
gravity, slake durability). The only petrographic
characteristic of the sandstones studied that correlates
well with unconfined compressive strength is the
percentage of interlocking grain contacts.
6. The performance of any sandstone in wet climates,
with a marked season of freezing and thawing, is
dependent on the character of the voids. A weak
sandstone with large, abundant voids may not feel the
effects of freeze-thaw damage to the same extent as
a strong sandstone with small, abundant voids.
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