PART I (SAT Theory)

SAT, Subject Tests in Mathematics Level 1 & 2 and IGCSE Theory (I) Copyright © 2019 All Rights Reserved
ed - Emil Leznik
Contents
Introduction
Arithmetic 11
Squares Table 13
Powers Table 13
Polynomial Identities 14
Useful Equalities 14
Main Number Sets 14
Relationship Between Main Number Sets 16
Quadratic Equations ax2  bx  c  0 17
Incomplete Quadratic Equation 17
Complete Quadratic Equation 18
Solution of Complete Quadratic Equation if Coefficient b is Even 18
Private Cases for Complete Quadratic Equations 19
Viet Theorem 19
Factorizing of Quadratic Expression 20
Completing the Square 22
Certain Fractions 24
Properties of Certain Fractions 26
Decimals 27
Periodic (Recurrent) Fractions 28
Certain Fraction as the Difference of Two Other Certain Fractions 30
Digits and Numbers 33
Digits Places of a Number 34
Decimals Places 35
Rounding Decimals 35
Rounding to Significant Figures 37
Number Notation According to its Digit Places 42
3
Copyright © 2019 All Rights Reserved - Emil Leznik SAT, Subject Tests in Mathematics Level 1 & 2 and IGCSE Theory
SAT, Subject Tests in Mathematics Level 1 & 2 and IGCSE Theory (I) Copyright © 2019 All Rights Reserved - Emil Leznik
Number Types 43
Properties of Positive Numbers 44
Factors and Multiples 46
Main Divisibility Tests 48
Test of Divisibility by 2 48
Additional Divisibility Tests 50
Prime and Composite Numbers 52
Prime Factorization 53
Finding the Number of Factors 55
GCF - Greatest Common Factor 60
LCM - Least Common Multiple . 61
Coprimes 68
Consecutive Numbers 70
Table of Consecutive Numbers 74
Statements on Even and Odd Numbers 74
Finding Amount of Integers in the Segment 77
Finding Amount of Multiples in the Segment 77
4
Sets and Operations on Them 79
Venn Diagram Problems 81
Properties of Powers and Roots 86
Logarithms 86
Properties of Logarithms 87
Changing the Subject of a Formula 88
Parts, Proportions and Percents
Finding the Value of a Number Part 99
Finding a Number from the Value of its Part 99
Finding Relationship of Parts Between Two Numbers 100
Direct Proportion 101
Inverse Proportion 102
Examples of Part and Proportion Problems 102
Percents 110
Finding the Value of a Percent from a Number 111
Finding a Number from the Value of its Percent 112
Finding Percent Relationship Between Two Numbers 112
Examples of Percent Problems 113
Mixture Problems 158
Relationship Between Revenue, Cost Price and Profit 166
Formulas of Simple Interest Increase (Decrease) 166
Formulas of Compound Interest Increase (Decrease) 168
Formulas of Compound Interest Increase (Decrease) with More
Frequent Interest Charge 174
5
Linear Equation
Number of Solutions of Linear Equation 181
Number of Solutions of Linear Simultaneous Equations 187
191
Absolute Value of Number
Properties of Absolute Value 194
Properties of Even and Odd Roots 194
Word Problems
Clock Problems 197
Finding Number of Hours and Minutes Between Two Dates 198
Defined Operations Problems 201
Picking Number Problems 203
Work Problems 209
Rate Problems 217
All “Average Rate” problems 225
Coin Problems 229
Age Problems 233
Word Problems 237
Partial Payment Problems 239
Inequalities
Properties of Inequalities 247
Notation in Inequalities 249
Solution of Linear Inequalities 249
Less or More Problems 253
Operations with Double Inequalities 255
6
Changing Range of Double Inequalities 256
Module Inequalities 257
Relationship Between Double Inequality and Module Inequality 260
Solution of Inequalities of High Powers 262
Solution of Rational Inequalities 268
7
8
Introduction
9
10
Arithmetic
1) A + B = C - Addition
A - first summand
B - second summand
C - sum
2) A - B = C - Subtraction
A - minuend
B - subtrahend
C - difference
3) A  B = C - Multiplication
A - first multiplier
B - second multiplier
C - product
4) A : B = C - Even division (i.e. without remainder or with remainder equal to 0)

A - dividend
B - divisor
C - quotient (complete )
5) A : B = C (D) - Division with remainder (i.e. with remainder not equal to 0)

A - dividend
B - divisor
C - partial quotient
D - remainder of division
In division with remainder the following formula is true: A = B  C + D.
11
Example 1.
Find dividend when divisor is 7, partial quotient is 20 and remainder is 3.
Solution:
Let dividend be x. Then by the formula we obtain:
х=7  20+3
х=143
Answer: dividend is 143.
Example 2.
Find divisor when dividend is 75, partial quotient is 6 and remainder is 3.
Solution:
Let divisor be x. Then by the formula we obtain:
75=6  х+3
6  х=72
х=12
Answer: divisor is 12.
12
Squares Table
12  1 112  121 212  441 312  961
22  4 122  144 222  484 322  1024
32  9 132  169 232  529 332  1089
42  16 142  196 242  576 342  1156
52  25 152  225 252  625 352  1225
62  36 162  256 262  676 362  1296
72  49 172  289 272  729 372  1369
82  64 182  324 282  784 382  1444
92  81 192  361 292  841 392  1521
102  100 202  400 302  900 402  1600
Powers Table
20  1 30  1 40  1 50  1 60  1 70  1
21  2 31  3 41  4 51  5 61  6 71  7
22  4 32  9 42  16 52  25 62  36 72  49
23  8 33  27 43  64 53  125 63  216 73  343
24  16 34  81 44  256 54  625 64  1296 74  2401
25  32 35  243 45  1024 55  3125
26  64 36  729
27  128 37  2187
28  256
29  512
210  1024
13
Polynomial Identities
1) 
a2  b2  a  b  a  b    - difference of monomial squares.
a  b
2
2)  a2  2ab  b2 - square of binomial difference.
a  b
2
3)  a2  2ab  b2 - square of binomial sum.
4)   
a3  b3  a  b  a2  ab  b2  - difference of monomial cubes.
5) a3  b3  a  b  a  ab  b  2 2
- sum of monomial cubes.
a  b
3
6)  a3  3a2b  3ab2  b3 - cube of binomial difference.
a  b
3
7)  a3  3a2b  3ab2  b3 - cube of binomial sum.
Useful Equalities
 ab
 
2
  2ab
1) a2  b2  
 ab
 
2
  2ab
   
3
2) a3  b3  a  b  3ab  a  b
   
3
3) a3  b3  a  b  3ab  a  b
Main Number Sets
The set of natural numbers (N) is the set of numbers that are used in counting (i.e. the set of
natural numbers is the set of positive integers).
Example 1.
1; 2; 9; 12; 28; 569; 2, 057; 59, 274 - natural numbers.
Number 0 is not a natural number!
The set of whole numbers (W) is the set of nonnegative integers (i.e. the set of natural
numbers and 0).
Example 2.
0; 1; 2; 9; 12; 28; 569; 2, 057; 59, 274 - whole numbers.
14
The set of integer numbers (Z) is the set of numbers without any fractional part
Example 3.
0; ±1; ±2; ±38; ±372; ±4, 239; ±567, 049 - integer numbers.
The set of rational numbers (Q) is the set of numbers that can be expressed as the certain
m
fraction , where m Z , nN (i.e. these numbers do not contain any surd part in simplified
n
form).
Example 4.
2 7 18 51 2 37 0 23
; 7  ; 6  ; 0.51  ; 7  ; 0 ; 0.23  ;
7 1 3 100 5 5 12 99
64  6 58 29 119
2.64  2 2 2  ;
90 90 45 45
247  2 245 1235 -16

1.247  1  1  ;  64  8  - rational numbers.
990 990 990 2
Periodic (recurring) fractions are rational.
The set of irrational numbers (J or R\Q) is the set of numbers that contain surd part in
simplified form.
Example 5.
12 15
2 ;  17 ; 3
25 ; 2  6 ; 9 40 ; 510 100 ; ; - irrational numbers.
3 5 5
e, π are irrational numbers!
Example 6.
2  1.41421356237309...;  3 36  3.30192724889463... .
15
The set of real numbers (R) is the set of all numbers on the number line without any
exclusions.
Example 7.
2 2 12
1; -29; 98.163; ;  17 ; 7.453 ; 3
25 ; 7 ; ; 0 - real numbers.
7 5 35

R  ;  
The set of real numbers is divided into two main subsets - the set of rational numbers and the
set of irrational numbers.
Q
R=
J
Relationship Between Main Number Sets
N W Z QR
JR
16
Quadratic Equations ax2  bx  c  0
Incomplete Quadratic Equation
I type: c  0  ax2  bx  0 .
 
x  ax  b  0
x1  0
ax  b  0
ax  b
b
x2  
a
In this case one of the solutions of a quadratic equation is always equal to 0, and the second one is not
equal to 0.
II type: b  0  ax2  c  0 .
ax2   c
c
x2  
a
c
x1,2   
a
In this case a quadratic equation either has two opposite solutions, or doesn’t have any solutions at all.
III type: b  0 and c  0  ax2  0 .
ax2  0
x2  0
x0
In this case a quadratic equation has only one solution that equals to 0 (i.e. both solutions are equal to 0).
17
Complete Quadratic Equation
A full quadratic equation has the following form:
ax2  bx  c  0
D  b2  4ac
I. If D  0 , then the equation does not have any real solution.
II. If D  0 , then the equation has only one real solution (two equal real solutions).
b
x
2a
III. If D  0 , then the equation has two distinct real solutions.
b  D b  D
x1  x2 
2a 2a
Solution of Complete Quadratic Equation if Coefficient b is Even
ax2  bx  c  0
2
b 
D     ac
2 
I. If D  0 , then the equation does not have any real solution.
II. If D  0 , then the equation has only one real solution (two equal real solutions).
b
x
2a
III. If D  0 , then the equation has two distinct real solutions.
b b
  D   D
x1  2 x2  2
a a
18
Private Cases for Complete Quadratic Equations
Let a quadratic equation ax2  bx  c  0 be given.
c
I. If a  b  c  0  x1  1, x2 
a
c
II. If a  b  c  0  x1  1, x2  
a
Viet Theorem
Let a reduced quadratic equation x2  px  q  0 be given.
I. The sum of the solutions of a reduced quadratic equation equals to the second coefficient with an
opposite sign.
x1  x2  p
II. The product of the solutions of a reduced quadratic equation equals to the third coefficient with the same
sign.
x1  x2  q
19
Factorizing of Quadratic Expression
ax2  bx  c  a  (x  x1 )  (x  x2 ) , where x1 and x2 are solutions of a quadratic equation
ax2  bx  c  0 .
Example 1.
Factorize x2  9x  18 :
x2  9x  18  0
Using Viet Theorem, we get:
x1  x2  9
x1  x2  18
x1  3 , x2  6
 
x2  9x  18  x  3  x  6 
Example 2.
Factorize 5x2  3x  8 :
5x2  3x  8  0
Using Private Case I we get:
8
x1 = 1 , x2 = −
5
 8
  5
  
5x2  3x  8  5  x  1  x    x  1  5x  8
20
Example 3.
Factorize 3x2  21x  36 :
3x2  21x  36  0 : (-3)
x2  7x  12  0
x1  x2  7
x1  x2  12
x1  3 , x2  4
    
3x2  21x  36  3  x  3  x  4  3  3  x  x  4  or  
3 x  3  4  x
Example 4.
Factorize  x  2  7x :
2
 x2  2  7x  0 : (-1)
x2  7x  2  0
D  b2  4ac  49  8  41
b  D 7  41
x1  
2a 2
b  D 7  41
x2  
2a 2
 7  41   7  41 
 x2  2  7x   x2  7x  2   x    x  
 2   2 
21
Example 5.
Factorize 2  x  6x2 :
2  x  6x2  0
6x2  x  2  0 : ( −1)
6x2  x  2  0
D  b2  4ac  1  48  49
b  D 1  7 8 2
x1    
2a 12 12 3
b  D 1  7 6 1
x2    
2a 12 12 2
 2  1  2  1
 3  2  3  2
    
2  x  6x2  6x2  x  2  6  x    x    2  3  x    x     3x  2  2x  1  3x  2  1  2x 
Completing the Square
2
 b b 2
1) x2  bx   x     
 2 2 
2
 b b 2
2) x2  bx   x     
 2 2 
Example 1.
 
2
x2  10x  x  5  25
Example 2.
 
2
y2  14y  y  7  49
Example 3.
2
 5 25
a2  5a  
a  
 
 2 4
Example 4.
   
2 2
x2  14x  12  x  7  49  12  x  7  61
22
Example 5.
 3   3
2
9   3
2
9  2
3  23
4x2  3x  2  4  x2  x   2  4  x     2  4  
 x     2  4   x   
 4   8 64   8  16 
 8  16
Example 6.
 5   5
2
25   2
5  25  5
2
1
3x2  5x  2  3  x2  x   2  3  x      2   3  
 x  
   2   3  
 x  
 
 3   6 36   6  12  6  12
Example 7.
 9
2
81   2
9  81  2
9  85
 
a2  9a  1   a2  9a  1   a   
 2 4 
 1   


a  
2 

4
 1   


a  
2 

4
Example 8.
 2 3   3
2
9   3
2
9  2
3  169
2
   
5a  3a  8  5  a  a  8  5  a      
5      8  5  a  10   20  8  5  a  10   20
  10  100     
23
Certain Fractions
A fraction is some part of a whole.
a
Certain fraction is a fraction written as .
b
Fractions consist of a numerator, displayed above the line, and a denominator, displayed
below the line.
a - numerator.
b - denominator.
Example 1.
5 7 4 13 3 3 20 1 23
; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; - certain fractions.
8 3 12 13 10 1 4 17 10000
Proper fraction is a certain fraction a numerator of which is less than a denominator, i.e. a < b.
Example 2.
5 4 3 1 23
; ; ; ; - proper fractions.
8 12 10 17 10000
Improper fraction is a certain fraction a numerator of which is more than or equal to a

denominator, i.е. a ≥ b.
Example 3.
7 13 3 20
; ; ; - improper fractions.
3 13 1 4
24
The main property of a certain fraction is that the value of the fraction does not change when
simultaneously multiplying or dividing its numerator and denominator by the same number.
a
a ak k
 
b bk b
k
Example 4.
2 20 60 30 10 2
    
5 50 150 75 25 5
A mixed fraction is a fraction that consists of an integer and fractional part.
Example 5.
2 3 1 6 13
4 ; 1 ; 15 ; 3 ; 40
7 5 2 11 15
Any mixed fraction can be changed into an improper fraction and vice versa.
Example 6.
2 30 3 8 1 31 6 39 13 613
4  ; 1  ; 15  ; 3  ; 6  6 ; 40  - change of a mixed fraction into a
7 7 5 5 2 2 11 11 1 15 15
certain fraction.
Example 7.
37 1 68 5 155 12 984 15
9 ; 7 ;  11 ;  17 - change of a certain fraction into a mixed fraction.
4 4 9 9 13 13 57 57
25
Properties of Certain Fractions
a
b  a
I. c bc
a ac
II. 
b b
c
a
b  ad
III. c bc
d
Example:
2
5  2
1) 7 35
3 15
2) 
4 4
5
2
3) 3  10
7 21
5
26
Decimals
A decimal is a certain fraction with 10; 100; 1, 000; 10, 000; 100, 000 and so on as its
denominator.
Example 1.
3 5 27 64 7 2 31 1 13 17
; ; ; ; ; ; ; 6 ; 8 ; 15 .
10 1000 100 10000 100 100000 10 10 100 1000
Since decimals are of wide usage a special notation was introduced for them (with dot).
Example 2.
3
 0.3
10
5
 0.005
1000
27
 0.27
100
64
 0.0064
10000
7
 0.07
100
2
 0.00002
100000
31
 3.1
10
1
6  6.1
10
13
8  8.13
100
17
15  15.017
1000
27
In decimals the last zeros after dot doesn’t have any meaning.
Example 3.
0.3  0.30  0.300  0.3000000000
15.064  15.0640  15.06400000  15.06400000000
16.75  16.750  16.7500  16.75000000.
Periodic (Recurrent) Fractions
Recurrent fraction is a fraction the fractional part of which is infinitely repeating
Example 1.
7
Express as a decimal.
11
0.6363...
7:11  11 _70  0.63
66
_40
33
_70
66
_40
33
7
...
As it is shown above the fractional part keeps repeating infinitely, so that part is written under the bar
sign.
Recurrent fractions are divided into two types: simple and mixed.
Example 1.
0. 5 ; 0.287 ; 6.4 ; 29.2 ; 96.35 ; 58.4598 - simple recurrent fractions.
Example 2.
0.281 ; 0.127 ; 4.2165 ; 9.8 2 ; 916.73 ; 8.3198 - mixed recurrent fractions.
In order to turn a simple recurrent fraction into a certain fraction it is necessary to:
1) determine how many digits are there in the periodic part;

2) divide the periodic part of the number by a number that consists of as many 9s as the
result of step (1).
Integer part should be saved and not be changed.
28
Example 3.
5
0.5 
9
287
0.287 
999
4
6.4  6
9
2
29.2  29
9
35
96.35  96
99
4598
58.4598  58
9999
In order to turn a mixed recurrent fraction into a certain fraction it is necessary to:
1) subtract the part that stands between the periodic part and dot from all fractional part;
2) determine how many digits are there in the periodic part;
3) determine how many digits are there between the periodic part and dot;
4) divide the result of step (1) by a number that consists of as many 9s as the result of
step (2) and as many 0s as the result of step (3).
Integer part should be saved and not be changed.
Example 4:
3.127  3127  12  3115

900 900
0.6174  6174  6  6168

9990 9990
62  6 56
87.62  87  87
90 90
0.000581  581  58  523

900000 900000
835  8 827
7.835  7  7
990 990
60.0028  6028  2  60 26
9000 9000
29
Certain Fraction as the Difference of Two Other Certain Fractions
1
Any fraction of the form can be expressed as the difference of two other fractions !
n  (n  k)
 
1 1 1 1 
   
n  (n  k) k n nk 
 
Example 1.
1 1 1
 
23 2 3
1 1 1
 
78 7 8
1 1 1
 
29 30 29 30
5 1 1 1 
 
 5  5   
89 89 8 9 
 
13 1  1 1 

 13  13   
1920 1920 19 20 
 
Example 2.
1 1 1 1 
   
2 5 3 
2 5 
1 1 1 1 
    
4 6 2 4 6 
1 1  1 1 
    
13 19 6 13 19 
7 1 1 1 1  7 1 1 
 7  7         
3 8 3 8 5 3 8  5 3 8 
30
Example 3.
1 1 1 1 1 1
Find the value of the following sum:      .
2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 1  1 1   1 1   1 1  1 1   1 1   1 1 
            1 1 4 1 3
                                 
2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 2 3  3 4   4 5  5 6   6 7  7 8  2 8 8 8 8
           
3
Answer: .
8
Example 4.
1 1 1
Find the value of the following sum:   ...  .
56 67 19  20
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 4 1 3
  ...      
56 67 19  20 5 20 20 20 20
3
Answer: .
20
Example 5.
6 6 6
3 4 45 19 20
Solution:
6 6 6  1

1 1  1

1   20

3  6  17  17  1.7
  ...   6    ...   6     6    
3 4 4 5 19 20  3 4 4 5
 19 20 

 3 20 

 

 60 60 

 
60 10
Answer: 1.7.
31
Example 6.
1 1 1
3 7 7 11 27  31
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 1  1  31 3  1 28 7
  ...              
37 711 2731 4 3 31  4  93 93  4 93 93
7
Answer: .
93
Example 7.
3 3 3
17 713 3743
Solution.
3 3 3  1

1 1  1 1 1  1 42 21
  3   
  ...   3    ...   
17 713 3743 17 713
 3743 

6 1 43  2 43 43
21
Answer: .
43
Example 8.
1 1 1
x  (x  3) (x  3)(x  6) (x  18)(x  21)
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 1  1 (x  21) - x 1 21
  ...          
x  (x  3) (x  3)(x  6) (x  18)(x  21) 3  x x  21  3 x  (x  21) 3 x  (x  21)
7
 2
x  21x
7
Answer: .
x2  21x
32
Digits and Numbers
Digits are: 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9.
Numbers consist of and formed by digits.
Example 1.
• 27 - two - digit number formed by digits 2 and 7;

• 379 - three - digit number formed by digits 3, 7 and 9;
• 6 - one - digit number formed by digit 6;
• 3, 698 - four - digit number formed by digits 3, 6, 9 and 8.
Example 2.
Find the sum of the least and the greatest three - digit numbers.
Solution:
The least three - digit number is 100.
The greatest three - digit number is 999.
Thus, 100 + 999 = 1, 099.
Answer: 1, 099.
Example 3.
Find the sum of the least and the greatest four - digit numbers all digits of which are distinct.
Solution:
The least four - digit number all digits of which are distinct is 1, 023.
The greatest four - digit number all digits of which are distinct is 9, 876.
Thus, 1, 023 + 9, 876 = 10, 899.
Answer: 10, 899.
AB is a two - digit number formed by two digits: A and B.
XYZ is a three - digit number formed by three digits: X, Y and Z.
33
Digit Places of a Number
It is necessary to distinguish inner components - digit places of any number.
Digit places are divided into integer and decimal parts.
Integer digit places:
• units' (ones’) digit (first digit before dot);

• tens' digit (second digit before dot);
• hundreds' digit (third digit before dot);
• thousands' digit (fourth digit before dot);
• ten thousands' digit (fifth digit before dot).
Decimal digit places:
• tenths' digit (first digit after dot);

• hundredths' digit (second digit after dot);
• thousandths' digit (third digit after dot);
• ten thousandths' digit (fourth digit after dot);
• hundred thousandths' digit (fifth digit after dot).
34
Decimals Places
Rounding Decimals
Sometimes you could be asked to round a number to a certain number of decimal places (or to
a whole number). This does not mean that you move the decimal point.
You leave the decimal point where it is but get rid of some digits (figures) from the end.
The method is to look at the next digit after the one you want to stop at:
If 5 or above then round the last digit up
If 4 or below the last digit stays the same
Example 1.
Round 15.748 to 2 decimal places. (You want 2 digits after the decimal point.)
Solution:
Answer: 15.75.
Example 2.
Round 64.3463 to 3 decimal places.
Solution:
Answer: 64.346.
35
Example 3.
Round 128.35 to 1 decimal place.
Solution:
Answer: 128.4.
36
Rounding to Significant Figures
All the non - zero digits of a number and the zeros that are included between them are significant
figures.
I. All non - zeros digits are significant.
Example 1.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 - all of them are significant figures.
II. Zeros between non - zero digits are significant.
Example 2.
201 – 3 significant figures;

4007 – 4 significant figures;
10,708 – 5 significant figures;
10,780 – 4 significant figures.
III. Leading zeros are never significant.
Example 3.
0.02 – 1 significant figure;

001.887 – 4 significant figures;
0.006078 – 4 significant figures;
0.0705400 – 4 significant figures.
For some questions you may be asked to give your answer to a certain number of significant figures
instead of decimal places.
The method is the same as with decimal places except that you start counting from the very beginning
of the number (instead of just after the decimal point).
If 5 or above then round the last digit up
If 4 or below the last digit stays the same
37
Example 4.
Round 15.748 to 3 significant figures. (Start counting digits from the beginning not just
after the decimal point.)

Solution:
Answer: 15.7.
Example 5.
Round 64.3263 to 2 significant figures
Solution:
Answer: 64.
38
Example 6.
Round 64.7463 to 2 significant figures
Solution:
Answer: 65.
Example 7.
Round 128.35 to 2 significant figures.
Solution:
Answer: 130.
39
Example 8.
Solution:
Answer: 5040.
Example 9.
Solution:
Answer: 5000.
40
Example 10.
Round 5037.72 to 1 significant figure.
Solution:
Answer: 5000.
41
Number Notation According to its Digit Places
Any number can be written as the sum of its inner digit place components.
Example 1.
37=3  10+7;
492=4  100+9  10+2;
3, 957=3  1000+9  100+5  10+7;
9
6.9 = 6 + ;
10
3 7
786.37 = 7  100 + 8  10 + 6 + + .
10 100
Thus, we obtain:
XY = 10  X + Y
ABCD = 1000  A + 100  B + 10  C + D
C D E
AB.CDE = 10  A + B + + +
10 100 1000
Example 2.
Find the value of expression: ABCD - CBA.
Solution:
ABCD – CBA = (1000A + 100B + 10C + D) - (100C + 10B + A) = 1000A + 100B + 10C + D - 100C -
- 10B - A = 999A + 90B - 90C + D.
Answer: 999A + 90B - 90C + D.
42
Number Types
There are 4 terms used to denote the type of a number in mathematics.
1) Positive number (i.e. this number is greater than 0) (for example: a>0, i.e. a is positive).
2) Negative number (i.e. this number is less than 0) (for example: a<0, i.e. a is negative).
3) Nonnegative number (i.e. this number is greater than or equal to 0) (for example: a  0,
i.e. a is nonnegative).
4) Nonpositive number (i.e. this number is less than or equal to 0) (for example: a  0, i.е. a
is nonpositive).
Example 1.
How many positive integer numbers satisfy the following inequality: a < 7 ?
Solution: Given condition is satisfied by the following positive integer numbers: 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6.
Answer: 6 positive integer numbers satisfy the given condition.
Example 2.
How many nonnegative integer numbers satisfy the following condition: -4 < a < 5 ?
Solution: Given condition is satisfied by the following nonnegative integer numbers: 0; 1; 2; 3; 4.
Answer: 5 nonnegative integer numbers satisfy the given condition.
Example 3.
How many negative integer numbers satisfy the following condition: -6 < a < 2 ?
Solution: Given condition is satisfied by the following negative integer numbers: -5; -4; -3; -2; -1.
Answer: 5 negative integer numbers satisfy the given condition.
43
Properties of Positive Numbers
The set of positive numbers can be divided into two main numerical subsets:
I case: 0  a  1
II case: a  1
Numbers from the above stated subsets behave in opposite ways.
Example 1:
3 32  9 33  27 34  81 
0.3 0.32  0.09 0.33  0.027 0.34  0.0081 
Example 2:
625 625  25 4
625  5 
0.0625 0.0625  0.25 4

0.0625  0.5 
Example 3.
Let m  1 . Determine expression with the greatest value.
m, m , m .
2 3
m, 3
Solution: Since the number m, where m 1, is increasing while increasing the power, and decreasing
while taking the root of the greatest power, so m has the greatest value.
3
Answer: m has the greatest value.

3
44
Example 4.
Let 0  m  1 . Determine expression with the greatest value.
m, m , m .
2 3
m, 3
Solution: Since the number m, where 0  m  1 , is decreasing while increasing the power, and
increasing while taking the root of the greatest power, so 3

m has the greatest value.
Answer: 3
m has the greatest value.
Example 5.
Determine signs of the following expressions:
1
1) a- , where a  1 ;
a
1
2) a- , where 0  a  1 ;
a
1
3) a- , where a  -1 ;
a
1
4) a- , where -1  a  0 .
a
Solution:
1
1) a - , where a  1 , is a positive expression, since, for example, taking a=5 we obtain:
a
1
5-  5 - 0.2  4.8  0
5
1
2) a - , where 0  a  1 , is a negative expression, since, for example, taking a=0.5 we obtain:
a
1
0.5 -  0.5 - 2  1.5  0
0.5
1
3) a - , where a  -1 , is a negative expression, since, for example, taking a=-5 we obtain:
a
1
-5 -  5  0.2  4.8  0
-5
1
4) a - , where -1  a  0 , is a positive expression, since, for example, taking a=-0.5 we obtain:
a
1
-0.5 -  -0.5  2  1.5  0
-0.5
45
Factors and Multiples
There are four ways to write the statement “20 can be divided by 4”.
I. 20 is divisible by 4.
II. 4 is a divisor of 20.
III.20 is a multiple of 4.
IV. 4 is a factor of 20.
Factor of a number n is a natural number that a number n can be divided by.
Example 1.
• 4 is a factor of 20;
• 7 is not a factor of 12.
Any natural number has at least two factors - 1 and that number itself.
Only one natural number has one factor, that is the number 1.
Multiple of a number n is a natural number that can be divided by n without remainder.
Example 2.
• 35 is a multiple of 7;
• 7 is not a multiple of 3.
a
Let a and b be natural numbers, then fraction is a natural number if and only if the
b
number a is divided evenly by the number b.
The first multiple of any natural number n is 0.
The second multiple of any natural number n is n itself.
46
Example 3.
When a number is divided by 21, the remainder is 16. What is the remainder when that number is divided
by 7 ?
Solution:
The second multiple of 21 is 21 itself. Consequently, remainder of 37 divided by 21 is 16.
Remainder of 37 divided by 7 is 2.
Answer: 2.
Example 4.
When a number is divided by 12, the remainder is 7. What is the remainder when that number is divided
by 6 ?
Solution:
The first multiple of 12 is 0. Consequently, remainder of 7 divided by 12 is also 7.
Answer: 1.
Example 5.
When a number n is divided by 13, the remainder is 11. What is the remainder when n3 − 13 is divided by
13 ?
Solution:
The first multiple of 13 is 0. Consequently, remainder of 11 divided by 13 is also 11. So, n = 11 .
n3 − 13 = 113 − 13 = 1331 − 13 = 1318
Answer: 5.
47
Main Divisibility Tests
In order to determine whether a natural number a is divisible by a natural number b the following
divisibility tests are used.
Test of Divisibility by 2
In order a number to be divisible by 2 it is necessary that a number ends by one of the following even
digits: 0; 2; 4; 6; 8.
Example 1.
Numbers 156; 9, 870; 32; 42, 564; 123, 468 are divisible by 2.
Numbers 157; 9, 873; 39; 42, 565; 123, 461 are not divisible by 2.
In order a number to be divisible by 3 it is necessary that the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Example 2.
Numbers 5825+8+2=15; 97, 8519+7+8+5+1=30; 8798+7+9=24 are divisible by 3.
Numbers 5835+8+3=16; 137, 8511+3+7+8+5+1=25; 8758+7+5=20 are not divisible by 3.
In order a number to be divisible by 4 it is necessary that a number ends by 00 or the last two digits of
that number form a two - digit number divisible by 4.
Example 3.
Numbers 316; 8, 532; 6, 800; 78, 564; 66, 280 are divisible by 4.
Numbers 310; 8, 535; 6, 814; 78, 582; 66, 225 are not divisible by 4.
48
In order a number to be divisible by 5 it is necessary that a number ends with one of the following digits:
0; 5.
Example 4:
Numbers 840; 1, 255; 35; 41, 260 are divisible by 5.
Numbers 257; 5, 873; 79; 20, 352 are not divisible by 5.
In order a number to be divisible by 6 it is necessary that a number is divisible by 2 and 3 at the same
time.
Example 5.
Numbers 5825+8+2=15; 197, 8501+9+7+8+5+0=30; 865, 7948+6+5+7+9+4=39 are divisible by 6.
Numbers 257; 297, 8502+9+7+8+5+0=31 are not divisible by 6.
In order a number to be divisible by 8 it is necessary that a number ends with 000 or the last three digits
of that number form a three - digit number divisible by 8.
Example 6.
Numbers 3, 160; 85, 720; 68, 000; 785, 880; 662, 120 are divisible by 8.
Numbers 3, 108; 85, 324; 74, 140; 491, 820; 675, 246 are not divisible by 8.
In order a number to be divisible by 9 it is necessary that the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
Example 7.
Numbers 5225+2+2=9; 67, 8516+7+8+5+1=27; 897, 5978+9+7+5+9+7=45 are divisible by 9.
Numbers 5825+8+2=15; 137, 8511+3+7+8+5+1=25; 8758+7+5=20 are not divisible by 9.
49
In order a number to be divisible by 10 it is necessary that a number ends with 0.
Example 8.
Numbers 150; 569, 870; 30 are divisible by 10.
Numbers 157; 9, 873; 34, 569 are not divisible by 10.
Additional Divisibility Tests
Besides the main divisibility tests it is possible to form additional tests of divisibility by any other number
expressing it as the product of two coprimes (i.e. numbers with only one common factor which is equal to
1).
time.
time.
time.
time.
In order a number to be divisible by 25 it is necessary that a number ends with: 00, 25, 50, 75.
50
Example 9.
For what value of A seven - digit number 5,93A,86A is divisible by 6 ?
Solution:
In order a number to be divisible by 6 it is necessary that a number 5,93A,86A is divisible by 2 and 3 at

the same time.
So the given number must end with A = 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 (test of divisibility by 2).
The sum of digits in case of:
when A = 0 then 5 + 9 + 3 + 0 + 8 + 6 + 0 = 31;
when A = 2 then 5 + 9 + 3 + 2 + 8 + 6 + 2 = 35;
when A = 4 then 5 + 9 + 3 + 4 + 8 + 6 + 4 = 39;
when A = 6 then 5 + 9 + 3 + 6 + 8 + 6 + 6 = 43;
when A = 8 then 5 + 9 + 3 + 8 + 8 + 6 + 8 = 47.
Digits 0, 2, 6, 8 are excluded, since test of divisibility by 3 is not satisfied.
Thus, only 4 is correct, since test of divisibility by 3 is satisfied.
Answer: A = 4.
Example 10.
Find remainder of 58, 987, 329 divided by 25.
Solution:
In order a number to be divisible by 25 it is necessary that a number ends with 00, 25, 50, 75. Thus,
the last number before 58, 987, 329 which is divisible by 25 is 58, 987, 325.
Consequently, remainder of division is 29 - 25 = 4.
Answer: 4.
51
Example 11.
Find remainder of 147, 775  49, 777, 774 divided by 7.
Solution:
Remainder of 147, 775 divided by 7 is 5.
Remainder of 49, 777, 774 divided by 7 is 4.
Multiplying remainders 5  4 = 20 and dividing by 7 we obtain remainder 6.
Answer: 6.
Prime and Composite Numbers
Prime number is a natural number which has only two factors - 1 and a number itself.
Composite number is a natural number which has more than two factors.
1 is neither a prime, nor a composite number.
2 is the unique prime even number.
All other even numbers more than 2 are composite numbers.
Example 1.
• 7 is a prime number, since it has only two factors: 1 and 7;

• 12 is a composite number, since it has more than two factors: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.
Example 2.
How many numbers among the first 25 naturals are prime ?
Solution:
1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17; 18; 19; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24;
25.
Answer: 9.
52
Example 3.
How many numbers among the first 20 naturals are composite ?
Solution:
1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17; 18; 19; 20.
Answer: 11.
Example 4.
Find the least prime number that is greater than 47.
Answer: 53.
The product of two different prime numbers is always a composite number that has 4
factors.
Prime Factorization
The process when a number is expressed as a product of only prime factors is called Prime
Factorization.
Example 1.
Make prime factorization of 120.
Solution:
120 2
60 2
30 2
15 3
5 5
Answer: 120 = 2  2  2  3  5 or 120 = 23  3  5 .
53
Example 2.
How many prime factors does a number 840 have ?
Solution:
840 2
420 2
210 2
105 3
35 5
7 7
Answer: 6.
Example 3.
How many distinct prime factors does a number 5, 940 have ?
Solution:
5, 940 2
2, 970 2
1, 485 3
495 3
165 3
55 5
11 11
Answer: 4.
54
Finding the Number of Factors
In order to find the number of all factors (prime and composite) of a natural number n it is
necessary to:
• make prime factorization of n;

• find the product of the number of all different prime factors increased by 1.
Example 1.
How many factors does 18 have ?
Solution:
18 2
9 3
3 3
Thus, 18 has two different factors - 2 (amount - 1) and 3 (amount - 2).
(1 + 1)  (2 + 1) = 2  3 = 6
Answer: 6.
55
Example 2.
How many factors does 720 have ?
Solution:
720 2
360 2
180 2
90 2
45 3
15 3
5 5
Thus, 720 has 3 different prime factors - 2 (amount - 4), 3 (amount - 2) and 5 (amount - 1).
4  1  2  1  1  1  5  3  2  30
Answer: 30.
Example 3.
How many prime factors does 360 have ?
Solution:
360 2 360  23  32  5
180 2
3  2 1  6
90 2
45 3
15 3
5 5
Answer: 6.
56
Example 4.
How many distinct prime factors does 360 have ?
Solution:
360 2 360  23  32  5
180 2
1+1+1=3
90 2
45 3
15 3
5 5
Answer: 3.
Example 5.
How many distinct natural factors does 360 have ?
Solution:
360 2 3  1  2  1  1  1  4  3  2  24
180 2
90 2
45 3
15 3
5 5
Answer: 24.
57
Example 6.
How many distinct integer factors does 360 have ?
Solution:
Count not only positive but also negative factors: 24  2  48 .
Answer: 48.
Example 7.
240
For how many natural values of p the expression is also natural ?
p
Solution:
240
Expression will be natural if and only if p is a factor of 240.
p
So we must find total amount of natural factors of 240.
240 2 4  1  1  1  1  1  5  2  2  20
120 2
60 2
30 2
15 3
5 5
Answer: 20.
58
Example 8.
150
For how many integer values of k is the expression also integer ?
k
Solution:
150
Expression will be natural if and only if k is a factor of 150.
k
So we must find total amount of integer factors of 150.
150 2
1

   
  
 1  1  1  1  2  1   2  2  2  3  2  24
75 3
1
25 5
2
5 5
Answer: 24.
59
GCF - Greatest Common Factor
The greatest common factor of two numbers a and b is the greatest number that both numbers
a and b are divided by.
Example 1.
• GCF(12; 18) = 6;
• GCF(35; 5) = 5;
• GCF(60; 48) = 12;
• GCF(12; 25) = 1;
• GCF(24; 18) = 6;
• GCF(13; 30) = 1.
In order to find the GCF of two numbers a and b it is necessary to prime factorize these
numbers and then to find the product of only all common prime factors.
Example 2.
Find GCF(420; 504).
Solution:
420 2 504 2 2  2  3  7  84
210 2 252 2
105 3 126 2
35 5 63 3
7 7 21 3
1 7 7
Answer: 84.
60
Example 3.
Find GCF(588; 126).
Solution:
588 2 126 2 2  3  7  42
294 2 63 3
147 3 21 3
49 7 7 7
7 7 1
Answer: 42.
LCM - Least Common Multiple
The least common multiple of two numbers a and b is the least number (i.e. the first number)
that is divided by both a and b.
Example 1.
• LCM(3; 4) = 12;
• LCM(10; 5) = 10;
• LCM(6; 8) = 24;
• LCM(6; 24) = 24;
• LCM(15; 60) = 60.
In order to find the LCM of two numbers a and b it is necessary to prime factorize these
numbers and then to find the product of all prime factors (not only common) taken in the
greatest amount.
The following formula can be also used to find the LCM of two numbers a and b:
ab
LCM(a; b) 
GCF(a; b)
61
Example 2.
Find LCM(154; 330).
Solution 1:
154 2 330 2
77 7 165 3
11 11 55 5
1 11 11
LCM(154; 330)  2  7  11  3  5  2, 310
Solution 2:
Let’s find GCF(154; 330).
154 2 330 2 2  11  22
77 7 165 3
11 11 55 5
1 11 11
154  330 154  330

LCM(154; 330)    7  330  2, 310
GCF(154; 330) 22
Answer: 2, 310.
62
Example 3.
Given a  25  53  7  114 and b  28  32  73  11  133 .
Find GCF(a; b) and LCM(a; b).
Solution:
5
GCF(a; b)  2  7  11
LCM(a; b)  28  53  73  114  32  133 .
Let two natural numbers a and b be given.
• The first common multiple of numbers a and b is a number LCM(a, b).

• Each subsequent common multiple of numbers a and b is obtained after LCM(a, b)
number of steps.
Example 4.
Find all common multiples of 20 and 15 less than 400.
Solution:
Let’s find LCM(20; 15).
20  15 20  15
LCM(20; 15)    4  15  60
GCF(20; 15) 5
60 is the first number which is divisible by both 20 and 15 (i.е. the least common multiple of 20 and 15).
All subsequent common multiples of 20 and 15 are obtained after 60 steps.
1) 60
2) 120
3) 180
4) 240
5) 300
6) 360
63
Example 5.
If x is an integer that has a remainder of 6 when it is divided by 8, 25 and 35, what is the least multidigit
value of x ?
Solution:
Let’s find the least multidigit number which is divisible by 8, 25 and 35 at the same time, i.e. LCM(8; 25;
35).
8  25 8  25
LCM(8; 25)    200
GCF(8; 25) 1
200  35 200  35
LCM(200; 35)    200  7  1, 400
GCF(200; 35) 5
1, 400 is the least multidigit number that is divisible by 8, 25 and 35 at the same time.
Thus, the least multidigit number which gives remainder of 6 when dividing by 8, 25 and 35 is 1, 406.
Answer: 1, 406.
64
Example 6.
n n n
What is the sum of digits of the least possible number n if , , are natural numbers ?
10 6 50
Solution:
n n n
Since , , are natural numbers so n is divisible evenly by 10, 6 and 50.
10 6 50
If we find the least value of a number n then that will be the least common multiple of 10, 6 and 50.
Let’s find LCM(10; 6; 50).
10  6 10  6
LCM(10; 6)    30
GCF(10; 6) 2
Let’s now find LCM(30; 50).
30  50 30  50
LCM(30; 50)    150
GCF(30; 50) 10
Thus, we obtain that LCM(10; 6; 50)=150, so n = 150.
Consequently, 1 + 5 + 0 = 6.
Answer: 6.
65
Example 7.
How many natural numbers satisfy the following expression: 2 < 3n – 5 ≤ 19 ?
Solution:
In order to find how many natural numbers satisfy the expression 2 < 3n – 5 ≤ 19 it is necessary to
solve this double inequality.
2  3n - 5  19
2  5  3n  19  5
7  3n  24
7 24
n
3 3
1
2 n8
3
The following natural numbers satisfy the given inequality: 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8, i.e. 6 natural numbers.
Answer: 6.
Example 8.
The amount of books sent by post is between 250 and 320. How many books were sent by post if they
were packed as 15 per box and then repacked as 20 per box?
Solution:
According to the condition of the problem the number of books is divisible by 15 and 20 at the same
time.
The first number which is divisible by 15 and 20 is LCM(15; 20):
15  20 15  20
LCM(15; 20)    60
GCF(15; 20) 5
Numbers 60, 120, 180, 240 (multiples of 60) do not satisfy the condition of the problem since they are
out of the interval 250 and 320. Consequently, the first and only one number that satisfies the condition
is 300.
Answer: 300.
66
Let a and b be two natural numbers and b is a factor of a (i.e. a is divisible by b).
In this case the following expressions are true:
1) GCF(a; b) = b
2) LCM(a; b) = a
Example 9.
LCM(x; y) - GCF(x; y)
x is a factor of y. Find the value of .
GCF(x; y)
Solution:
LCM(x; y) - GCF(x; y) y - x
Since x is a factor of y then 
GCF(x; y) x
y-x
Answer: .
x
Example 10.
Two busses with different routes left the station at the same time. The first one returns back every 45
minutes, and the second one returns back every 30 minutes. What is the least period of time when both
busses return back at the same time ?
Solution:
45  30 45  30
LCM(45; 30)    3  30  90
GCF(45; 30) 15
Answer: after 90 minutes.
67
Coprimes
Coprimes are natural numbers that do not have any common factors except 1 (i.e. the greatest
common factor of these numbers is 1).
Any two natural numbers have at least one common factor - 1.
1 is a coprime number with any other numbers.
Example 1.
• 12 and 25 are coprimes since GCF(12; 25) = 1;

• 12 and 18 are not coprimes since GCF(12; 18) = 6;
• 10, 20 and 21 are coprimes since GCF(10; 20; 21) = 1;
• 10, 20 and 32 are not coprimes since GCF(10; 20; 32) = 2;
Example 2.
Find the sum of the numbers from the interval [4, 13) that are coprimes with 27.
Solution:
The following numbers are coprimes with 27 from the interval [4, 13):
4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12.
4 + 5 + 7 + 8 + 10 + 11 = 45
Answer: 45.
68
Example 3.
Find the number of coprime pairs from the numbers 4, 8, 3, 13, 26.
Solution:
Let’s make all possible pairs and find their GCF:
(4; 8)GCF=4, (4; 3)GCF=1, (4; 13)GCF=1, (4; 26)GCF=2
(8; 3)GCF=1, (8; 13)GCF=1, (8; 26)GCF=2
(3; 13)GCF=1, (3; 26)GCF=1
(13; 26)GCF=13
Answer: 6.
69
Consecutive Numbers
Any natural number can be denoted by n.
Any two consecutive natural numbers can be denoted by n, n+1.
Any three consecutive natural numbers can be denoted by n, n+1, n+2.
Example 1.
The sum of three consecutive natural numbers is 33. Find the product of these numbers ?
Solution:
I number - n
II number - n+1
III number - n+2.
n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) = 33
3n + 3 = 33
3n = 30
n = 10.
I number - 10, II number - 11, III number - 12.
10  11  12 = 1, 320
Answer: 1, 320.
70
Even number is a number divisible by 2 evenly (i.e. remainder of division that number
by 2 is 0).
Odd number is a number not divisible by 2 evenly (i.e. remainder of division that
number by 2 is always 1).
Difference between any two nearest even numbers is 2.
Difference between any two nearest odd numbers is 2.
Any two consecutive even natural numbers can be denoted by n, n+2, where n is even.
Any three consecutive even natural numbers can be denoted by n, n+2, n+4, where n is even.
Example 2.
The sum of three consecutive even natural numbers is 90. Find the greatest of them.
Solution:
I number - n
II number - n+2
III number - n+4.
n + (n + 2) + (n + 4) = 90
3n + 6 = 90
3n = 84
n = 28.
Answer: 32.
71
Any two consecutive odd natural numbers can be denoted by n, n+2, where n is odd.
Any three consecutive odd natural numbers can be denoted by n, n+2, n+4, where n is odd.
Example 3.
The sum of three consecutive odd natural numbers is 297. Find the least of them.
Solution:
I number - n
II number - n+2
III number - n+4.
n + (n + 2) + (n + 4) = 297
3n + 6 = 297
3n = 291
n = 97.
Answer: 97.
72
Example 4.
The sum of three consecutive integer numbers is -48. Find the product of these numbers.
Solution:
I number - x
II number - x+1
III number - x+2.
x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = -48
3x + 3 = -48
3x = -51
x = -17.
I number = -17, II number = -16, III number = -15.
-17  (-16)  (-15) = -4, 080
Answer: -4, 080.
Example 5.
4x - 7 is a multiple of 9. Find the next and previous multiplies of 9.
Solution:
 
The next multiple of 9 is 4x  7  9  4x  2
 
The previous multiple of 9 is 4x  7  9  4x  16
Answer: the next multiple of 9 is 4x + 2, and the previous multiple is 4x - 16.
73
Table of Consecutive Numbers
Five consecutive natural numbers can be written as n, n+1, n+2, n+3, n+4
Five consecutive integer numbers can be written as x, x+1, x+2, x+3, x+4
Five consecutive even numbers can be written as n, n+2, n+4, n+6, n+8 if n is even
Five consecutive odd numbers can be written as n, n+2, n+4, n+6, n+8 if n is odd
Five consecutive multiples of 3 can be written as n, n+3, n+6, n+9, n+12 if n is a multiple of 3
Statements on Even and Odd Numbers
• The sum of two even numbers is an even number.

• The sum of two odd numbers is an even number.
• The sum of an even and odd numbers is an odd number.
• The difference between two even numbers is an even number.

• The difference between two odd numbers is an even number.
• The difference between an even and odd numbers is an odd number.
• The product of two even numbers is an even number.

• The product of two odd numbers is an odd number.
• The product of an even and odd numbers is an even number.
• An even number raised to the natural power is an even number.

• An odd number raised to the natural power is an odd number.
74
Example 1.
The expression (7x  3)2 is an odd number.
Which of the following expressions is an even number ?
x2  1
x2  x  1
5x  2
3
x +1
4x - 3
Solution:
2
Since (7x  3) is an odd number, so 7x-3 is also an odd number.
Since 7x-3 is an odd number, so 7x is an even number.
Since 7x is an even number, so x is an even number.
Since x is an even number, so:
x2  1 is an odd number;
x2  x  1 is an odd number;
5x  2 is an even number;
x3  1 is an odd number;
4x - 3 is an odd number;
Answer: 5x  2 .
75
Example 2.
Which of the following expressions is odd for any natural value of n ?
n2  1
n3  4
6n2
4n19  6
4n2  7
Solution:
n2  1 can be an even or odd number depending on the value of n;
n3  4 can be an even or odd number depending on the value of n;
6n2 is always an even number;
4n19  6 is always an even number;
4n2  7 is always an odd number.
2
Answer: 4n  7 .
76
Finding Amount of Integers in the Segment
Example.
How many integer numbers are inside the following sets ?

15;37  37  15  1  23
17;47  18;46   46  18  1  29
14;80   
80  14  1  80  14  1  95
50; 30  49; 31   

 31  49  1  19
46;23  45;22   
22  45  1  68
Finding Amount of Multiples in the Segment
Example 1.
How many integers from 1 to 100 which are divisible by 7 ?
Solution:
100 : 7  14. …
Answer: 14.
Example 2.
How many 3 digit integer numbers are divisible by 5 ?
Solution:
So we need to find amount of all multiples of 5 from 100 to 999.
999 : 5  199. … (amount of all multiples of 5 from 1 to 999).
99 : 5  19. … (amount of all multiples of 5 from 1 to 99).
199 – 19 = 180 (amount of all multiplies of 5 from 100 to 999).
Answer: 180.
77
Example 3.
How many integer multiplies of 6 are from 120 to 600 ?
Solution:
600 : 6 = 100 (amount of all multiples of 6 from 1 to 600)
119:6=19. … (amount of all multiples of 6 from 1 to 119)
100 – 19 = 81 (amount of all multiples of 6 from 120 to 600).
Answer: 81.
Example 4.
How many integer multiplies of 3 from -3000 to 6000 ?
Solution:
3000  6000
3000 : 3 = 1000 (amount of all multiples of 3 from -3000 to -1).
6000 : 3 = 2000 (amount of all multiples of 3 from 1 to 6000).
1000 + 2000 = 3000
Since, 0 is also integer multiple of 3 then total number of multiples of 3 is:
3000 + 1 = 3001
Answer: 3001.
78
Sets and Operations on Them
1) A  B - union of two sets A and B.
n(A) - number of elements in set A.
n(B) - number of elements in set B.
     
n AB  n A n B n AB   - number of elements in the union of sets A and B.
2) A  B - intersection of two sets A and B.
3) A \ B - difference of two sets A and B.
   
n A\B  n A  n A B  
79
4) B \ A - difference of two sets B and A.
    
n B\ A  n B  n A B 
Example 1.
Given two sets A  1; 3; 8; 9 and B  1;2; 4;5; 8 .
Then,
   
n A  4, n B  5
 
A  B  1; 3; 8; 9;2; 4;5 , n A  B  7
 
A  B  1; 8 , n A  B  2
A \ B = {3, 9} , n ( A \ B ) = 2
B \ A = {2, 4, 5} , n (B \ A ) = 3
80
Venn Diagram Problems
Example 1.
There are 40 pupils in the class. 25 of them are engaged in football, 20 are in basketball and 7 are in both.
How many pupils are not engaged in either sport ?
Solution:
Total - 40 pupils.
Football - 25 pupils.
Basketball - 20 students.
Both football and basketball - 7 pupils.
Let number of pupils which are not engaged in either sport be x.
So, the following equation is true for the number of all pupils in the class:
18 + 7 + 13 + x = 40
38 + x = 40
x = 40 - 38
x=2
Thus, 2 pupils are not engaged in either sport.
Answer: 2.
81
Example 2.
There are 50 pupils in the class. 30 of them study Math, 25 students study Physics and 7 pupils do not study
any subject. How many pupils study both Math and Physics ?
Solution:
Total - 50 pupils.
Math - 30 pupils.
Physics - 25 students.
Let number of pupils, who study both Math and Physics be x.
Thus, the following equation is true for the number of all pupils in the class:
30  x  x  25  x  7  50
30  x  x  25  x  7  50
62  x  50
x  62  50
x  12
Thus, 12 pupils study both Math and Physics.
Answer: 12.
82
Example 3.
In a class F pupils are engaged in football, B pupils are engaged in basketball and N pupils are engaged
both in football and in basketball. What part of the class is engaged in basketball but not in football ?
Solution:
Football - F pupils.
Basketball - B pupils.
Both football and basketball - N pupils.
   
Then, the total number of students is F  N  N  B  N  F  B  N .
BN
So, the part of the class engaged in basketball but not in football is .
F BN
BN
Answer: .
F B N
83
Example 4.
How many integers from 1 to 200 are divisible neither by 2 nor by 3 ?
Solution:
200 : 6  33. … - amount of all multiples of 6 from 1 to 200 is 33.
200 : 2  100 - amount of all multiples of 2 from 1 to 200 is 100.
200 : 3  66. … - amount of all multiples of 3 from 1 to 200 is 66.
Let the amount of numbers from 1 to 200 which are divisible neither by 2 nor by 3 be x.
So, the following equation is true for the amount of all integers from 1 to 200.
67 + 33 + 33 + x = 200
133 + x = 200
x = 200 - 133
x = 67
Thus, 67 numbers are divisible neither by 2 nor by 3.
Answer: 67.
84
Example 5.
As computer chips move along an assembly production line, the first inspector checks every third chip
beginning with the third chip. The second inspector checks every fifth chip beginning with the fifth chip.
If 100 computer chips were produced on the assembly line while both inspectors were working, how many of
these chips were NOT checked by either inspector ?
Solution:
The first inspector checks every third chip, so he will check 100 : 3  33. … chips.
The second inspector checks every fifth chip, so he will check 100 : 5 = 20 chips.
But every LCM(3, 5) = 15th chip will be checked by both inspectors, i.e. 100 : 15  6. … chips will be
checked by both inspectors.
Let the amount of all chips which were not checked be x.
So, the following equation is true for the number of chips on the assembly line.
27 + 6 + 14 + x = 100
47 + x = 100
x = 100 - 47
x = 53
Thus, 53 chips were not checked by either inspector.
Answer: 53.
85
Properties of Powers and Roots
1) an  am  an m
an
2)  an m
am
a   a 
m n
3) n m
 anm
a  b
n
4)  an  bn
 a  n an
5) 
 b   bn
 
1
6)  an
an
7) a0  1 , when a  0
 a
m
8) n
 n am
m
n
9) am  a n
10) n
ab  n
anb
a n
a
11) n 
b n
b
nm
12) a  m n a  nm a
Logarithms
I. c  ab - c is expressed in terms of a and b.
1
II. a  cb - a is expressed in terms of b and c.
III. b=logac - b is expressed in terms of a and c.
86
Properties of Logarithms
1) logba  a  0 , b  0 and b  1
2) log10a  loga - common logarithm.
3) logea  ln a - natural logarithm, where e  2.718 - constant.
4) logaa  1
5) logb1  0
6)  
logb an  n  logba
1
7) log bn a   logba
  n
 
n
8) lognba  logba
9) logca  logcb  logc a  b  

a
10) logca  logcb  logc 
 b 
 
1
11) logba 
logab
12) logba  logab  1
13) blogb a  a or bklogb a  ak
14) clogb a  alogb c or cklo gb a  aklo gb c
logca
15) logba  - formula of the base change.
logcb
lo ga b lo gb a
16) a b
17)
  0, if

logb a  
0  a  1 and 0  b  1  or a  1 and b  1 
  0, if
 0  a  1 and b  1 or a  1 and 0  b  1 
n  log x , if n  even
b
18) logb xn   , where x  variable.
n  logb x, if n  odd
19) Properties of common logarithms:
a) log2  1  log 5
b) log 5  1  log2
87
Changing the Subject of a Formula
Example 1.
a x
Given equality:  .
b y
1) Express a in terms of b, x and y.
x b
a
y
2) Express b in terms of a, x and y.
a y
b
x
3) Express x in terms of a, b and y.
a y
x
b
4) Express y in terms of a, b and x.
x b
y
a
Example 2.
Make x subject of the formula: L  x  R  S2 .
L  x  R  S2
 x  R  S2  L : ( −1)
x  R  S2  L
x  L  R  S2
Example 3.
Make y subject of the formula: s  my  d .
s  my  d
my  s  d
sd
y
m
88
Example 4.
nt  m
Express t in terms of n, m and p:  p.
t
nt  m
p
t
nt  m  pt
nt  pt  m
 
t  n  p  m
m m
t 
np pn
Example 5.
Make r subject of the formula: r  v2  ra .
r  v2  ra
r  ra  v2
 
r  1  a  v2
v2
r
1a
Example 6.
Make l subject of the formula:


y l a   t.
z

y l  a t
z
 
y  l  a  tz
yl  ya  tz
yl  tz  ya
tz  ya
l
y
89
Example 7.
Express g in terms of b, x and t: b  gx  t .
b gx  t
 gx  t 
2
b2 
b2  gx  t
gx  b2  t
b2  t
g
x
Example 8.
  
Make f subject of the formula: m  f  a  n  f  b .
 
m f  a  n f  b  
mf  ma  nf  nb
mf  nf  nb  ma
 
f  m  n  nb  ma
nb  ma
f 
mn
Example 9.
Make q subject of the formula: aq  y  z  bq .
aq  y  z  bq
aq  bq  z  y
 
q a  b  z  y
zy
q
ab
90
Example 10.
am
Make m subject of the formula: b.
am
am
b
am
a  m  b a  m  
a  m  ba  bm
m  bm  ba  a

m  1  b  ba  a 
ba  a
m 
1b
ba  a
m
1b
a  ba
m
1b
Example 11.
Make s subject of the formula: 

m s  n   p.
s

m s  n  p
s
2
 m s  n


    p2
 s 
 

m s  n p 2

m  s  n  p2s 
ms  mn  p2s
ms  p2s  mn

s  m  p2  mn 
 mn
s
m  p2
mn
s
p2  m
91
Example 12.
Make x subject of the formula: ax  c  b .
ax c  b
x  c  loga b
x  loga b  c
Example 13.
v q e
Make e subject of the formula:  z.
v
vq e
z
v
v q  e 1  z
q  e  1  logv z
e  q  1  logv z
Example 14.

Make m subject of the formula: logk b  m  n . 

logk b  m  n 
b  m  kn
m  kn  b
Example 15.
 
Make j subject of the formula: log 7j  a .
 
log 7j  a
7j  10a
10a
j
7
92
Example 16.

Make z subject of the formula: ln x  3z  1  k . 

ln x  3z  1  k 
ek  x  3z  1
3z  x  1  ek
x  1  ek
z
3
Example 17.
Make n subject of the formula: emn  k  5b .
emn  k  5b
m  n  ln k  5b  

n  ln k  5b  m 
Example 18.
Make b subject of the formula: a  b3  6 .
a  b3  6
b3  a  6
b 3
a6
Example 19.
Make x subject of the formula: 2  3y  4

7  3x .
2  3y  4
7  3x
 7  3x 
4
2  3y
4 4

2  3y
4
 7  3x
 
4
3x  7  2  3y
 
4
7  2  3y
x
3
93
Example 20.
Make x the subject of the formula, when x  1 : 2x2  x  y  0 .
2x2  x  y  0
2x2  x   y :2
1 y
x2  x
2 2
Let’s use the formulas of completing the square:
2
 1 1 y
x    
 4 16 2
2
 1 8/
y 1

 x  
  
 4 2 16
2
 1 8y  1

 x   
 4  16
2
 1 1  8y
x   
 4 16
1 1  8y
x 
4 16
1 1  8y
x 
4 4
Thus, if x  1 then
1 1  8y
x 
4 4
1  8y 1
x 
4 4
1  8y  1
x
4
94
Example 21.
Make a the subject of the formula, when a  2 : 3a2  12a  b  6 .
3a2  12a  b  6
3a2  12a  6  b 
: 3
6b
a2  4a 
3
Let’s use the formulas of completing the square:
6b
a  2
2
4
3
6b
a  2
2
 4
3
6  b 3/ 4
 
2
a2  
3 1
6  b  12
a  2
2

3
18  b
a  2
2

3
18  b
a2  
3
Thus, if a  2 then
18  b
a2  
3
18  b
a 2
3
95
96
Parts, Proportions and Percents
97
98
Finding the Value of a Number Part
In order to find the value of a number part it is necessary to multiply a number by that part.
Example 1.
5
Find part of number 36.
9
Solution:
5
36 ⋅ = 4 ⋅ 5 = 20
9
Answer: 20.
Example 2.
3
Find of number 63.
7
Solution:
3
63 ⋅ = 9 ⋅ 3 = 27
7
Answer: 27.
Finding a Number from the Value of its Part
In order to find a number from the value of its part it is necessary to divide the value of its
part by that part.
Example 1.
2
Find a number, if part of that number is 30.
5
Solution:
2 5
30 :  30   15  5  75
5 2
Answer: 75.
99
Example 2.
3
Find a number, if of that number is 48.
8
Solution:
3 8
48 : = 48 ⋅ = 16 ⋅ 8 = 128
8 3
Answer: 128.
Finding Relationship of Parts Between Two Numbers
In order to find what part of the first number is the second number it is necessary to divide
the second number by the first number.
Example 1.
What part of 75 is 50?
Solution:
50 2

75 3
2
Answer: .
3
Example 2.
What part of 30 is 600?
Solution:
600
= 20
30
Answer: 20.
100
Direct Proportion
Direct proportion is such a variation of variables that when the first variable increases the
second one also increases or, vice versa, when the first variable decreases the second one also
decreases.
In direct proportion the law of “cross product” works !
a b
c d
a d = b  c
Direct proportion is often written as ratio.
means of proportion
a:b=c:d
extremes of proportion
The main property of direct proportion is that the product of means and the product of
extremes of proportion are equal.
a d = b c
Direct proportion can also be written as the product of numerical coefficient k and variable, where k is
the coefficient of direct proportion.
101
Inverse Proportion
Inverse proportion is such a variation of variables that when the first variable increases the
second one decreases or, vice versa, when the first variable decreases the second one increases.
In inverse proportion the law of “line–by–line product” works !
a b
c d
a b = c  d
Inverse proportion can also be written as the ratio of numerical coefficient k and variable, where k is the
coefficient of inverse proportion.
Examples of Part and Proportion Problems
Example 1.
A student reads 120 pages for 5 hours. In how many hours can the student read 300 pages?
Solution:
5 h. – 120 p.
problem on direct proportion
х h. – 300 p.
x ⋅ 120=5 ⋅ 300
5 ⋅ 300 5 ⋅ 5 25
=x = = = 12.5 h.
120 2 2
Answer: 12.5 hours.
102
Example 2.
6 tractors plough up a field for 18 days. How many tractors will be needed to plough up the same field
for 12 days?
Solution:
6 tr. – 18 d.
problem on inverse proportion
х tr. – 12 d.
x ⋅ 12=6 ⋅ 18
6 ⋅ 18 18
=x = = 9 tr.
12 2
Answer: 9 tractors.
Example 3.
A car travels the whole distance from point A to point B at rate of 60 m/h for 8 hours.
With what rate should a car travel the same distance for 5 hours?
60 m/h – 8 h.
problem on inverse proportion
х m/h – 5 h.
x ⋅ 5=60 ⋅ 8
60 ⋅ 8
x
= = 12 ⋅ 8 = 96 m/h
5
Answer: 96 m/h.
103
Example 4.
A car travels 150 miles in 3 hours. How many miles can a car travel in 5 hours?
Solution:
3 h. – 150 m.
problem on direct proportion
5 h. – х m.
x ⋅ 3 = 5 ⋅ 150
5 ⋅ 150
x = =5 ⋅ 50 =250 m.
3
Answer: 250 miles.
Example 5.
Find unknown term of the proportion 5 : 12 = а : 4.
Solution:
As we know the product of means of proportion is equal to the product of extremes of proportion.
Thus,
5 ⋅ 4 = 12 ⋅ a
5⋅4 5 2
=a = =1
12 3 3
2
Answer: 1 .
3
104
Example 6.
One of the extremes of proportion is 6, and two means of proportion are 18 and 4. Find the second
extreme of proportion.
Solution:
Let the second extreme of proportion be х.
As we know the product of means of proportion is equal to the product of extremes of proportion.
Thus,
x ⋅ 6=18 ⋅ 4
18 ⋅ 4
x = = 3 ⋅ 4 = 12
6
Answer: 12.
Example 7.
A number 480 is expressed as the sum of three numbers which are in ratio 3, 4 and 5. Find these
numbers.
Solution:
I number – 3х
II number – 4х
III number – 5х
3x + 4x + 5x = 480
12x = 480
x = 480:12
x = 40
I number – 3 ⋅ 40 = 120
II number – 4 ⋅ 40 = 160
III number – 5 ⋅ 40 = 200
Answer: 120, 160 and 200.
105
Example 8.
а is directly proportional to the square of b.
When b is 4, then a is 80. What is the value of a when b is 6?
Solution:
As we know the direct proportion can be written as the product of numerical coefficient and
corresponding variable: а = k ⋅ b2 .
Since а = 80 when b = 4.
Thus,
80 = k ⋅ 42
80
k=
16
k=5
So, the equation of direct proportion has the following form: a = 5 ⋅ b2 .
When b = 6 it follows that: a = 5 ⋅ 62 = 5 ⋅ 36 = 180.
Answer: 180.
106
Example 9.
m is inversely proportional to the square root of p.

When p is 9, then m is 12. What is the value of p when m is 4?
Solution:
As we know the inverse proportion can be written as the ratio of numerical coefficient and corresponding
k
variable: m= .
p
Since m=12 when p=9.
Thus,
k
12 =
9
k = 12 ⋅ 3
k = 36
36
So, the equation of inverse proportion has the following form: m = .
p
When m = 4 it follows that:
36
4=
p
36
p =
4
p=9
p = 81
Answer: 81.
107
Example 10.
y is directly proportional to x.
When x is a, then y is 24, and when x is a+2, then y is 36. What is the value of a?
Solution:
As we know the direct proportion can be written as the product of numerical coefficient and
corresponding variable: y = k x.
Since y = 24 when x = a.
Thus,
24 = k  a
24
k 
a
Since y = 36 when x = a + 2.
Thus,
36 = k  (a + 2)
36
k 
a2
So,
24 36

a a2
 
24  a  2  36  a
24a  48  36a
36a  24a  48
12a  48
a  48 : 12
a4
Answer: 4.
108
Example 11.
c is directly proportional to the cube of а and inversely proportional to the square of b.
When a is 4 and b is 2, then с is 24. What is the value of с when а is 2 and b is 6?
Solution:
As we know direct proportion can be written as the product and inverse proportion as the ratio of
k ⋅ a3
numerical coefficient and corresponding variables: с= .
b2
Since c=24 when a=4 and b=2.
Thus,
k ⋅ 43
24=
22
k ⋅ 64
24=
4
24=k ⋅ 16
24 3
k
= =
16 2
So, the equation of proportion has the following form:

3 3
⋅a
c= 2
b2
3a3
c=
2b2
When a=2 and b=6 it follows that:

3 ⋅ 23 3⋅8 1
с= = =
2 ⋅ 62 2 ⋅ 36 3
1
Answer: .
3
109
Percents
One percent of a number is one hundredth part of that number.
1
1%= =0.01
100
5
5% = = 0.05
100
30
30% = = 0.3
100
500
500% = =5
100
0.7
0.7% = = 0.007
100
23.4
23.4% = = 0.234
100
0.07
0.07% = = 0.0007
100
In order to convert a percent into a part it is necessary to divide that percent by 100%.
40% = 0.4
3% = 0.03
200% = 2
0.4% = 0.004
100% = 1
3500% =35
In order to convert a part into a percent it is necessary to multiply that part by 100%.
0.2 = 20%
50 = 5000%
0.009 = 0.9%
0.37 = 37%
0.0264 = 2.64%
6 = 600%
110
Finding the Value of a Percent from a Number
In order to find the value of a percent from a number it is necessary to convert a percent into
a part and then multiply a number by that part.
Example.
Find 40% of 60.
Solution 1:
40%(60) = 60 ⋅ 0.4 = 24 – the value of a percent from a number.
Solution 2:
60 – 100%
x – 40%
60 ⋅ 40%
x= = 6 ⋅ 4 = 24 – the value of a percent from a number.
100%
Answer: 24.
A number from which the value of a percent is evaluated – is always a 100% number.
All percent problems can be solved only by means of direct proportion.
111
Finding a Number from the Value of its Percent
In order to find a number from the value of its percent it is necessary to convert a percent into
a part and then divide the value of a percent by that part.
Example.
Find a number if its 30% is 18.
Solution 1:
Let number be x.
Thus,
30%(x)=18
х=18:0.3=180:3=60 – a number.
Solution 2:
18 – 30%
x – 100%
18 ⋅ 100%
x= =6 ⋅ 10 =60 – a number.
30%
Answer: 60.
Finding Percent Relationship Between Two Numbers
In order to find what percent of the first number is the second number it is necessary to divide
the second number by the first number and multiply by 100%.
Example.
What percent of 320 is 40?
Solution 1:
40 1
⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% =
12.5%
320 8
Solution 2:
320 – 100%
40 – x%
40 ⋅ 100% 100%
=x = = 12.5%
320 8
Answer: 12.5%.
112
Examples of Percent Problems
Example 1.
Find 40% of 90.
Solution 1:
40%(90)= 90 ⋅ 0.4 =
36
Solution 2:
90 – 100%
x – 40%
90 ⋅ 40%
=x = 36
100%
Answer: 36.
Example 2.
Solution 1:
Let number be x.
Thus,
80%(x)=240
x=240:0.8=300
Solution 2:
240 – 80%
х – 100%
240 ⋅ 100%
x= 3 100 =
=⋅ 300
80%
Answer: 300.
113
Example 3.
Solution 1:
20 1
⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% =
25%
80 4
Solution 2:
80 – 100%
20 – х%
20 ⋅ 100% 100%
=x = = 25%
80 4
Answer: 25%.
Example 4.
Find 90% of 300.
Solution:
90% (300 ) = 300 ⋅ 0.9 = 270
Answer: 270.
Example 5.
Solution:
Let number be x.
Thus,
70%(x)=21
x=21:0.7=30
Answer: 30.
114
Example 6.
Solution:
60 2
⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% =
2 ⋅ 20% =
40%
150 5
Answer: 40%.
Example 7:
Solution:
220
⋅ 100% = 220 ⋅ 2% = 440%
50
Answer: 440%.
Example 8:
40 was increased by 70%. What is the value of the obtained number?
Solution 1:
40+70%(40)=40+40 ⋅ 0.7=40+28=68
Solution 2:
170%(40)=40 ⋅ 1.7=68
Answer: 68.
Example 9.
90 was decreased by 70%. What is the value of the obtained number?
Solution 1:
90–70%(90)=90–90 ⋅ 0.7=90–63=27
Solution 2:
30% ( 90 ) =90 ⋅ 0.3 =27
Answer: 27.
115
Example 10.
140 was increased by 150%. What is the value of the obtained number?
Solution:
250% (140 ) = 140 ⋅ 2.5 = 350
Answer: 350.
Example 11.
120 was decreased by 20%. What is the value of the obtained number?
Solution:
80% (120 ) = 120 ⋅ 0.8 = 96
Answer: 96.
Example 12:
120 was decreased by 30%, and then a new number was increased by 40%. What is the
value of the obtained number?
Solution:
( )
140% 70% (120 ) = 120 ⋅ 0.7 ⋅ 1.4 = 117.6
Answer: 117.6.
Example 13:
200 was decreased by 40%, and then a new number was decreased by 10%. What is the
value of the obtained number?
Solution:
( )
90% 60% (200 ) = 200 ⋅ 0.6 ⋅ 0.9 = 108
Answer: 108.
116
Example 14.
а is 40% of b. What percent of а is b?
Solution:
=a 40%(b)
= 0.4b
Thus,
a a 5
b
= = = = = 250% ( a)
a 2.5a
0.4 2 2
5
Answer: 250%.
Example 15.
а is 50% more than b. By what percent b is less than а?
Solution:
a=150%(b)=1.5b
a 2 200 2
b
= = = a a) 66 % ( a)
% (=
1.5 3 3 3
Since а is a 100% number for itself.
Thus,
2 1
100% – 66 % = 33 %
3 3
1
Answer: 33 %.
3
Example 16.
x is 80% of y and y is 70% of z. What percent of z is x?
Solution:
x=80%(y)=0.8y
y=70%(z)=0.7z
Thus,
x=0.8y=0.8 ⋅ 0.7z=0.56z=56%(z)
Answer: 56%.
117
Example 17.
а is 10% of b and b is 40% of с. What percent of а is с?
Solution:
a = 10%(b) = 0.1b
b = 40%(c) = 0.4c
Thus,
a = 0.1b = 0.1 ⋅ 0.4c = 0.04c
a
=c = 2500% ( a)
= 25a
0.04
Answer: 2500%.
Example 18.
m is 20% of p and n is 60% of q. What percent of pq is mn?
Solution:
m=20%(p)=0.2p
n=60%(q)=0.6q
Thus,
mn = 0.2p ⋅ 0.6q = 0.12pq = 12%(pq)
Answer: 12%.
Example 19.
Compare 20% of а and 80% of b.
20% (а) ? 80% (b)
Answer: comparison is impossible, because values of a and b are unknown.
118
Example 20.
A number was decreased by 20%. By what percent should the obtained number be increased in
order to get the original number?
Solution:
Before – а
After – а – 20%(а)=а – 0.2а=0.8а
Obtained number 0.8а is a 100% number for itself, but it must be increased by 0.2а in order to get
the original number а.
So, it is necessary to find what percent of 0.8а is 0.2а.
I case:
0.2a 1
⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% =
25%
0.8a 4
II case:
0.8а – 100%
0.2а – х%
0.2a ⋅ 100% 100%

=x = = 25%
0.8a 4
Answer: 25%.
119
Example 21.
A number was increased by 30%. By what percent should the obtained number be decreased in order to
get the original number?
Solution:
Before – а
After – а + 30%(а)=а + 0.3а=1.3а.
Obtained number 1.3а is a 100% number for itself, but it should be decreased by 0.3а in order to get
So, it is necessary to find what percent of 1.3а is 0.3а .
I case:
0.3a 3 300 1
⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% = % =
23 %
1.3a 13 13 13
II case:
1.3а – 100%
0.3а – х%
0.3a ⋅ 100% 3 ⋅ 100% 300% 1

=x = = = 23 %
1.3a 13 13 13
1
Answer: 23 %.
13
120
Example 22.
A number is increased by 80%. By what percent should the obtained number be decreased in order to
Solution:
Before – а
After – 1.8а
Obtained number 1.8а is a 100% number for itself, but it should be decreased by 0.8а in order to get
Thus,
0.8a 8 4 400 4
⋅ 100% =⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% = % =
44 %
1.8a 18 9 9 9
4
Answer: 44 %.
9
Example 23.
A number is decreased by 40%. By what percent should the obtained number be increased in order to
Solution:
Before – а
After – 0.6а
Obtained number 0.6а is a 100% number for itself, but it should be increased by 0.4а in order to get
Thus,
0.4a 4 2 200 2
⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% = % =
66 %
0.6a 6 3 3 3
2
Answer: 66 %.
3
121
Example 24.
A number was increased by 40%, and then a new number was decreased by 80%. What percent of the
original number is the obtained number?
Solution:
Before – а
After (I time) – 140%(а)=1.4a

After (II time) – 20%(1.4a)=1.4a ⋅ 0.2=0.28a=28%(a)
Answer: 28%.
Example 25.
A number was decreased by 20%, and then a new number was decreased by 60%. What is the percent
change of the original number?
Solution:
Before – а
After (I time) – 80%(a)=0.8a

The original number а is a 100% number for itself.
Thus,
100% – 32%=68%
Answer: decreased by 68%.
122
Example 26.
A number was increased by 60%, and then a new number was decreased by 20%. What is
the percent change of the original number?
Solution:
Before – а
After (I time) – 160%(a)=1.6a

The original number а is 100% number for itself.
Thus,
128% – 100%=28%
Answer: increased by 28%.
Example 27.
Strawberries contain 8% of sugar. How many kilograms of sugar is contained in 23 kilograms of
strawberries?
Solution:
8% (23) =23 ⋅ 0.08 =1.84 kg.
Answer: 1.84 kg.
Example 28.
While boiling meat loses 35% of its weight. How many kilograms of boiled meat will be obtained from
200 kilograms of fresh meat?
Solution:
100% – 35%=65% – percent of meat weight remained after boiling.
Thus,
65% (200 ) =200 ⋅ 0.65 =130 kg – weight of meat remained after boiling.
Answer: 130 kg.
123
Example 29.
While drying fruits lose 15% of its weight. How many fresh fruits are needed to obtain 17 kilograms of
dried fruits?
Solution:
Let weight of fresh fruits in kilograms be x.
100% – 15%=85% – percent of fruit weight remained after drying.
Thus,
85% ( x ) = 17
х=17:0.85=20 kg – weight of fruit remained after drying.
Answer: 20 kg.
Example 30.
A planted area was increased by 5% during a year which made 42 hectares at the end of the
year. What was the planted area at the beginning of the year?
Solution:
Let the original planted area be а hectares, then after increasing it would be 105% (а).
Thus,
105%(a)=42
a=42:1.05
a=40 h.
Answer: 40 hectares.
124
Example 31.
Productivity of a factory increased by 4% during a year which made 8320 details at the end of the year.
What was the number of details produced last year?
Solution:
Let productivity of a factory last year be x.
Thus,
104%(x)=8320
x=8320:1.04=8000
Answer: 8000 details.
Example 32.
Dimensions of a water tank in the shape of a solid rectangle is 12 dm, 13 dm and 10 dm.
30% of tank is filled with water. What is the volume of the water in the tank?
Solution:
V=a  b  c=12  13  10=1560 dm 3 – total volume of the water tank.
Thus,
30%(1560)=1560 ⋅ 0.3=468 dm 3
468 dm 3 =468 l, since 1 dm 3 = 1 l.
Answer: 468 litres.
125
Example 33.
Sum of 20% and 30% of the given number is 200. Find 40% of that number.
Solution:
Let the given number be х.
Thus,
20%(x)+30%(x)=200
0.2x+0.3x=200
0.5x=200
x=200:0.5
x=400
40%(400)=400 ⋅ 0.4=160
Answer: 160.
Example 34.
Difference between 85% and 35% of the given number is 210. Find 30% of that number.
Solution:
Let the given number be а.
Thus,
85%(a) – 35%(a) = 210
0.85a – 0.35a = 210

0.5a = 210
a = 210:0.5
a = 420
30%(420) = 420 ⋅ 0.3 = 126
Answer: 126.
126
Example 35.
1
When of a new road and 21 km more had been built, only 20% of the road was remained
3
to build. Find the total length of the road.
Solution:
Let the total length of the road be х.
Since 20% of the road was remained to build, 80% of the road had been already built.
Thus,
1
80% ( x )
x + 21 =
3
x
+ 21 =
0.8x
3
5/ 15/ 3/
x 21 4x
+ =
3 1 5
5x+315=12x
12x – 5x=315
7x = 315
х=315:7
x=45 km
Answer: 45 km.
Example 36.
m and n are positive numbers. How would mn2 change if m was increased by 20% and n was decreased
2 times?
Solution:
Before – mn2
2
n n2
After – 120% ( m) ⋅   =1.2m ⋅
2 4
=0.3 mn2 =30% mn2 ( )
Thus,
100% – 30%=70%
127
Example 37.
After 40% of water was evaporated there was 120 l of water left in the tank. By what percent is it
necessary to increase the amount of remained water in order to obtain the original amount of water?
Solution:
Original amount of water – а
Remained amount of water – 60%(a)=0.6a
Remained amount of water 0.6a is a 100% number for itself, but it should be increased by 0.4a in order
to get the original amount a.
So, it is necessary to find of water what percent of 0.6a is 0.4a.
Thus,
0.4a 4 2 200 2
⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% = % =
66 %
0.6a 6 3 3 3
2
Answer: 66 %.
3
Example 38.
The first tractor ploughed up 30% of a field, the second one ploughed up 40% of the remaining part.
What percent of the field has not been ploughed yet?
Solution:
Before – а Remaining part
I ploughed – 30%(a) = 0.3a 70%(a) = 0.7a
II ploughed – 40%(0.7a) = 0.7a ⋅ 0.4 = 0.28а 60%(0.7a) = 0.7a ⋅ 0.6 = 0.42a
Thus,
0.42а = 42%(а) – percent of not ploughed part.
Answer: 42%.
128
Example 39.
At first 40% of potatoes were sold, and then 30% of the remaining potatoes were also sold.
What percent of potatoes was sold?
Solution:
I time selling – 40%(a) = 0.4a 60%(a) = 0.6a
II time selling – 30%(0.6a) = 0.6a ⋅ 0.3 = 0.18a 70%(0.6a) = 0.6a ⋅ 0.7 = 0.42a
Thus,
0.42а=42%(а) – percent of the remaining potatoes.
100% – 42%=58%
Answer: 58%.
Example 40.
At first 40% of cloth was cut, and then 10% of the remaining part was also cut. What percent of the cloth
remained?
Solution:
I cut – 40%(a) = 0.4a 60%(a) = 0.6a
II cut – 10%(0.6a) = 0.6a ⋅ 0.1 = 0.06a 90%(0.6a) =0.6a ⋅ 0.9= 0.54a
Thus,
0.54а=54%(а) – percent of the remaining cloth.
Answer: 54%.
129
Example 41.
Pie chart below is about 170 boxes of goods being sold during 3 days. What is the amount of goods sold
on the second day?
Solution:
II day – 100% – (30% + 10%) = 60% – percent of goods sold on the second day.
Thus,
60%(170) = 170 ⋅ 0.6 = 102
Answer: 102.
Example 42.
What is the percent change of number which was decreased 20 times?
Solution:
Before – а
a
After – =0.05а=5%(а)
20
The original number а is a 100% number for itself.
Thus,
100% – 5% = 95%
130
Example 43.
There are 30 boys in the XI class. 20 boys and 40% of girls study drawing. Find how many students are in
the class, if it is known that only 60% of the class study drawing.
Solution:
Number of boys – 30
Number of girls – х
Total number of students – 30+x
Thus,
20 + 40%(x) = 60%(30 + x)
20 + 0.4x = 0.6 ⋅ (30 + x)

20 + 0.4x = 18 + 0.6x
0.6x – 0.4x = 20 – 18
0.2x = 2
x = 2:0.2
x = 10 – number of girls in the class.
30 + 10 = 40 – total number of students.
Answer: 40.
Example 44.
1
75% of а is 10 more than of that number. Find а.
3
Solution:
1
75%(a) − a=
10
3
1
0.75a − a=
10
3
3 1
a− a =
10
4 3
3/ 4/ 12/
3a a 10
− =
4 3 1
9а – 4а = 120
5а = 120
а = 120:5
а = 24
Answer: 24.
131
Example 45.
If 10 percent of 50 percent of a positive number is equal to 20 percent of k percent of the same number,
what is the value of k?
Solution:
Let the positive number be x.
Then,
10%(50%(x)) = 20%(k%(x))
k
x  0.5  0.1  x   0.2
100
k
0.05   0.2
100
100  0.05 5 50
k     25
0.2 0.2 2
Answer: 25.
Example 46.
a
If 3a + 2b is equal to 200 percent of 2a, what is the value of ?
b
Solution:
3a + 2b = 200%(2a)
3a + 2b = 2a  2
3a + 2b = 4a
4a – 3a = 2b
a = 2b
Thus,
a 2b
 2
b b
Answer: 2.
132
Example 47.
Given amount of money in a bank for 5 years.
I. a$
II. 2a $
III. 3a $
IV. 4.5a $
V. 7.2a $
Between which two years was there the greatest percent increase in money?
Solution:
2a  a a
 100%   100%  1  100%  100% – from I year to II year there was a 100% increase of
a a
money.
3a  2a a 1
 100%   100%   100%  50% – from II year to III year there was a 50% increase of
2a 2a 2
money.
4.5a  3a 1.5a 1
 100%   100%   100%  50% – from III year to IV year there was a 50% increase of
3a 3a 2
money.
7.2a  4.5a 2.7a 27 3

 100%   100%   100%   100%  60% – from IV year to V year there was a
4.5a 4.5a 45 5
60% increase of money.
Thus there was, the greatest percent increase between the first and the second years.
Answer: between I and II years.
133
Example 48.
Sum of two numbers is 264. Find positive difference of these numbers if one of them is 20% more than
another one.
Solution:
I number – х
II number – y
x + y =264

=  x 120%
= ( y ) 1.2y
Let’s solve simultaneous of equations using Substitution Rule.

1.2y + y =
264
Thus,
2.2y = 264
y 264 ÷ 2.2
=
y = 120 – II number.
x = 264 – 120 = 144 – I number.
144 – 120 = 24
Answer: 24.
134
Example 49.
By what percent is it necessary to increase 350 so that its 42% would be equal to 210?
Solution:
Let a number that must be added to 350 be x.
Thus,
42%(350 + x) = 210
0.42 ⋅ (350 + х) = 210

147 + 0.42х = 210
0.42x = 210-147
0.42х = 63
х = 63:0.42
x = 150
So, it is necessary to increase 350 by 150, i.e. it is necessary to find what percent of 350 is 150.
150 3 300 6
x = ⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% = % =
42 %
350 7 7 7
6
Answer: 42 %.
7
Example 50.
What percent of numbers in the table are natural?
8 1 –4.9 –5 0.7
3
3.3 –6 4 3 0.9
–
7
Solution:
Amount of natural numbers – 2
Total amount of numbers – 10
So, it is necessary to find what percent of 10 is 2.
Thus,
2 1
⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% =
20%
10 5
Answer: 20%.
135
Example 51.
One of the adjacent angles is 80% of another one. Find degree measure of the largest one.
Solution:
Let one of the adjacent angles be a, then another angle be 80%(a).
Thus,
a + 80%(a) = 180 
a + 0.8a = 180 
1.8a = 180 
a = 180  :1.8
a = 100  – largest angle.
180  – 100  = 80  – least angle.
Answer: 100 .
Example 52.
What part of a road is remained to travel, if 30% of a road have been already travelled?
Solution:
Total road – 100%
Traveled – 30%
Thus,
100% – 30% = 70% – percent of the remained road.
70% = 0.7 – part of the remained road.
Answer: 0.7 part.
136
Example 53.
Find a number, if its 30% equals 20% of 60.
Solution:
Let a number be х.
Thus,
30%(х) = 20%(60)
0.3х = 60 ⋅ 0.2
0.3х = 12
x = 12:0.3
х = 40
Answer: 40.
Example 54.
Find the ratio b : a , if a is 70% of b.
Solution:
а = 70%(b) = 0.7b
Thus,
b b 1 10
b:a
= = = = = 10 : 7
a 0.7b 0.7 7
Answer: 10:7.
137
Example 55.
Rectangle is divided into 15 congruent squares. What percent of the rectangle is shaded?
Solution:
Amount of shaded squares – 7
Amount of total squares – 15
So, it is necessary to find what percent of 15 is 7.
Thus,
7 7 140 2
x = ⋅ 100% =⋅ 20% = % =
46 %
15 3 3 3
2
Answer: 46 %.
3
Example 56.
By what percent 0.7 part of a given number is more than its 0.4 part?
Solution:
Thus,
0.4а – 100%
0.7а – х%
0.7a ⋅ 100% 7 ⋅ 100%

x= = 7 ⋅ 25% =
= 175%
0.4a 4
175% – 100% = 75%
Answer: 75%.
138
Example 57.
By what percent 0.2 part of a given number is less than its 0.9 part?
Solution:
Thus,
0.9а – 100%
0.2а – х%
0.2a ⋅ 100% 2 ⋅ 100% 200 2

=x = = = % 22 %
0.9a 9 9 9
2 7
100% – 22 % = 77 %
9 9
7
Answer: 77 %.
9
Example 58.
Goods with cost (2b − 6)$ were sold for (3b − 11)$ . Find b, if profit of the sale was 40%.
Solution:
Cost of the goods (2b − 6)$ is a 100% cost.
Thus,
(3b – 11) = 140%(2b – 6)
3b – 11 = 1.4 ⋅ (2b – 6)
3b – 11 = 2.8b – 8.4
3b – 2.8b = 11 – 8.4
0.2b = 2.6
b = 2.6 : 0.2
b = 13
Answer: 13.
139
Example 59.
All sides of the square were increased 3 times. What is the percentage of increase of square area?
Solution:
Let side of the original square be а.
Thus,
Before After
A=
1
2
a= 100% a2 ( )
A2
= (3a=
)
2
9a
= 2
900% a2 ( )
900% – 100% = 800%
Answer: 800%.
140
Example 60.
All sides of the square were decreased by 30%. What is the percentage of decrease of square area?
Solution:
Thus,
Before After
A=
1
2
a= 100% a2 ( )
=A2 0.7a)
(=
2
0.49a
= 2
49% a2 ( )
100% – 49% = 51%
Answer: 51%.
141
Example 61.
Perimeter of the square was increased by 80%. What is the percentage of increase of the square area?
Solution:
Thus,
P1 = 4a
7.2a
P2 =180% ( 4a) =4a ⋅ 1.8 =7.2a , so, each side of the square is = 1.8a.
4
Before After
A=
1
2
a= 100% a2 ( )
=A2 1.8a)
(=
2
3.24a
= 2
324% a2 ( )
324% – 100% = 224%
Answer: 224%.
142
Example 62.
All sides of the square were decreased 2 times. What is the percentage of decrease of the square area?
Solution:
Thus,
Before After
A=
1
2
a= 100% a2 ( )
2
 a a2
A=
2  =
2
 = 0.25a
4
=2
25% a2 ( )
100% – 25% = 75%
Answer: 75%.
143
Example 63.
Length of rectangle was increased by 20%, and its width was decreased by 30%. What is the percentage
of change of the rectangle area?
Solution:
Let sides of the original rectangle be а and b.
Thus,
Before After
A
=1 = 100% ( ab )
ab
A2 = 1.2a ⋅ 0.7b = 0.84ab = 84% ( ab )
100% – 84% = 16%
144
Example 64.
Length of rectangle was decreased by 10%, and its width by 40%. What is the percentage of decrease of
the rectangle area?
Solution:
Thus,
Before After
A
=1 = 100% ( ab )
ab
A2 = 0.9a ⋅ 0.6b = 0.54ab = 54% ( ab )
100% – 54% = 46%
Answer: 46%.
145
Example 65.
Length of rectangle was decreased 3 times, and its width was increased by 20%. What is the percentage
of change of the rectangle area?
Solution:
Thus,
Before After
A
=1 = 100% ( ab )
ab
a
A2 =⋅ 1.2b = 40% ( ab )
0.4ab =
3
100% – 40% = 60%
146
Example 66.
The length of rectangle was decreased 2 times, and its width 3 times. What is the percentage of decrease
of the rectangle area?
Solution:
Thus,
Before After
A
=1 = 100% ( ab )
ab
a b ab 100 2
A2 = ⋅ = = % ( ab ) = 16 % ( ab )
2 3 6 6 3
2 1
100% – 16 % = 83 %
3 3
1
Answer: 83 %.
3
147
Example 67.
Radius of the circle was increased by 70%. What is the percentage of increase of the circle area?
Solution:
Let radius of the original circle be R.
Thus,
Before After
A1 = πR 2 =100%( πR 2 )
A2 = π ⋅ (1.7R ) = 2.89πR 2 =289% ( πR 2 )

2
289% – 100% = 189%
Answer: 189%.
148
Example 68.
Radius of the circle was decreased by 10%. What is the percentage of decrease of the circle area?
Solution:
Let radius of the original circle be R.
Thus,
Before After
A1 = πR 2 =100%( πR 2 )
A2 = π ⋅ ( 0.9R ) = 0.81πR 2 =81% ( πR 2 )

2
100% – 81% = 19%
Answer: 19%.
149
Example 69.
All edges of the cube were increased by 20%. What is the percentage of increase of the cube volume?
Solution:
Let edge of the original cube be a.
Thus,
Edge of the cube
Before a
After 120%(a)=1.2a
V1 = a3 – original volume of the cube.
=V2 (=
1.2a)
3
1.728a
= 3
172.8% a3 ( ) – final volume of the cube.
172.8% – 100% = 72.8%
Answer: 72.8%.
150
Example 70.
All edges of the solid rectangle were increased by 10%. What is the percentage of increase of the solid
rectangle volume?
Solution:
Let dimensions of the original solid rectangle be a, b and c.
Thus,
Length of the solid Width of the solid Height of the solid

rectangle base rectangle base rectangle
Before a b c
After 110%(a)=1.1a 110%(b)=1.1b 110%(c)=1.1c
V1 = abc – original volume of the solid rectangle.
V2 = 1.1a ⋅ 1.1b ⋅ 1.1c = 1.331abc = 133.1%(abc) – final volume of the solid rectangle.
133.1% – 100% = 33.1%
Answer: 33.1%.
151
Example 71.
Length and width of the solid rectangle were decreased by 40% and height was increased by 30%. What
is the percentage of change of the solid rectangle volume?
Solution:
Thus,

Before a b c
After 60%(a)=0.6a 60%(b)=0.6b 130%(c)=1.3c
V1 =abc – original volume of the solid rectangle.
V2 =0.6a ⋅ 0.6b ⋅ 1.3c=0.468abc=46.8%(abc) – final volume of the solid rectangle.
100% – 46.8%=53.2%
Answer: 53.2%.
152
Example 72.
Length and width of the solid rectangle were increased by 60% and its height remained unchanged.
What is the percentage of increase of the solid rectangle volume?
Solution:
Thus,

Before a b c
After 160%(a)=1.6a 160%(b)=1.6b c
V2 =1.6a ⋅ 1.6b ⋅ c=2.56abc=256%(abc) – final volume of the solid rectangle.
256% – 100%=156%
Answer: 156%.
153
Example 73.
Height of the solid rectangle was decreased by 70% and its length and width remained unchanged.
What is the percentage of decrease of the solid rectangle volume?
Solution:
Thus,

Before a b c
After a b 30%(c)=0.3c
V2 =a ⋅ b ⋅ 0.3c=0.3abc=30%(abc) – final volume of the solid rectangle.
100% – 30%=70%
Answer: 70%.
154
Example 74.
Pyramid base area was decreased by 20%. What is the percentage of decrease of the pyramid volume?
Solution:
Let base area of the original pyramid be A and height be h.
Thus,
Base area of the pyramid Height of the pyramid
Before A h
After 80%(A)=0.8A h
1
V1 = Ah – original volume of the pyramid.
3
1 1 
V2 = ⋅ 0.8A ⋅ h = 80%  Ah  – final volume of the pyramid.
3 3 
100% – 80%=20%
Answer: 20%.
155
Example 75.
Radius of the cylinder base was increased by 20% and height was decreased by 10%.
What is the percentage of change of the cylinder volume?
Solution:
Let radius of the cylinder base be r and height be h.
Thus,
Radius of the cylinder base Height of the cylinder
Before r h
After 120%(r)=1.2r 90%(h)=0.9h
V1 = πr2h – original volume of the cylinder.
V2 = π ⋅ (1.2r ) ⋅ 0.9h = π ⋅ 1.44r2 ⋅ 0.9h =1.296 πr2h =129.6%( πr2h ) – final volume of the cylinder.
2
129.6% – 100%=29.6%
Answer: increased by 29.6%.
156
Example 76.
Radius of the cylinder base and height were decreased by 80%. What is the percentage of decrease of
the cylinder volume?
Solution:
Let radius of the cylinder base be r and height be h.
Thus,
Radius of the cylinder base Height of the cylinder
Before r h
After 20%(r)=0.2r 20%(h)=0.2h
V1 = πr2h – original volume of the cylinder.
V2 = π ⋅ ( 0.2r ) ⋅ 0.2h = π ⋅ 0.04r2 ⋅ 0.2h =0.008 πr2h =0.8%( πr2h ) – final volume of the cylinder.
2
100% – 0.8%=99.2%
Answer: 99.2%.
157
Mixture Problems
All mixture problems must be solved using the following table:
Amount of total % of substance in Amount of substance in

mixture mixture mixture
Before
After
Example 1.
How much water must be added to 20 liters of 60% salt mixture in order to get 30% salt mixture?
Solution:
Amount of total Amount of salt in

% of salt in mixture
mixture mixture
Before 20 l. 60% 60%(20)=20 ⋅ 0.6=12 l.
After 20+x l. 30% 12 l.
Thus,
=12 30% (20 + x )
12 = 0.3 ⋅ (20 + x )
12= 6 + 0.3x
0.3x
= 12 − 6
0.3x = 6
x = 6 : 0.3
x = 20
Answer: 20 liters.
158
Example 2.
How much alcohol must be added to 70 liters of 20% alcohol mixture in order to get 30% alcohol
mixture?
Solution:
Amount of total % of alcohol in Amount of alcohol in

mixture mixture mixture
Before 70 l. 20% 20%(70)=70 ⋅ 0.2=14 l.
After 70+x l. 30% 14+x l.
Thus,
14
= + x 30% (70 + x )
14 + x= 0.3 ⋅ (70 + x )
14 + x = 21 + 0.3x
x − 0.3x =21 − 14
0.7x = 7
x = 7 : 0.7
x = 10
Answer: 10 liters.
159
Example 3.
How much water must be evaporated from 40 liters of 20% salt mixture in order to get 90% salt
mixture?
Solution:

mixture mixture
Before 40 l. 20% 20%(40)=40 ⋅ 0.2=8 l.
After 40–x l. 90% 8 l.
Thus,
=8 90% ( 40 − x )
8 = 0.9 ⋅ ( 40 − x )
8 36 − 0.9x
=
0.9x
= 36 − 8
0.9x = 28
28 10 280 1
x = 28 : 0.9 = ⋅ = = 31
1 9 9 9
1
Answer: 31 liters.
9
160
Example 4.
How many liters of acid must be added to 20 liters of 25% acid solution to produce a 50% acid solution?
Solution:
Amount of total Amount of acid in

% of acid in mixture
mixture mixture
Before 20 l. 25% 25% (20 ) =20 ⋅ 0.25 =5 l.
After 20 + x l. 50% 5 + x l.
Thus,
5 + x = 50%(20 + x)
5 + x = 0.5  (20 + x)
5 + x = 10 + 0.5x
x – 0.5x = 10 - 5
0.5x = 5
x = 5 : 0.5
x = 10
Answer: 10 liters.
161
Example 5.
20 liters of 60% acid mixture was added to 30 liters of 10% acid mixture. What is the percent of acid in
the final mixture?
Solution:
Amount of total Amount of acid in

% of acid in mixture
mixture mixture
I mixture 20 l. 60% 60% (20 ) =20 ⋅ 0.6 =12 l.
II mixture 30 l. 10% 10% (30 ) =30 ⋅ 0.1 =3 l.
I+II mixtures 50 l.
20 + 30 = х% 15 l.
12 + 3 =
Thus,
15 = x% (50 )
So, we must find what percent of 50 l. is 15 l.

15
x = ⋅ 100% =15 ⋅ 2% =30%
50
Answer: 30%.
162
Example 6.
20% of mixture was poured out from 500 grams of 50% salt mixture and then refilled with
water instead. What is the percentage of salt in the final mixture?
Solution:

mixture mixture
Before 500 gr. 50% 50% (500 ) = 250 gr.
After I 80% (500 ) = 400 gr. 50% 50% ( 400 ) = 200 gr.
After II 500 gr.

400 + 100 = x% 200 gr.
Thus,
200 = x% (500 )
So, we must find what percent of 500 l. is 200 l.

200 2
x = ⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% =
2 ⋅ 20% =
40%
500 5
Answer: 40%.
163
Example 7.
How many liters of salt must be added to M liters of a t% salt solution to make an n% solution?
Solution:

mixture mixture
t Mt
Before M l. t% t% (M) =⋅
M = l.
100 100
Mt
After M + x l. n% + x l.
100
Thus,
Mt
+ x n% (M + x )
=
100
Since we have to find the amount of added salt, i.e. we have to make x subject of the formula:
Mt n
100
+x = (M + x ) ⋅ 100
Mt nM nx
+ x= +
100 100 100
nx nM Mt
x− = −
100 100 100
100/
x nx nM Mt
− = −
1 100 100 100
100x – nx = nM – Mt
x  (100 – n) = nM – Mt
nM − Mt
x=
100 − n
nM − Mt
Answer: x = l.
100 − n
164
Example 8.
P liters of an a% salt solution must be mixed up with Q liters of a b% salt solution to produce a c%
solution. Express c in terms of P, Q, a and b.
Solution:

mixture mixture
a aP
I mixture P l. a% a% (P ) =
P⋅ = l.
100 100
b bQ
II mixture Q l. b% b% ( Q ) =
Q⋅ = l.
100 100
aP bQ
I+II mixtures P + Q l. c% + l.
100 100
Thus,
aP bQ
+ = c % (P + Q )
100 100
aP bQ c
+ = (P + Q ) ⋅
100 100 100
aP + bQ c (P + Q )
=
100 100
aP + bQ = c(P + Q)
Let’s express c in terms of P, Q, a and b.

aP + bQ
c=
P+Q
aP+ bQ
Answer: c = .
P+ Q
165
Relationship Between Revenue, Cost Price and Profit
Revenue = Cost Price + Profit
I. If Revenue is more than Cost Price, then Profit is positive.

II. If Revenue equals Cost Price, then Profit is 0 (Break - Even Point).
III. If Revenue is less than Cost Price, then Profit is negative.
Formulas of Simple Interest Increase (Decrease)
The following formulas are used in problems with simple interest increase (decrease) from the original
value during regular time:
 p⋅n
Sn =S ⋅  1 + – formula of simple interest increase;
 100 
 p⋅n
Sn =S ⋅  1 − – formula of simple interest decrease.
 100 
S – original value;
p – interest increase (decrease) from the original value;
n – total period of time;
Sn – final value after period of time n.
Example 1.
Cost of the goods is 60$. Every month the cost of the goods increases by 10% from the original cost.
What will the cost of the goods be 8 months later?
Solution:
S=60$ (original cost)
p=10% (monthly interest increase from the original cost)
n=8 months (total period of time)
S8 – ?
Thus,
 p ⋅n  10 ⋅ 8 
S8 = S ⋅ 1 +  = 60 ⋅ 1 + 100  = 60 ⋅ 1.8 = 108$ (final cost).
 100   
Answer: 108$.
166
Example 2.
Cost of a car is 20,000$. Every year the cost of the car decreases by 2% from the original cost.
What will the cost of the car be 9 years later?
Solution:
S=20,000$ (original cost)
p=2% (yearly interest decrease from the original cost)
n=9 years (total period of time)
S9 – ?
Thus,
 p ⋅n  2⋅9
S9 S ⋅ 1 − =
=  20000 ⋅  1 − 100
=  20000 ⋅ 0.82
= 16, 400$ (final cost).
 100   
Answer: 16,400$.
Example 3.
Four hundred dollars was invested at a yearly simple interest rate of x percent. If at the end of one year
the investment had grown to 500 dollars, what is the value of x?
Solution:
S = 400$
P = x%
n=1
S4 = 500
Thus,
 Pn 
S4 = S ⋅  1 + 
 100 
 x ⋅1
500= 400 ⋅ 1 + 
 100 
500 = 400 + 4x
4x = 500 – 400
4x = 100
x = 100 : 4 = 25%
Answer: 25%.
167
Formulas of Compound Interest Increase (Decrease)
The following formulas are used in problems with compound interest increase (decrease) from the
previous value during the regular time:
n
 p 
Sn =S ⋅  1 +  – formula of compound interest increase;
 100 
n
 p 
Sn =S ⋅  1 − – formula of compound interest decrease.
 100 
p – interest increase (decrease) from the previous value;
Sn – final value after period of time n.
Example 1.
Money deposited in the bank increases yearly by 10% from the previous amount.
What will the amount of money in the bank be 4 years later if originally 5,000$ were deposited in the
bank?
Solution:
S = 5,000$ (originally deposited money in the account)
p = 10% (annual interest increase from the previous amount of money in the account)
n = 4 years (total period of time)
S4 – ?
Thus,
n 4
 p   10  4
S=
4 S ⋅ 1 + = 5000 ⋅ 1 + 100 = 5000 ⋅ 1.1= 5000 ⋅ 1.4641
= 7, 320.5$ (final amount of
 100   
money in the account).
Answer: 7,320.5$.
While working with compound interest charging of percents over percents from the overall
original amount takes place !
168
Example 2.
Cost of a book is 300$. What will the cost of the book be 3 years later if every year its cost decreases by
20% from the previous cost?
Solution:
S=300$ (original cost)
p=20% (annual interest decrease from the previous cost)
S3 – ?
Thus,
n 3
 p   20 
S3 = S ⋅ 1 −  = 300 ⋅ 1 − = 300 ⋅ 0.83 = 300 ⋅ 0.512= 153.6$ (final cost).
 100   100 
Answer: 153.6$.
Example 3.
I. Ms. Hamid has established a trust fund for her daughter Aisha. Aisha will be allowed to withdraw 4%
annually from this fund once she reaches 21 years of age.
=
Ms. Hamid uses the formula A 5000 ⋅ rn to approximate the amount of money, in dollars, remaining
in the trust fund n years after Aisha turns 21. What should Ms. Hamid use for the value of r?
Solution:
n
n  4 
A 5000 ⋅ r=
= 5000 ⋅ 1 − 
 100 
Thus,
4
r=
1− 1 − 0.04 =
= 0.96
100
Answer: 0.96.
169
II. To the nearest cent, how much more money, in dollars, can Aisha withdraw from the trust fund in the
second year after she turns 21 than she can in the third year?
Solution:
First year after she turns 21 amount of money, in dollars, remaining in the trust fund is
5000 ⋅ 0.96 =
4800 $.
Second year after she turns 21 amount of money, in dollars, remaining in the trust fund is
5000 ⋅ 0.962 =
4,608 $.
Thus, 4,800 − 4,608 =

192 – amount of money, in dollars, which Aisha withdraw from the trust fund in
the second year.
Third year after she turns 21 amount of money, in dollars, remaining in the trust fund is
5000 ⋅ 0.963 =
4, 423.68 $.
Thus, 4,608 − 4, 423.68 =

184.32 – amount of money, in dollars, which Aisha withdraw from the trust
fund in the third year.
192 − 184.32 =
7.68
Answer: 7.68$.
Example 4.
A new colony of black garden ants with an initial population of p0 grows at a rate of 20% per week for
the first 5 weeks after the initial colonization. Find the equation which models the population, p, of the
colony w weeks after the initial colonization, where 0 ≤ w ≤ 5 .
Solution:
w
 20 
p = p0 ⋅ 1 + 
 100 
p p0 ⋅ (1.2 )
w
=
p p0 ⋅ (1.2 ) .
w
Answer: =
170
Example 5.
Find equation of the total value, V, of an investment fund after t years if the fund begins with a 2,400$
initial investment and earns a 10% annual interest rate that is compounded yearly.
Solution:
t
 10 
= 2400 ⋅ (1.1)
t
V
= 2400 ⋅ 1 +
 100 
V 2400 ⋅ (1.1) .
t
Answer:
=
Example 6.
In planning maintenance for a city’s infrastructure, a civil engineer estimates that, starting from the
present, the population of the city will decrease by 10 percent every 20 years. If the present population
of the city is 50,000, which of the following expressions represents the engineer’s estimate of the
population of the city t years from now?
Solution:
t
 10  20 t t
50000 ⋅ 1 − = 50000 ⋅ (1 − 0.1=
) 20 50000 ⋅ ( 0.9 ) 20
 100 
t
Answer: 50000 ⋅ ( 0.9 ) 20 .
Example 7.
The stock price of one share in a certain company is worth 360$ today. A stock analyst believes that the
stock will lose 28 percent of its value each week for the next three weeks. The analyst uses the equation
V 360 ⋅ ( r )
2
= to model the value, V, of the stock after t weeks.
To the nearest dollar, what does the analyst believe the value of the stock will be at the end of three
weeks?
Solution:
3
 28 
V= 360 ⋅ (r ) = 360 ⋅ 1 −  = 360 ⋅ (1 − 0.28 ) = 360 ⋅ ( 0.72 ) = 134.37$
t 3 3
 100 
Answer: 134.37$.
171
Example 8.
The population of rabbits in a controlled formed setting t months after observation began is modelled by
t
the function R, where R  t  250  4 5 .
According to this model, what is the population of rabbits 10 months after observation began?
Solution:
10
R (10 ) = 250 ⋅ ( 4 ) 5 = 250 ⋅ ( 4 ) = 250 ⋅ 16 = 4000
2
Answer: 4000.
Example 9.
A radioactive substance decays at an annual rate of 13 percent. If the initial amount of the substance is
325 grams, find the function f which models the remaining amount of the substance, in grams, t years
later?
Solution:
t
 13 
f ( t )= 325 ⋅  1 − = 325 ⋅ (1 − 0.13) = 325 ⋅ ( 0.87 )
t t

100 

( t ) 325 ⋅ (0.87) .
t
Answer: f=
Example 10.
Given an account with interest compounded annually, the formula A =P ⋅ (1 + r ) can be used to calculate
t
the total amount of money, A, in the account after t years, where P is the principal (the amount
originally invested) and r is the interest rate (expressed as a decimal).
Suppose Valeera invests 5,000$ in a savings account that pays 2% interest compounded annually. How
much interest will Valeera earn in four years?
Solution:
4
2
) 5000 ⋅ 1 + 100 = 5000 ⋅ (1 + 0.02)= 5000 ⋅ (1.02)= 5, 412.16$
A P ⋅ (1 + r=
t 4 4
=
 
Thus,
5,412.16$ - 5,000$ = 412.16$
Answer: 412.16$.
172
Example 11.
A collectible vinyl record made in 1948 has appreciated in value about 12% every five years. If the record
was worth 7,000$ in 1980, which of the following expressions represents its value in 2005?
Solution:
2005 − 1980 =
25 years
Thus,
25
 12  5
 = 7000 ⋅ (1 + 0.12 =
) 5000 ⋅ (1.12=
) 12336.4
5 5
7000 ⋅ 1 +
 100 
Answer: 12,336.4$.
Example 12.
The formula A= P ⋅ e0.04t gives the amount A that a savings account will be worth if an initial investment
P is compounded continuously at an annual rate of 4 percent for t years. Under these conditions, how
many years will it take an initial investment of 10,000$ to be worth approximately 25,000$?
Solution:
t
 4 
10000 ⋅ 1 + 25000
 =
 100 
25000
(1 + 0.04)
t
=
10000
(1.04)
t
= 2.5
=t log1.04 2.5 ≈ 23.4
Answer: 23.4.
173
Formulas of Compound Interest Increase (Decrease) with More Frequent Interest Charge
The following formulas are used in problems with compound interest increase (decrease) during the
regular time with more frequent interest charge for a unit of time:
k ⋅n
 p 
 k 
Sk ⋅n =S ⋅  1 +  ;
 100 

 
k ⋅n
 p 
 
Sk ⋅n =S ⋅  1 − k  .
 100 

 
p – interest increase (decrease);
k – number of interest charges for a unit of time;
Sk ⋅n – final value after period of time n.
Example 1.
10,000$ were deposited in the bank for 3 years with annual compound interest charge of 20% annual rate.
What amount of money would be in the account after 3 years?
Solution:
p = 20% (annual interest increase)
S3 – ?
Thus,
n 3
 p   20 
S3 S ⋅ 1 +
= = 10000 ⋅ 1 + = = 17,280$ (final amount of money in the account).
10000 ⋅ 1.728
 100   100 
Answer: 17,280$.
174
Example 2.
10,000$ were deposited in the bank for three years with semiannual compound interest charge of 20%
annual rate.
What amount of money would be in the account after three years?
Solution:
k = 2 (number of interest charges for one year)
S2⋅3 – ?
Thus,
k ⋅n 2⋅3
 p   20 
 k   
= 10000 ⋅ 1 + 2 = 10000 ⋅ 1.1
6
S=
2⋅3 S ⋅ 1 + = 17,715.61$ (final amount of money in the
 100   100 
   
account).
Answer: 17,715.61$.
Example 3.
10,000$ were deposited in the bank for three years with quarterly compound interest charge of 20%
annual rate.
Solution:
S=10,000$ (originally deposited money in the account)
p=20% (annual interest increase)
k=4 (number of interest charges for one year)
S4⋅3 – ?
Thus,
k ⋅n 4⋅3
 p   20 
 k   
= 10000 ⋅ 1 + 4 = 10000 ⋅ 1.05
12
S=
4⋅3 S ⋅ 1 + = 17, 958.56$ (final amount of money in the
 100   100 
   
account).
Answer: 17,958.56$.
175
Example 4.
10,000$ were deposited in the bank for three years with monthly compound interest charge of 20%
annual rate.
Solution:
k = 12 (number of interest charges for one year)
S12⋅3 – ?
Thus,
k ⋅n 12⋅3
 p   20 
 k   12 
S12⋅3 = S ⋅ 1 +  =10000 ⋅ 1 +  =18,131.31$ (final amount of money in the account).
 100   100 
   
Answer: 18,131.31$.
Example 5.
Find the compound amount which would be obtained from the interest of 2,000$ at 6% compounded
quarterly for 5 years.
Solution:
5⋅ 4
 6 
 
2000 ⋅ 1 + 4  2693.71
=
 100 

 
Answer: 2,693.71$.
176
Example 6.
Find compound interest on 2,500$ invested at 6% per annually, compound semi–annually for 8 years.
Solution:
8⋅2
 6 
 
2500 ⋅ 1 + 2  4011.76
=
 100 

 
Thus,
4011.76 − 2500 =
1511.76
Answer: 1,511.76$
Example 7.
If an amount of 3,000$ is deposited into a saving account at an annual interest rate of 5% compounded
monthly. Find value of the investment after 10 years.
Solution:
10⋅12
 5 
 12 
3000 ⋅ 1 +  4,941$
=
 100 

 
Answer: 4,941$.
Example 8.
Which of the following equations indicates the total value, V, of an investment fund after t years if the
fund begins with a $2,400 initial investment and earns a $10 annual interest rate what is compounded
monthly ? (Assume that no withdraws are made.)
Solution:
12t
 10 
  12t
V  2400  1  12   2400  
1 
0.1 

  
 100   12 
 
 
12t
 0.1 
Answer: V  2400  1  
 12 
177
Example 9.
t
1  k
The expression   shows the fraction of the original mass of a radioactive substance that remains
2 
after t years if that substance has a half–life of k years. If substance A has a half–life of 3 years and
substance B has a half–life of 7 years, and there is initially 1 kilogram of each substance. Find the
expression which shows how many more kilograms of substance B is left than substance A after t years.
Solution:
Substance A has a half–life of 3 years it means that after each 3 years there will be remained half mass
of substance A that it was previous.
Substance B has a half–life of 7 years it means that after each 7 years there will be remained half mass
of substance B that it was previous.
t t
 1 3  1 3
Substance A that remains after t years is 1 ⋅   =   .
2 2
t t
 1 7  1 7
Substance B that remains after t years is 1 ⋅   =   .
2 2
Thus,
t t
 1 3  1 7
  −   - expression which shows difference in kilograms between substance B and substance A after
2 2
t years.
t t
 1 3  1 7
Answer:   −   .
2 2
From the above stated examples it is obvious that the more compound interest charge for a
unit of time is, the more the final charged amount is at the end of the total period of time.
Thus, while increasing amount by compound interest, monthly charge for one year gives more
result than annual charge for one year.
178
Linear Equation
179
180
Number of Solutions of Linear Equation
I. In order for a linear equation to have only one solution it is necessary that the equation
depends on variable x at last, i.e. the coefficient of x is different from 0.
Example 1.
5  (x + 2) = 4x + 9
5x + 10 = 4x + 9
5x – 4x = 9 – 10
x = –1  one solution.
II. In order for a linear equation to have infinite number of solutions it is necessary that the
equation does not depend on variable x at last, i.e. the coefficient of x is 0 and thus, right equality is
obtained.
Example 2.
5  (x + 2) = 10 + 5x
5x + 10 = 10 + 5x
5x – 5x = 10 – 10
0=0  infinite number of solutions, i.e. x  R .
III. In order for a linear equation to have no solutions it is necessary that the equation does not depend on
variable x at last, i.e. the coefficient of x is 0 and thus, wrong equality is obtained.
Example 3.
5  (x + 2) = 9 + 5x
5x + 10 = 9 + 5x
5x – 5x = 9 – 10
0 ≠ –1  no solutions.
181
Example 4.
For which value of m equation does have one solution ?

2  (5mx + 4) – 2m = –3  (m + 1) – 6x
Solution:
2  (5mx + 4) – 2m = –3  (m + 1) – 6x
10mx + 8 – 2m = –3m – 3 – 6x
10mx + 6x = –3m – 3 – 8 + 2m
10mx + 6x = –m – 11
(10m + 6)  x = –m – 11
Thus,
10m + 6 ≠ 0
10m ≠ –6
6
m
10
3
m 
5
 3  3 
Thus, for m  
;  5   
 ;   equation has one solution.
   5 
 3  3 
Answer: ;     ;   .
 5  5 
182
Example 5.
For which value of a equation does have infinite number of solutions ?
3  (4ax – 3) – 7a = –3  (x + a) – 8
Solution:
3  (4ax – 3) – 7a = –3  (x + a) – 8
12ax – 9 – 7a = –3x – 3a – 8
12ax + 3x =–3a – 8 + 9 + 7a
12ax + 3x = 4a +1
(12a + 3)  x = 4a + 1
Thus,
I. 12a + 3 = 0
12a = –3
3
a
12
1
a
4
  1   1
II.      
12   4   3  x  4   4   1
     
(–3+3)  x=–1+1
0=0
1
Thus, for a   equation has infinite number of solutions.
4
1
Answer:  .
4
183
Example 6.
For which value of b equation doesn’t have any solution ?

2  (6 – bx) + 8b = –3  (x + 1) – b
Solution:
2  (6 – bx) + 8b = –3  (x + 1) – b
12 – 2bx + 8b = –3x – 3 – b
–2bx + 3x = –3 – b – 12 – 8b
3x – 2bx = –9b – 15
(3 – 2b)  x = –9b – 15
Thus,
I. 3 – 2b = 0
–2b = –3
3
b
2
b  1.5
II. (3 – 2  1.5)  x = –9  1.5 – 15
0 ≠ –28.5
Thus, for b = 1.5 equation doesn’t have any solution.
Answer: 1.5.
184
Example 7.
If two expressions below are true for all values of x, what is the value of a ?
a  (x + 1) + b  (x –1) = 2x + 4
Solution:
a  (x + 1) + b  (x –1) = 2x + 4
ax + a + bx – b = 2x + 4
ax + bx – 2x = 4 – a + b
(a + b – 2)  x = 4 – a + b
Thus,
I. a+b–2=0
a+b=2
II. 4 – a + b = 0
–a + b = –4
a–b=4
So, we get simultaneous of equations:

a  b  2

a  b  4
Let’s eliminate b, by adding first equation to the second one.

2a = 6
a=3
Thus, for a = 3 two expressions are true for all values of x.
Answer: 3.
185
Example 8.
For which value of a equality is true for all values of x ?

(k + 1)  x + 5 = ax + k
Solution:
(k + 1)  x + 5 = ax + k
kx + x + 5 = ax + k
kx + x – ax = k – 5
(k + 1 – a)  x = k – 5
Thus,
I. k + 1 – a = 0
k – a = –1
II. k – 5 = 0
k=5
So, we get simultaneous of equations:

k  a  1

k  5
5 – a = –1
–a = –1–5
–a = –6
a=6
Thus, for a = 6 equality is true for all values of x.
Answer: 6.
186
Number of Solutions of Linear Simultaneous Equations
a1x  b1y  c1
 – simultaneous of linear equations (since variables х, у are in the first order and not in
a2 x  b2 y  c2
the denominator).
a1 b1 c1
Case I: If   – simultaneous of equations has infinite number of solutions.
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c
Case II: If   1 – simultaneous of equations doesn’t not have any solution.
a2 b2 c2
a1 b
Case III: If  1 – simultaneous of equations has only one solution.
a2 b2
Example 1.
How many solutions does the simultaneous of equations have:
x  3y  7
a) 
2x  6y  14
Solution:
1 3 7 1 1 1 a1 b1 c1
     (Case I:   )
2 6 14 2 2 2 a2 b2 c2
Thus, simultaneous of equations has infinite number of solutions.
Answer: infinite number of solutions.
x  3y  7
b) 
2x  6y  21
Solution:
1 3 7 1 1 1 a1 b1 c
     (Case II:   1 )
2 6 21 2 2 3 a2 b2 c2
Thus, simultaneous of equations doesn’t have any solution.
Answer: no solutions.
187
x  3y  7
c) 
2x  9y  21
Solution:
1 3 1 1 a1 b
   (Case III:  1 )
2 9 2 3 a2 b2
Thus, simultaneous of equations has only one solution.
Answer: one solution.
Example 2.
For which value of m simultaneous of equations does have only one solution ?
2mx  5y  10

3x  6y  7
Solution:
In order for the simultaneous of equations to have only one solution Case III condition must be satisfied.
a1 b
Thus,  1.
a2 b2
2m 5

3 6
53
m
6  2
5  5  5 
m  , i.e. m  ;     ;   .
4  4   4 
 5  5 
Answer: 
;  4   
 4 ;   .
   
188
Example 3.
Find a + b for which simultaneous of equations does have infinite number of solutions.
x  y  a

3x  by  2
Solution:
In order for the simultaneous of equations to have infinite number of solutions Case I condition must be satisfied.
a1 b1 c
Thus,   1 .
a2 b2 c2
1 1 a
 
3 b 2
a 1 1 1
 and 
2 3 b 3
2
a and b  3
3
2 1
ab 
3
 
 3   2
3
1
Answer: 2 .
3
189
Example 4.
For which value of m simultaneous of equations doesn’t have any solution ?
 
2x  m  1 y  3


 
 m  1 x  4y  3
Solution:
In order for the simultaneous of equations doesn’t have any solution Case II condition must be satisfied.
a1 b1 c
Thus,   1.
a2 b2 c2
2 m1 3
 
m 1 4 3
2 m1

m 1 4
m  1  m  1  4  2
m2  1  8
m2  8  1
m2  9
m1  3 , m2  3
Let’s check condition for m = –3.
2 3  1 3
 
3  1 4 3
–1 = –1 ≠ –1, condition is not correct.
Let’s check condition for m = 3.
2 31 3
 
3 1 4 3
1 1
  1 , condition is correct.
2 2
Thus, for m = 3 simultaneous of equations doesn’t have any solution.
Answer: 3.
190
Absolute Value of Number
Absolute value (magnitude, module) of number is a distance from 0 to this number on the
number line.
Since distance cannot be negative so absolute value of any number is always nonnegative !
Example 1.
|4| = 4
|–7| = 7
|0| = 0
|2.97| = 2.97
|–0.2369| = 0.2369
6 = 6
 5 23 = 5 23
2 2
9 =9
17 17
191
In order to write the definition of absolute value in the mathematical form the following notation is used:
 x, x  0
x 
  x, x  0
Any number: positive, negative and 0 can be inside the modulus sign.
I. The value (i.е. answer) of an absolute value of a positive number is equal to this number itself.
II. The value (i.е. answer) of an absolute value of a negative number is equal to this number itself with
negative sign before.
III. The value (i.е. answer) of an absolute value of 0 is equal to 0 itself.
Example 2.
6 2  6  2 , since the expression  

6  2  0;
6  10    
6  10   6  10  10  6 , since the expression  
6  10  0 .
Example 3.
Let a > b, then:
a  b  a  b , since the expression a  b  0 ;
 
b  a   b  a  b  a  a  b , since the expression b  a  0 .
192
Example 4.
Find x + y, if |2x – 6| + |4x – y + 5| = 0.
Solution:
The sum of two nonnegative numbers is 0, if and only if each of them is 0.
Thus, we obtain the following simultaneous of equations:
2x – 6  0

4x – y  5  0
From the first equation we can find x.
2x – 6  0
2x  6 :2
x3
Let’s substitute value of x  3 to the second equation.
43 – y  5  0
12 – y  5  0
17 – y  0
y  17
x  y  3  17  20
Answer: 20.
193
Properties of Absolute Value
Let x be any real number, then following is true:
1) x 0
2) x  x
3) x x  
x  ;  
4) x x  
x  ; 0 
5) x x  x x  x  0;  
6) x x  
7) xy  x  y
x x
8) 
y y
9) x  a , for a  0  a  x  a
10) x  a , for a  0  no real solution
11) x  a , for a  0  x  a or x   a
12) x  a , for a  0    x  
Properties of Even and Odd Roots
The value of an even root is always nonnegative, i.e. positive or 0.

The value of an odd root may be any number, i.e. negative, positive or 0.

 x, when x  0
1) x2  x  
  x, when x  0

3
2) x3  x
4
 x, when x  0

3) x4  x  
  x, when x  0

5
4) x5  x
5) x x  x1  0 or x2  1
6) 3
x x  x1  1 or x2  0 or x 3  1
194
Word Problems
195
196
Clock Problems
There are two types of clock problems:
I type: Finding angle between clock hands for analog watches.
II type: Finding number of hours and minutes between two dates.
Finding Angle Between Clock Hands for Analog Watches
11  M  60  H
α  , where α is an angle between clock hands.
2
if α  180 , then the angle between clock hands is 360 

 
α.
Example 1.
What is the angle between clock hands at the following times ?
1) 4 : 10
11  10  60  4 110  240 130 130
α      65
2 2 2 2
2) 2 : 50
11  50  60  2 550  120 430 430
α      215
2 2 2 2
Since 215  180 , then the angle between clock hands is 360  215  145 .
3) 10 : 45
11  45  60  10 495  600 105 105
α      52.5
2 2 2 2
4) 1 : 45
11  45  60  1 495  60 435 435
α      217.5
2 2 2 2
Since 217.5  180 , then the angle between clock hands is 360  217.5  142.5 .
5) 11 : 50
11  50  60  11 550  660 110 110
α     55
2 2 2 2
197
Finding Number of Hours and Minutes Between Two Dates
Pay Attention to the Time Conversion
1:00 AM = 01:00
1:00 PM = 13:00
1:30 AM = 01:30
1:30 PM = 13:30
11:30 AM = 11:30
11:30 PM = 23:30
12:00 AM = 00:00
12:00 PM = 12:00
12:30 AM = 00:30
12:30 PM = 12:30
Example 1.
What is the time difference between Tuesday 5 : 40 PM and Friday 2 : 58 AM ?
Solution:
Tuesday 5 : 40 PM is the same as Tuesday 17 : 40.
Friday 2 : 58 AM is the same as Friday 02 : 58.
till till 2 whole days

Tuesday 17 : 40  Wednesday 17 : 40  Thursday 17 : 40  2  24 h.  48 h.
till
Thursday 17 : 40  Thursday 24 : 00  6 h. 20 min.
Thursday 24 : 00 is the same as Friday 00 : 00.
till
Friday 00 : 00  Friday 02 : 58  2 h. 58 min.
48 h. + 6 h. 20 min. + 2 h. 58 min. = 56 h. 78 min.  57 h. 18 min.
Answer: 57 h. 18 min.
198
Example 2.
What is the time difference between Sunday 3 : 29 AM and Wednesday 4 : 18 PM ?
Solution:
Sunday 3 : 29 AM is the same as Sunday 03 : 29.
Wednesday 4 : 18 PM is the same as Wednesday 16 : 18.
till till till 3 whole days

Sunday 03 : 29  Monday 03 : 29  Tuesday 03 : 29  Wednesday 03 : 29  3  24 h.  72 h.
till
Wednesday 03 : 29  Wednesday 16 : 18  12 h. 49 min.
72 h. + 12 h. 49 min. = 84 h. 49 min.
Example 3.
What is the time difference between Monday 9 : 23 PM and Thursday 7 : 14 PM ?
Solution:
Monday 9 : 23 PM is the same as Monday 21 : 23.
Thursday 7 : 14 PM is the same as Thursday 19 : 14.

Monday 21 : 23  Tuesday 21 : 23  Wednesday 21 : 23  2  24 h.  48 h.
till
Wednesday 21 : 23  Wednesday 24 : 00  2 h. 37 min.
Wednesday 24 : 00 is the same as Thursday 00 : 00.
till
Thursday 00 : 00  Thursday 19 : 14  19 h. 14 min.
48 h. + 2 h. 37 min. + 19 h. 14 min. = 69 h. 51 min.
199
Example 4.
What is the time difference between Wednesday 11 : 43 AM and Saturday 12 : 16 AM ?
Solution:
Wednesday 11 : 43 AM is the same as Wednesday 11 : 43.
Saturday 12 : 16 AM is the same as Saturday 00 : 16.

Wednesday 11 : 43  Thursday 11 : 43  Friday 11 : 43  2  24 h.  48 h.
Friday 24 : 00 is the same as Saturday 00 : 00.
till
Saturday 00 : 00  Saturday 00 : 16  16 min.
48 h. + 12 h. 17 min. + 16 min = 60 h. 33 min.
Example 5.
What is the time difference between Monday 12 : 24 AM and Friday 12 : 23 PM ?
Solution:
Monday 12 : 24 AM is the same as Monday 00 : 24.
Friday 12 : 23 PM is the same as Friday 12 : 23.
till till till till

Monday 00 : 24  Tuesday 00 : 24  Wednesday 00 : 24  Thursday 00 : 24 
till 4 whole days
 Friday 00 : 24  4  24  96 h.
till
96 h. + 11 h. 59 min = 107 h. 59 min.
200
Defined Operations Problems
Example 1.
For any positive integer n, τ(n) represents the number of positive factors of n.
Which of the following is (are) true ?
I. τ(5) =τ(7)
II. τ(5) ⋅ τ(7) = τ(35)
III. τ(5) + τ(7) = τ(12)
Solution:
I. Since all positive factors of 5 are 1 and 5, then the number of positive factors of 5 is 2.
2.
So, τ(5) =
Since all positive factors of 7 are 1 and 7, then the number of positive factors of 7 is 2.
2.
So, τ(7) =
Thus, the relation τ(5) =τ(7) is true, since 2 = 2.
II. Since all positive factors of 5 are 1 and 5, then the number of positive factors of 5 is 2.
2.
So, τ(5) =
So, τ(7) =
2.
Since all positive factors of 35 are 1, 5, 7 and 35, then the number of positive factors of 35 is 4.
4.
So, τ(35) =
Thus, the relation τ(5) ⋅ τ(7) = τ(35) is true, since 2 ⋅ 2 = 4.
III. Since all positive factors of 5 are 1 and 5, then the number of positive factors of 5 is 2.
2.
So, τ(5) =
So, τ(7) =
2.
Since all positive factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12, then the number of positive factors of 12 is 6.
6.
So, τ(12) =
Thus, the relation τ(5) + τ(7) = τ(12) is not true, since 2 + 2 ≠ 6.
Answer: I and II.
201
Example 2.
If xy represents the number of integers greater than x and less than y, what is the value of – π  2 ?
Solution:
Since xy represents the number of integers greater than x and less than y, then – π  2 represents the
number of integers greater than −π ≈ −3.14 and less than 2 ≈ 1.4 . Integers that are greater than
–3.14 and less than 1.4 are –3, –2, –1, 0 and 1.
Thus, the number of integers that are greater than –3.14 and less than 1.4 is 5, i.e. the value of – π  2 is
5.
Answer: 5.
Example 3.
1
For any positive integer a a = . What is the value of 3 − 4 ?
2a+1
Solution:
1
Since, a = , then
2a+1
1 1 1
3= = =
16
3 +1 4
2 2
1 1 1
4= = =
32
4 +1 5
2 2
Thus,
1 1 2 −1 1
3 − 4 = − = =
16 32 32 32
1
Answer: .
32
202
Picking Number Problems
Example 1.
If x and y are positive integers, and 3x+2y=21, what is the sum of all possible values of x ?
Solution:
Since we have to find the sum of all possible integer values of x let’s express x in terms of y:
3x  21  2y
21  2y
x
3
2
x 7 y
3
Both x and y must be positive integers, so y must be a multiple of 3. Then the possible positive integer
values of y for which x gets a positive integer value are:
2
y3  x 7 3  7  2  5 ;
3
2
y6  x 7 6  7  4  3 ;
3
2
y9  x 7 9  7  6  1 ;
3
2
y  12  x 7  12  7  8  1 – doesn’t satisfy condition that x must be positive.
3
Thus, the sum of all possible positive integer values of x is 5 + 3 + 1 = 9.
Answer: 9.
203
Example 2.
If x and y are positive integers, 2x + y < 29, and y > 4, what is the greatest possible value of x – y ?
Solution:
x – y has the greatest value when x is the greatest and y is the smallest.
Since y > 4, the smallest integer value of y is 5.
Then, the possible values of x are:
2x + 5 < 29
2x < 24
x < 12
So, the greatest possible integer value of x is 11.
Thus, the greatest value of x – y is:
x  y  11  5  6
Answer: 6.
Example 3.
x 2
If x and y are integers, 7 < y < 16, and = , how many possible values are there for x ?
y 5
Solution:
Since we have to find the number of possible values of x let’s make x subject of the formula:
x 2

y 5
5x  2y
2
x y
5
Both x and y are integers, so y must be a multiple of 5. Then, the possible integer values of y,
7<y<16, for which x gets an integer value are:
2
y  10  x  10  4
5
2
y  15  x  15  6
5
Thus, there are two possible integer values of x.
Answer: two.
204
Example 4.
If x and y are positive integers and 2x+3y=26, find all possible values of x ?
Solution:
Since we have to find the possible value of x let’s express x in terms of y:
2x  3y  26
2x  26  3y
26  3y 3
x  13   y
2 2
Both x and y are positive integers, so y must be a multiple of 2. Then, the possible values of y for which x
gets an integer value are:
3
y2  x  13   2  13  3  10
2
3
y4  x  13   4  13  6  7
2
3
y6  x  13   6  13  9  4
2
3
y8  x  13   8  13  12  1
2
3
y  10  x  13   10  13  15  2 – doesn’t satisfy the condition that x must be positive.
2
Thus, the possible positive integer values of x are 1, 4, 7, 10.
Answer: 1, 4, 7, 10.
205
Example 5.
Given y = 10 – 3x. How many different ordered pairs (x; y) of positive integers satisfy the equation above ?
Solution:
Since y is already expressed in terms of x we don’t need to change the equation.
Both x and y are positive integers. Then, the possible positive integer values of x for which y gets a positive
integer value are:
x 1  y  10  3  1  10  3  7
x2  y  10  3  2  10  6  4
x3  y  10  3  3  10  9  1
x4  y  10  3  4  10  12  2 – doesn’t satisfy the condition that y must be positive.
Thus, there are three ordered pairs (x, y) of positive integers: (1; 7), (2; 4), (3; 1).
Answer: three.
206
Example 6.
4
In a certain class, of the students are boys, and the ratio of the students older than or equal to 10 years
7
to the students younger than 10 years old is 2:3.
2
If of the girls are younger than 10 years old, what fraction of the boys are older than or equal to 10
3
years ?
Solution:
Let’s find LCM of all numbers occurred in the problem:
LCM (4, 7, 2, 3) = 84
So, assume that the total number of students in the class is 84.
4 4
of the students are boys, so there are  84  48 boys and 84 – 48 = 36 girls in the class.
7 7
Total Boys Girls

Total 84 48 36
Older than or equal to 10
Younger than 10
2 2
of the girls are younger than 10 years old, so 24 . Then the number of girls older than or equal to
⋅ 36 =
3 3
10 years old is 36 − 24 =.
12
Total Boys Girls
Total 84 48 36
Older than or equal to 10 12
Younger than 10 24
207
Let the number of boys older than or equal to 10 years old be x, then the number of boys younger than 10
years old be 48 − x .
Total Boys Girls
Total 84 48 36
Older than or equal to 10 x 12
Younger than to 10 48 – x 24
So, the total number of students older than or equal to 10 years old is x + 12 and the total number of
students younger than 10 years old is ( 48 − x ) + 24 = 72 − x .
Total Boys Girls
Total 84 48 36
Older than or equal to 10 x + 12 x 12
Younger than to 10 72 – x 48 – x 24
Since the ratio of all students older than or equal to 10 years old to the all students younger than 10 years
old is 2 : 3, thus
x + 12 2
=
72 − x 3
3 ⋅ ( x + 12 ) =2 ⋅ (72 − x )
3x + 36 = 144 − 2x
3x + 2x = 144 − 36
5x = 108
x = 108 : 5
x = 21.6
In order to find what fraction of the boys are older than or equal to 10 years, we have to divide the number
21.6 9
of boys older than or equal to 10 years old by the total number of boys:  .
48 20
9
Thus, of the boys are older than or equal to 10 years old.
20
9
Answer: .
20
208
Work Problems
In order to solve work problems it is necessary to find the amount of work per unit of time (i.e.
the amount of work per 1 minute, per 1 hour, per 1 day).
In problems on work it is necessary to take total work as 1 whole part !
Example 1.
The first worker can build the house in 12 days, and the second one can build the same house in 20
days. What part of the house would be finished after 3 days of working together ?
Solution:
1 1 5 3
1    
I worker – 12 days | per 1 day of work – of the whole house would be built 12 20 60 60
12 8 2
 
60 15
1 of the whole house per
II worker – 20 days | per 1 day of work – of the whole house would be built
20 1 day of working
together would
be built.
2 2
For 3 days of working together 3   of the whole house would be finished.
15 5
2
Answer: .
5
Example 2.
The first pipe can fill a water tank with water in 10 hours, and the second one can fill the same tank with
water in 15 hours. What part of the water tank would be filled with water after 4 hours of working together ?
Solution:
1 1

1

3

2

I pipe – in 10 hours | per 1 hour of work – of the whole tank would be filled 10 15 30 30
10
5 1
 
30 6
1 of the whole tank per
II pipe – in 15 hours | per 1 hour of work – of the whole tank would be filled 1 hour of working
15
together would
be filled.
1 2
For 4 hours of working together 4  = of the whole tank would be filled with water.
6 3
2
Answer: .
3
209
Example 3.
The first worker can build the house in 9 days, and the second one can build the same house in 3 days slower.
What part of the house would be unfinished after 2 days of working together ?
Solution:
1 1 1 4 3
I worker – 9 days | per 1 day of work – of the whole house would be built + = + =
9 9 12 36 36
7

36
1 of the whole house
II worker – 12 days | per 1 day of work – of the whole house would be built
12 per 1 day of
working together would
be built.
7 7
For 2 days of working together 2  = of the whole house would be finished.
36 18
Since a completely built house (i.e. all work) is 1 whole part, then unfinished part of the house is
7 11
1 = .
18 18
11
Answer: .
18
210
Example 4.
The first truck can load the freight in 16 hours, and the second one can load the same amount of freight 2 times
faster. For how many hours of working together the freight would be loaded completely ?
Solution:
1 1 1 1 2
I truck – 16 hours | per 1 hour of work – of the whole freight would be loaded    
16 16 8 16 16
3

16
1 of the whole freight
II truck – 8 hours | per 1 hour of work – of the whole freight would be loaded
8 per 1 hour of
working together
would be loaded.
Let the whole freight would be loaded completely in t hours, then:
3
t 1
16
3 16 16 1
t  1:  1  5
16 3 3 3
1
Thus, the freight would be loaded in 5 hours of working together.
3
1
Answer: 5 hours.
3
211
Example 5.
The first pipe can fill the pool in 12 hours, and the second one can empty the same pool in 20 hours. For how
many hours of working together the pool would be filled only by half ?
Solution:
1 1 1 5 3
I pipe  – 12 hours | per 1 hour of work – of the whole pool would be filled    
12 12 20 60 60
2 1
 
60 30
1
II pipe  – 20 hours | per 1 hour of work – of the whole pool would be empty of the whole pool per
20
1
hour of working
together would
be filled.
Let the whole pool would be filled only by half in t hours, then:
1 1
t 
30 2
1 1 1 30
t :    15
2 30 2 1
Thus, the pool would be filled only by half in 15 hours of working together.
Answer: 15 hours.
212
Example 6.
Two workers working together can build the house in 8 days. The first worker working alone can build the
same house in 12 days faster than the second one. For how many days can the first worker build the same
house working alone ?
Solution:
1 1
+ =
1 x x  12
I worker – x days | per 1 day of work – of the whole house would be built x  12
x = +
x(x  12)
x
 =
1 x(x  12)
II worker – x+12 days | per 1 day of work – of the whole house would be built
x  12 = 2
2x  12
x  12x
of the whole house
per 1 day of
working together
would be built.
Since two workers working together can build the house in 8 days, and a completely built house (i.e. all work)
is 1 whole part, then:
2x  12
8 1
x2  12x
 
8  2x  12  x2  12x
16x  96  x2  12x
x2  12x  16x  96  0
x2  4x  96  0
x1  8 – it is impossible, because number of days cannot be negative.
x2  12
Thus, the first worker working alone can build the same house in 12 days.
Answer: 12 days.
213
Example 7.
The first pipe can fill the water tank with water in 8 hours, and the second one can empty the same
water tank in 12 hours. For how many hours of working together the tank would be filled with water
completely ?
Solution:
1 1 1 3 2 1
I pipe  – 8 hours | per 1 hour of work – of the tank would be filled    
8 8 12 24 24 24
of the whole tank per
1 1 hour of working
II pipe  – 12 hours | per 1 hour of work – of the tank would be empty
12 together would be filled.
Let the whole tank would be filled completely in t hours, then:

1
t =1
24
1 24
t  1:  1  24
24 1
Thus, the tank would be filled completely with water in 24 hours of working together.
Answer: 24 hours.
Example 8.
The first worker can build the house in 15 days, the second one can build the same house in 20
days. For how many days of working together the house would be built only by half ?
Solution:
1 1 1 4 3 7
I worker – 15 days | per 1 day of work – of the house would be built    
15 15 20 60 60 60
of the whole house per
1 1 day of working together
II worker – 20 days | per 1 day of work – of the house would be built
20 would be built.
Let the whole house would be built only by half in t days, then:
7 1
t =
60 2
1 7 1 60 30 2
t :    4
2 60 2 7 7 7
2
Thus, the house would be built only by half in 4 days of working together.
7
2
Answer: 4 days.
7
214
Example 9.
The first pipe can fill the water tank with water in 12 hours, and the second one can empty the same water tank
in 18 hours. At the beginning the first pipe worked for 3 hours alone and then, the second pipe also started to
work. For how many hours then would the tank be filled completely ?
Solution:
1 1 3 2
1    
I pipe  – 12 hours | per 1 hour of work – of the whole tank would be filled 12 18 36 36
12 1

36
1
II pipe  – 18 hours | per 1 hour of work – of the whole tank would be empty of the whole tank per
18
1 hour of working
together would be filled.
Assuming that the first pipe was working alone for 3 hours and additional time needed for two pipes to fill the
tank completely is t, then:
1 1
3 +t =1
12 36
1 t
 1
4 36
t 1
1
36 4
t 3

36 4
3
t   36  27
4
Thus, the whole tank would be filled after 27 hours of working together.
Answer: 27 hours.
215
Example 10.
a men can finish a job in m hours. What part of the job would be finished if x men was working for t hours ?
Solution:
a men can finish the job in m hours.
1
Then, 1 man in 1 hour can finish part of the job.
am
x
Then, x men in 1 hour can finish part of the job.
am
xt
Then, x men in t hours can finish part of the job.
am
xt
Thus, x men would finish part of the job in t hours.
am
xt
Answer: .
am
Example 11.
z men can finish a job in c hours. What part of the job would be unfinished if q men was working only for b
hours ?
Solution:
z men can finish the job in c hours.
1
Then, 1 man in 1 hour can finish part of the job.
zc
q
Then, q men in 1 hour can finish part of the job.
zc
qb
Then, q men in b hours can finish part of the job.
zc
qb
Since a completely done job (i.e. all work) is 1 whole part, then unfinished part of the job is 1  .
zc
qb
Thus, 1 - part of the job would be unfinished if q men was working for b hours.
zc
qb zc  qb
Answer: 1   .
zc zc
216
Rate Problems
All rate problems must be solved using the following table and formulas:
Rate Time Distance
II
Distance = Rate  Time
Distance
Rate =
Time
Distance
Time =
Rate
217
Example 1.
A freight train left the station at 12 noon going north at the rate of 50 mph. At 1:00 PM a passenger train left the
same station going south at the rate of 60 mph. At what time would the trains be 380 miles apart from each
other ?
Solution:
Since the freight train leaves 1 hour before the passenger train, it travels 1 hour longer.
Therefore, when the passenger train travels x hours, the freight train travels x + 1 hours.
Rate Time Distance

Freight train 50 mph. x + 1 hours 50  (x + 1) miles
380 miles
Passenger train 60 mph. x hours 60  x miles
Since two trains were travelling in opposite directions, the sum of their distances must be equal to 380 miles.
So,
 
50  x  1  60  x  380
50x  50  60x  380
110x  380  50
110x  330
x  330 : 110
x3
Since the passenger train left the station at 1:00 PM, the freight train and the passenger train were 380 miles
apart 3 hours later, i.e. at 4:00 PM.
Thus, at 4:00 PM the passenger train and freight train were 380 miles apart.
Answer: 4:00 PM.
218
Example 2.
Jane drove from her house to work at an average speed of 15 mph. She returned home along the same route at
an average speed of 30 mph. If her total driving time was 2 hours, how many miles in total did Jane drive ?
Solution:
Let the distance from house to work be x miles.
Rate Time Distance
x
To work 15 mph. hours x miles
15
2 hours
x
From work 30 mph. hours x miles
30
Taking that total time of driving to and from work was 2 hours we obtain:
x x
 2
15 30
2/ 1/ 30 /
x x 2
 
15 30 1
2x + x = 60
3x = 60
x = 60 : 3
x = 20 – distance for the only one way.
Thus, total distance Jane drove to and from work was 2  20  40 miles.
Answer: 40 miles.
219
Example 3.
A bus left a station at 12 noon, going west at a rate of 40 mph. At 1:00 PM a car left the same station, going
east at a rate of 70 mph. At what time were the bus and the car 260 miles apart ?
Solution:
Since the bus leaves 1 hour before the car, it travels 1 hour longer.
Therefore, when the car travelled x hours, the bus travelled x + 1 hours.
Rate Time Distance
Bus 40 mph. x + 1 hours 

40  x  1 miles
Car 70 mph. x hours 70  x miles
Since the bus and the car were travelling in opposite directions, the sum of their distances must be equal to 260
miles.
So,
 
40  x  1  70  x  260
40x + 40 + 70x = 260
110x = 260 – 40
110x = 220
x = 220 : 110
x=2
Since the car left the station at 1:00 PM, the bus and the car were 260 miles apart 2 hours later,
i.e. at 3:00 PM.
Thus, at 3:00 PM the bus and the car were 260 miles apart.
Answer: 3:00 PM.
220
Example 4.
Two trains started travelling towards each other from two different stations. The distance between the trains
would be what part of the whole distance 1 hour later, if the first train travels the whole distance in 4 hours, and
the second one in 6 hours ?
Solution:
Let the distance between two stations be x miles.
Rate Time Distance
x
I train mph. 4 hours x miles
4
x
II train mph. 6 hours x miles
6
x
The first train had travelled miles during the first hour.
4
x
The second train had travelled miles during the first hour.
6
x x 5x
Together they travelled   miles during the first hour travelling towards each other.
4 6 12
5x 7x 7
Thus, the distance between them would be x   miles, i.e. of the whole distance.
12 12 12
7
Answer: .
12
221
Example 5.
A train could reduce the time needed to travel the distance of 450 miles by 1 hour increasing its
speed by 5 mph. Find the original speed of the train.
Solution:
Let the original speed of the train be x mph.
Rate Time Distance
450
Before x mph. hours 450 miles
x
450
After x + 5 mph. hours 450 miles
x 5
The time needed to travel the distance of 450 miles was reduced by 1 hour.
So,
450 450
 1
x x5
x 5/ x/ xx 5 /

450 450 1
 
x x 5 1
 
450  x  5  450  x  x  x  5  
450x  2250  450x  x2  5x
2250  x2  5x
x2 + 5x – 2250 = 0
x1  50 – it is impossible because speed cannot be negative.
x2  45
Thus, the original speed of the train was 45 mph.
Answer: 45 mph.
222
Example 6.
The first cyclist covered the distance of 30 miles 30 minutes faster than the second one. Find the second cyclist’s
rate, if the rate of the first cyclist exceeded the rate of the second one by 2 mph.
Solution:
Let the rate of the second cyclist be x mph.
Rate Time Distance
30
I cyclist x+2 mph. hours 30 miles
x 2
30
II cyclist x mph. hours 30 miles
x
30 1
The first cyclist covered the distance 30 minutes, i.e.  hour faster than the second one.
60 2
So,
30 30 1
 
x x 2 2
  30
2 x 2 / 2x /
30
xx 2 /
1
 
x x 2 2
 
60  x  2  60  x  x  x  2  
60x  120  60x  x2  2x
120  x2  2x
x2  2x  120  0
x1  12 – it is impossible because rate cannot be negative.
x2  10
Thus, the second cyclist’s rate was 10 mph.
Answer: 10 mph.
223
Example 7.
A train was late by 6 minutes, so at a distance of 20 miles it decided to increase its rate by 10 mph
eliminating late arrival. Find the rate of the train according to the schedule.
Solution:
Let the rate of the train according to the schedule be x mph.
Rate Time Distance
20
Before x mph. hours 20 miles
x
20
After x + 10 mph. hours 20 miles
x  10
6 1
The train was late by 6 minutes, i.e.  hour.
60 10
So,
20 20 1
 
x x  10 10
  20
10 x 10 / 10x /
20
xx 10 /
1
 
x x  10 10
 
200  x  10  200  x  x  x  10  
200x  2000  200x  x2  10x
2000  x2  10x
x2  10x  2000  0
x1  50 – it is impossible because rate cannot be negative.
x2  40
Thus, the rate of the train according to the schedule was 40 mph.
Answer: 40 mph.
224
All “Average Rate” problems must be solved using the following formula:
Total Distance
Average Rate 
Total Time
Example 1.
A fellow travels from city A to city B in 4 hours. For the first hour, he drove at the constant rate of
40 miles per hour. Then he increased his rate, and for the next 2 hours, kept it at 60 miles per hour. During
the last hour he drove at the rate of 50 mph.
Find the average rate of the motion.
Solution:
Rate Time Distance
First hour 40 mph. 1 hour 40  1 = 40 miles
Next two hours 60 mph. 2 hours 60  2 = 120 miles
Last hour 50 mph. 1 hour 50  1 = 50 miles
Thus,
Total Distance 40  120  50 210
Average Rate     52.5
Total Time 1  2 1 4
Answer: 52.5 mph.
225
Example 2.
A truck travels from city A to city B. The first half of the way, he drove at the constant rate of 30 miles per hour.
Then he increased his rate and travelled the remaining distance at 60 miles per hour.
Find the average rate of the truck travelled from city A to city B.
Solution:
x
Let the total distance between cities A and B be x miles. For the first half of the way, i.e. for miles, the truck
2
travelled at the rate of 30 mph. Then he increased his rate and travelled the remaining distance,
x
i.e. miles, at the rate of 60 mph.
2
Rate Time Distance
x
x
First half of the way 30 mph. 2  x hours miles
2
30 60
x
x
Second half of the way 60 mph. 2  x hours miles
2
60 120
Thus,
x x

Total Distance 2 2  x 120  x
Average Rate     40
Total Time x x 2x  x 3 x

60 120 120
Answer: 40 mph.
226
Example 3.
A car travels from Baku to Ganja at a constant rate of 60 miles per hour. On the way back from Ganja to Baku
the car travels at a constant rate of 90 miles per hour. What is the average rate of the car for the round trip ?
Solution:
Let the total distance from Baku to Ganja be x miles.
Rate Time Distance
x
From Baku to Ganja 60 mph. hours x miles
60
x
From Ganja to Baku 90 mph. hours x miles
90
Thus,
Total Distance xx 2x 2x 180  2x 360
Average Rate        72
Total Time x x 3x  2x 5x 5x 5

60 90 180 180
Answer: 72 mph.
227
Example 4.
A certain car race consists of three legs of equal distance. On the first two legs of the race, a car
travels at an average of 50 miles per hour. On the last leg of the race, the car travels at an average of
75 miles per hour. What is the average rate, in miles per hour, of this car over the entire race ?
Solution:
Let the distance of the leg be x miles.
Rate Time Distance
x
I leg 50 mph. hours x miles
50
x
II leg 50 mph. hours x miles
50
x
III leg 75 mph. hours x miles
75
Thus,
Total Distance xxx 3x 3x 3x  150

Average Rate       56.25
Total Time x x x 3x 3x 2x 8x 8x
   
50 50 75 150 150 150 150
Answer: 56.25 mph.
Example 5.
Joey runs at a constant rate of 3 mph, Chandler runs at a constant rate of 2 mph and Ross runs at a
constant rate of 4 mph. In a race with these three runners as a team, Joey runs 1.5 miles, Chandler
runs 0.2 miles and Ross runs 0.8 miles. What is the team’s average rate during the race in miles per
hour ?
Solution:
Rate Time Distance
1.5
Joey 3 mph.  0.5 hours 1.5 miles
3
0.2
Chandler 2 mph.  0.1 hours 0.2 miles
2
0.8
Ross 4 mph.  0.2 hours 0.8 miles
4
Thus,
Total Distance 1.5  0.2  0.8 2.5
Average Rate     3.125 mph.
Total Time 0.5  0.1  0.2 0.8
Answer: 3.125 mph.
228
Coin Problems
Example 1.
There are 3 times as many nickels as dimes in a box. The total amount in the box is 2.50$. How many coins of
each type are in the box ?
Solution:
Let the number of dimes be x.
Number of coins Amount in ¢
Nickels (5¢) 3x 3x  5 ¢ = 15x¢
Dimes (10¢) x x  10 ¢ = 10x¢
Since, the total amount in ¢ is 2.50$ = 250¢, then:

15x + 10x = 250
25x = 250
x = 250 : 25
x = 10
So, the box contains 10 dimes and 3  10  30 nickels in the box.
Answer: 30 nickels and 10 dimes.
229
Example 2.
David emptied his pockets and found that he had 28 coins worth 1$. He had only pennies and quarters. Find the
number he had of each coin.
Solution:
Let the number of pennies is x and the number of quarters is y.
Pennies (1 ¢) x x¢
Quarters (25 ¢) y 25  y¢
Total x+y x + 25y¢
Since, the total number of coins is 28, and the total amount in ¢ is 1$ = 100¢. Thus, we obtain the following
simultaneous of equations:
x  y  28

x  25y  100.
Let’s eliminate x, by subtracting the first equation from the second one.
24y = 72
y = 72 : 24
y=3
x + 3 = 28
x = 25
So, David had 25 pennies and 3 quarters in his pockets.
Answer: 25 pennies and 3 quarters.
230
Example 3.
Carlos gave 4.70$ in nickels, dimes and quarters to his little son. There were 2 times as many nickels as
quarters, and the number of quarters exceeded the number of dimes by 7. Find the number of each kind of coins
he gave to his son.
Solution:
Let the number of dimes be x.

Nickels (5¢)

2 x  7   
2  x  7  5¢  10x  70 ¢
Dimes (10¢) x x  10¢  10x ¢
Quarters (25¢) x 7 x  7  25¢  25x  175 ¢
The total amount in ¢ is 10x  70  10x  25x  175  45x  245 ¢ or, as it is stated in the problem,
4.70$ = 470¢.
Thus,
45x + 245 = 470
45x = 470 – 245
45x = 225
x = 225 : 45
x=5
 
So, Carlos gave his son 2  5  7  24 nickels, 5 dimes and 5 + 7 = 12 quarters.
Answer: 24 nickels, 5 dimes and 12 quarters.
231
Example 4.
Sue had 25 coins which consisted of nickels, dimes and quarters worth 2.30$. The number of nickels was 4 times
as many as quarters. How many nickels, dimes and quarters did she have ?
Solution:
Let the number of quarters be x.

Nickels (5¢) 4 x 4x  5¢ = 20x¢
Dimes (10¢) 25 – 4x – x= 25 – 5x (25 – 5x)  10¢ = 250 – 50x¢
Quarters (25¢) x x  25¢ = 25x¢
The total amount in ¢ is 20x  250  50x  25x  250  5x ¢ or, as it is stated in the problem, 2.30$ = 230¢.
Thus,
250 – 5x = 230
5x = 250 – 230
5x = 20
x = 20 : 5
x=4
So, Sue had 4  4 = 16 nickels, 25 – 5  4 = 5 dimes and 4 quarters.
Answer: 16 nickels, 5 dimes and 4 quarters.
232
Age Problems
Example 1.
Alex is 7 years younger than John and three times as old as Jayme. If Jayme is x years old, how old
is John in terms of x ?
Solution:
Given Jayme is x years old.
Since Alex is 3 times as old as Jayme he is 3x years old.
Since Alex is 7 years younger than John that means than John is 7 years older than Alex or he is 3x + 7 years
old.
Answer: 3x + 7.
Example 2.
In 1994, Sarah was 4 times old as Bob, but in 1998 she was only twice as old as he was. How old
was Bob in 2014 ?
Solution:
Let Bob’s age in 1994 be x.
1994 1998
Bob x x+4
Sarah 4x 4x + 4
Since Sarah’s age was twice Bob’s age in 1998:
4x + 4 = 2  (x + 4)
4x + 4 = 2x + 8
4x – 2x = 8 – 4
2x = 4
x=4:2
x=2
Thus, Bob was 2 years old in 1994, therefore he was 2 + (2014 – 1994) = 2 + 20 = 22 years old in 2014.
Answer: 22.
233
Example 3.
1 1 4
If x years ago Martin was 10, and x years from now he will be x years old, how old will he be 3x years
3 3 3
from now ?
Solution:
1
x years ago 10
3
1
Now 10  x
3
1 1 1 2
x years from now 10  x  x  10  x
3 3 3 3
1 4
Since x years from now he will be x years old, so
3 3
2 4
10  x x
3 3
4 2
x  x  10
3 3
2
x  10
3
2
x  10 :
3
3
x  10 
2
x = 15
1
Thus, now Martin is 10   15  10  5  15 years old.
3
So, 3x or 45 years from now he will be 15 + 45 = 60 years old.
Answer: 60.
234
Example 4.
In 10 years the ratio of Ned’s age to Even’s age will be 4:7. In 25 years the ratio of Ned’s age to Even’s age will
be 7:10. What is the sum of their current ages ?
Solution:
In 10 years Now In 25 years

Ned 4x 4x – 10 (4x – 10) + 25 = 4x + 15
Even 7x 7x – 10 (7x – 10) + 25 = 7x + 15
Since in 25 years the ratio of Ned’s age to Even’s age will be 7:10.
So,
4x  15 7

7x  15 10
10  (4x  15)  7  (7x  15)
40x + 150 = 49x +105
40x – 49x = 105 – 150
–9x = –45
x = –45 : (–9)
x=5
Since in 10 years Ned’s age will be 4  5 = 20, but now he is 20 – 10 = 10.

Since in 10 years Even’s age will be 7  5 = 35, but now she is 35 – 10 = 25.
Thus, the sum of their current ages is 10 + 25 = 35.
Answer: 35.
235
Example 5.
Five years ago, Calvin was twice as old as David. In 15 years, David will be the same age as Calvin is now. How
old is each now ?
Solution:
Let David’s age be x five years ago.
5 years ago Now In 15 years

David x x+5 (x + 5) + 15 = x + 20
Calvin 2x 2x + 5 (2x + 5) + 15 = 2x + 20
Since in 15 years David will be the same age as Calvin is now.
So,
x + 20 = 2x + 5
x – 2x = 5 – 20
–x = –15
x = 15
Thus, David is 15 + 5 = 20 and Calvin is 2  15  5  35 now.
Answer: 20 and 35.
236
Word Problems
Example 1.
2 3
Mike has a$. At first he spent of his money. Then, he spent of the remaining money. What part of his
5 4
money does Mike now have ?
Solution:
Given that total amount of money was a$.
Spent: Remained:
2 3
I – a a
5 5
3 3 9 1 3 3
II –  a a  a a
4 5 20 4 5 20
3
Thus, Mike now has of his money.
20
3
Answer: .
20
237
Example 2.
7 less than 4 times a certain number is 10 more than half of that number. Find the certain number.
Solution:
Let the certain number be x. Then,
x
4x  7   10
2
4x - 0.5x  10  7
3.5x  17
17 7 17 2 34
x  17 : 3.5  :   
1 2 1 7 7
34
Thus, the certain number is .
7
34
Answer: .
7
Example 3.
3 times certain number is increased by 11 is equal to 5 times certain number increased by 2. Find the certain
number.
Solution:
Let the certain number be x. Then,

3  x  11  5  x  2
3x  11  5x  10
3x  5x  10  11
2x  1
1
x
2
1
Thus, the certain number is .
2
1
Answer: .
2
238
Partial Payment Problems
Example 1.
The tax for trucks to cross a certain bridge is a total of 5$ for the first two boxes it carries plus 2$ for each
additional box. What is the total tax for a truck with n boxes ?
Solution:
Since there are n boxes in total, and the tax for the first two boxes is 5$, so there are n – 2 additional boxes to
be paid for. Since, the tax for each additional box is 2$, 2  (n – 2)$ must be paid for additional boxes.
Thus, the tax for a truck with n boxes is 5 + 2  (n – 2) = 5 + 2n – 4 = (2n + 1)$.
Answer: (2n + 1)$.
Example 2.
A telephone company charges x¢ for the first minute of a call and charges for any additional time at the rate of
y¢ per minute. What is the total charge for a call that lasts t minutes ?
Solution:
Given that the length of the call is t minutes. The company charges x¢ for the first minute of a call, so there are
t – 1 additional minutes to be paid for. Since the company charges y¢ for each additional minute, then
y  (t – 1)¢ must be paid for additional time.
Thus, the cost of a call that lasts t minutes is x + y  (t – 1)¢.
Answer: x + y  (t – 1)¢.
239
Example 3.
A DVD store rents each CD at the rate of x$ for the first three days and y$ for each additional day. When Elvin
returned the CD to this store, he was charged c$. What is the number of rental days for which Elvin was
charged ?
Solution:
Let the number of rental days be n.
The DVD store charges x$ for the first three days of using a CD, so there are n – 3 additional days to be paid
for. Since, the store charges y$ for each additional day, y  (n – 3)$ must be paid for additional days.
Thus, the charge c of using a CD for n days is c = x + y  (n – 3)$.
Since we are asked to find the number of rental days for which Elvin is charged, we must express n in terms of
x, y and c.

c  x  y n  3 
 
y n  3  c  x
yn  3y  c  x
yn  c  x  3y
c  x  3y
n
y
c  x  3y
Thus, the number of rental days is .
y
c  x  3y
Answer: .
y
240
Example 4.
The cost of a telephone call using an operator A is $ 1 for the first 20 minutes and 0.07$ per minute thereafter.
The cost of using an operator B is 0.06$ per minute for any amount of time. For a call that lasts t minutes, the
cost using the operator A is the same as the cost using the operator B. If t is a positive integer greater than 20,
what is the value of t ?
Solution:
t is a positive integer greater than 20.
So the cost of using the operator A is 1$ for the first 20 minutes and 0.07$ per minute thereafter, i.e. for
t – 20 minutes. Thus, the total cost of using the operator A is
1 + 0.07  (t – 20) = 1 + 0.07t – 1.4 = 0.07t – 0.4.
The cost of using the operator B is 0.06$ per minute for any amount of time. Thus, the total cost of using the
operator B is 0.06t.
Now let’s find the value of t for which the cost of using the operator A equals to the cost of using the operator B.
0.07t – 0.4 = 0.06t
0.07t – 0.06t = 0.4
0.01t = 0.4
t = 0.4 : 0,01
t = 40 minutes.
Answer: 40 minutes.
241
Example 5.
An advertising company charges a$ for the basic fixed fee and b¢ for every 8 letters for the advertising
description. If 400 letters are used for an advertising description, what is the total amount, in dollars, for the
advertisement ?
Solution:
Basic fixed charge, independently how many letters is written, is a$.
Moreover, charge for every 8 letters is b¢. Then, charge for 400 letters can be found by the following proportion:
b¢ – 8 letters
x¢ – 400 letters
400  b
x  50b ¢
8
But since the answer must be in dollars, it is necessary to convert cents into dollars, i.e. divide cents by 100:
50b b
50b¢  $  $.
100 2
 b
Thus, the total amount for the advertisement is a   $ .
 2
 b
Answer: a +  $ .
 2
242
Example 6.
The cost of a car rental is the sum of
1) p$ per day;
1
2) q¢ per of a mile that is traveled.
8
If John rents a car for 5 days and drives 300 miles, what is the cost, in dollars, of the rental ?
Solution:
The cost of a car rental per day is p$. So, the cost of a car rental for 5 days is 5  p$.
1
Moreover, the cost of a car rental for every of a mile traveled is q¢. Then, the cost of a car rental for 300
8
miles traveled can be found by the following proportion:
1
q¢ – mile
8
x¢ – 300 miles
300  q
x  300q  8  2400q¢
1
8
But since the answer must be in dollars, it is necessary to convert cents into dollars, i.e. divide cents by 100:
2400q
2400q¢  $  24q$ .
100
Thus, the total amount for the rental is (5p + 24q)$.
Answer: (5p + 24q)$.
243
Example 7.
The total cost of an internet phone-call is the sum of
1) a basic fixed charge for using the internet;
1
2) an additional charge for each of a minute that is used.
2
If the total cost of a 20 minute-call is 11$, and the total cost of a 35 minute-call is 18.5$, what is the total cost,
in dollars, of a 40 minute-call ?
Solution:
1
Let the basic fixed charge for using the internet be m$, and let the additional charge for each of a minute
2
of a used internet be n$.
So, the additional charge for each minute of a used internet is 2n$.
Thus, the total cost of 20 minute-call is m  20  2n  m  40n $, total cost of 35 minute-call is
  
m  35  2n  m  70n $ and total cost of a 40 minute-call is m  40  2n  m  80n $. 
Since the total cost of a 20 minute-call is 11$, and the total cost of a 35 minute-call is 18.5$, we obtain the
following simultaneous of equations:
m  40n  11

m  70n  18.5
Let’s eliminate m by subtracting first equation from the second one:

(m + 70n) – (m + 40n) = 18.5 – 11
30n = 7.5
10n = 7.5:3
10n = 2.5
So,
m + 80n = (m + 70n) + 10n = 18.5 + 2.5 = 21
Thus, the total cost of a 40 minute-call is 21$.
Answer: 21$.
244
Inequalities
245
246
Properties of Inequalities
I. If a  b , then  a  b .
Example:
If 9  6 , then 9  6 .
1 1
II. If a  b , then  .
a b
Example:
1 1
If 9  6 , then  .
9 6
III. If a  b and b  c , then a  c .
Example:
If 9  6 and 6  5 , then 9  5 .
IV. If a  b , then a  c  b  c .
Example:
If 9  6 , then 9  2  6  2 (11 > 8).
V. If a  b , then a  c  b  c .
Example:
If 9  6 , then 9  2  6  2 (7 > 4).
VI. If a  b and c  0 , then a  c  b  c .
Example:
If 9  6 and 3  0 , then 9  3  6  3 (27 > 18).
a b
VII. If a  b and c  0 , then  .
c c
Example:
9 6
If 9  6 and 3  0 , then  (3 > 2).
3 3
247
VIII. If a  b and c  0 , then a  c  b  c .
Example:
 
If 9  6 and 3  0 , then 9  3  6  3   (–27 < –18).
a b
IX. If a  b and c  0 , then  .
c c
Example:
9 6
If 9  6 and 3  0 , then  (–3 < –2).
3 3
X. If a  0 and x2  a , then  a  x  a .
Example:
If 36  0 and x2  36 , then 6  x  6 .
XI. If a  0 and x2  a , then there is no real solution.
Example:
If 36  0 and x2  36 , then there is no real solution.
XII. If a  0 and x2  a , then x   a or x  a .
Example:
If 36  0 and x2  36 , then x  6 or x  6 .
XIII. If a  0 and x2  a , then   x   .
Example:
If 36  0 and x2  36 , then   x   .
248
Notation in Inequalities
I. Strong inequality usually uses following symbols: <, >, O, (, ).
II. Weak inequality usually uses following symbols: ≤, ≥, • , [, ].
Solution of Linear Inequalities
Linear inequality always includes x in numerator and power of x must be 1.
Example 1.
Solve the inequality: 3x > 12.
Solution:
3x > 12
3x > 12 :(3)
x>4
Answer: x > 4 or it can be written in another way x є (4; +∞).
Example 2.
Solve the inequality: –3x > 12.
Solution:
–3x > 12
–3x > 12 :(–3)
x < –4
Answer: x < –4 or it can be written in another way x є (–∞; –4).
Example 3.
Solve the inequality: 3x > –12.
Solution:
3x > –12
3x > –12 :(3)
x > –4
Answer: x > –4 or it can be written in another way x є (–4; +∞).
249
Example 4.
Solve the inequality: –3x > –12.
Solution:
–3x > –12
–3x > –12 :(–3)
x<4
Answer: x < 4 or it can be written in another way x є (–∞; 4).
Example 5.
 
Solve the inequality: 7  5  3x  4  9x .
Solution:
 
7  5  3x  4  9x
35  21x  4  9x
21x  9x  4  35
12x  31 :(–12)
31
x
12
31  31 
Answer: x  or it can be written in another way x  
; 12  .
12  
250
Example 6.
2x  5 3x  1
Solve the inequality: 4x .
3 2
Solution:
2/
2x  5 6 / 4 6/
x 3/
3x  1
  
3 1 1 2
 
2  2x  5  24  6x  3  3x  1  
4x  10  24  6x  9x  3
4x  14  3x  3
4x + 3x > –3 + 14
7x  11 :(7)
11
x 
7
11 11 
Answer: x  or it can be written in another way x   ;   .
7 7 
Example 7.
Solve the inequality: 3  6x  1  3 .
Solution:
3  6x  1  3
3  1  6x  3  1
2  6x  4 :(6)
1 2
 x
3 3
1 2  1 2
Answer:  x or it can be written in another way x   ;  .
3 3  3 3
251
Example 8.
4  5x
Solve the inequality: 3   2.
3
Solution:
4  5x
3  2 (3)
3
9  4  5x  6
9  4  5x  6  4
13  5x  2 :(–5)
13 2
x
5 5
Thus,
2 13
 x
5 5
2 13  2 13 
Answer:  x or it can be written in another way x  
 5 ; 5  .
5 5  
252
Less or More Problems
I. a is less than b by 7  ba7
II. a is greater than b by 10  a  b  10
III. a is less than b by 7 times  b  7a
IV. a is greater than b by 10 times  a  10  b
Example 1.
For which value of m the value of 7m – 3 is less than the value of 10 – 2m by 11?
Solution:
10  2m  (7m  3)  11

10  2m  7m  3  11
13  9m  11
9m  11  13
9m  2
2
m
9
2
Answer: .
9
253
Example 2.
For which value of x the value of 10–5x is more than the value of 3x+1 by 4 times?
Solution:

10  5x  4  3x  1 
10  5x  12x  4
5x  12x  4  10
17x  6
6
x
17
6
Answer: .
17
254
Operations with Double Inequalities
a  x  b
Given two double inequalities c  y  d , then
I. a+c<x+y<b+d
II. a c  x  y  b d
III. a–d<x–y<b–c
a x b
IV.  
d y c
Example 1.
3  x  5
Given two double inequalities  .
2  y  6
x
Find the set of all possible values for x + y, xy, x – y, y .
Solution:
1) 32  x y  56
5  x  y  11
2) 32  x  y  56
6  xy  30
3) 36  xy 52
3  x  y  3
3 x 5
4)  
6 y 2
1 x 5
 
2 y 2
255
Example 2.
4  a  5
Given two double inequalities  .
3  b  6
2ab
Find the set of all possible values for 3.
ab
Solution:
I step: 12  a  b  30 (2)
24  2ab  60
II step: 7  a  b  11
24 2ab 60
III step:  
11 a  b 7
2 2ab 4
2  8
11 a  b 7
2 2ab 4
IV step: 2  8 +(3)
11 a  b 7
2 2ab 4
5   3  11
11 a  b 7
Changing Range of Double Inequalities
Examples.
I. If 2 < a < 5, then 4 < a2 < 25.
II. If –2 < a < 5, then 0 ≤ a2 < 25.
III. If –5 < a < 2, then 0 ≤ a2 < 25.
IV. If –5 < a < –2, then 4 < a2 < 25.
256
Module Inequalities
There are four types of module inequalities:
I. |x| < a, for a > 0.
Solution: –a < x < a.
II. |x| < a, for a < 0.
Solution: no real solution.
III. |x| > a, for a > 0.
Solution: x > a or x < –a.
IV. |x| > a, for a < 0.
Solution:   x   .
Example 1.
Solve the inequality: |x| < 5.
Solution:
|x| < 5
Thus,
–5 < x < 5

Answer: –5 < x < 5 or it can be written in other form x  5;5 .
Example 2.
Solve the inequality: |x| < –5.
Solution:
|x| < –5
Thus, there are no real solution.
Answer: no real solution.
257
Example 3.
Solve the inequality: |x| > 5.
Solution:
|x| > 5
Thus,
x > 5 or x < –5
  
Answer: x > 5 or x < –5 or it can be written in other form x   ; 5  5;  . 
Example 4.
Solve the inequality: |x| > –5.
Solution:
|x| > –5
Thus,
  x  

Answer:   x   or it can be written in other form x  ;  . 
Example 5.
Solve the inequality: |2x – 7| < 10.
Solution:
|2x – 7| < 10
Thus,
10  2x  7  10
10  7  2x  10  7
3  2x  17 :(2)
1.5  x  8.5

Answer: –1.5 < x <8.5 or it can be written in other form x  1.5;8.5 . 
258
Example 6.
Solve the inequality: |4x – 5| > 8.
Solution:
|4x –5| > 8
Thus,
4x – 5 > 8 or 4x – 5 < –8
4x > 8 + 5 or 4x < –8 + 5
4x > 13 or 4x < –3
13 3
x or x
4 4
13 3  3  13 
Answer: x  or x   or it can be written in other form x  
;  4   
 4 ;   .
4 4    
Example 7.
Solve the inequality: |4x + 7| < –8.
Solution:
|4x + 7| < –8
Thus, there are no real solution.
Answer: no real solution.
Example 8.
Solve the inequality: |9 – 10x| > –3.
Solution:
|9 – 10x| > –3
Thus,
  x  
Answer:   x   or it can be written in other form x  ;  .  
259
Relationship Between Double Inequality and Module Inequality
In order to write a double inequality as module inequality for x we use the following formulas:
I Case:
|x – midpoint of interval| < positive difference between a midpoint and one of the borders.
II Case:
|x – midpoint of interval| > positive difference between a midpoint and one of the borders.
Example 1.
Write module inequality for 5 < x < 13.
Solution:
5  13
Midpoint of the interval is  9.
2
Difference between the midpoint and one of the borders is 13  9  4 or 9  5  4 .
Thus, 5 < x < 13 is the same as |x – 9| < 4.
Answer: |x – 9| < 4.
Example 2.
Write module inequality for a < 11 or a > 28.
Solution:
11  28
Midpoint of the interval is  19.5 .
2
Difference between the midpoint and one of the borders is 28  19.5  8.5 .
Thus, a < 11 or a > 28 is the same as |a – 19.5| > 8.5.
Answer: |a – 19.5| > 8.5.
260
Example 3.
19 1
Write module inequality for 18  x  19 .
20 20
Solution:
19 1 20
18  19 37
Midpoint of the interval is 20 20  20  38  19 .
2 2 2
1 1
Difference between the midpoint and one of the borders is 19  19  .
20 20
19 1 1
Thus, 18  x  19 is the same as x  19  .
20 20 20
1
Answer: x  19  .
20
Example 4.
The recipe for a cake recommends that the cake must be baked for at most 50 minutes, but at least for
30 minutes. If m is the number of minutes a cake must be baked, show all possible values of m in
terms of module inequality.
Solution:
30  50
Midpoint of the interval is  40 .
2
Difference between the midpoint and one of the borders is 40 – 30 = 10.
Thus, all possible values of m are 30  m  50  m  40  10 .
Answer: m  40  10 .
Example 5.
A physics class of 40 students took a final exam and students scores in the exam are less than 64 or
more than 88. If x is defined as the scores of the students, show all possible values of x in terms of
module inequality.
Solution:
64  88
Midpoint of the interval is  76 .
2
Difference between the midpoint and one of the borders is 76 – 64 = 12.
Thus, all possible values of x are x < 64 or x > 88  |x – 76| > 12.
Answer: |x – 76| > 12.

261
Solution of Inequalities of High Powers
Inequality of high powers always includes x in numerator and power of x must be positive integer more
than 1.
I. To solve inequality of high powers we must factorise the expression completely (if it is possible !).
II. After this process we must use intervals for determining the sign of factorised expression.
III. If some root (zero, solution) is used odd number of times (multiplicity of root is odd) then sign of
the factorised expression will be changed to opposite, when variable x passes the value of this root.
IV. If some root (zero, solution) is used even number of times (multiplicity of root is even) then sign of
the factorised expression will not be changed to opposite, when variable x passes the value of this root.
V. If factorised inequality contains always positive or always negative expression then we are able to
exclude this expression from the inequality:
1) if excluded expression is always positive then inequality sign will not be changed to opposite.
2) if excluded expression is always negative then inequality sign will be changed to opposite.
Example 1.
Solve the inequality: x2 – 25 > 0.
Solution:
x2 – 25 > 0
Thus, factorised form is:
x  5  x  5  0
Answer: x < –5 or x > 5 or    

it can be written in another way x  ; 5  5;  .
262
Example 2.
Solve the inequality: 8x  x2 .
Solution:
8x  x2
8x  x2  0

x 8  x  0
Answer: 0  x  8 or it can be written in another way x  0;8 .
Example 3.
 
Solve the inequality: x2  9  x2  5  0 . 
Solution:
x 2
 
 9  x2  5  0  
: x2  9 – can be excluded from the inequality as always positive expression.
x2  5  0
x  5  x  5  0
Answer:  5  x  5  
or it can be written in another way x   5; 5 .
263
Example 4.
Solve the inequality: 4x2  5x  9  0 .
Solution:
4x2  5x  9  0

 9

4 x 1  
x  4   0
 
:(4) – can be excluded from the inequality as always positive number.
 9
x  1  x  4   0
9 9 
Answer: x  1 or x  or it can be written in another way x  ; 1   ;   .
4 4 
Example 5.
   5x  x   0 .
2 2
Solve the inequality: x  4
Solution:
x  4  5x  x   0
2 2
x  4  
2
x 5  x  0
Root 4 is used two times (even amount of times – multiplicity of 4 is 2), thus sign of the factorised
expression will not be changed to opposite, when variable x passes value of 4.
Answer: 0  x  4 or 4  x  5 or it can be written in another way x  0;4  4;5 .    
264
Example 6.
Solve the inequality: x 4  5x3  4x2  0 .
Solution:
x 4  5x3  4x2  0
 
x2  x2  5x  4  0
 
x2  x  1  x  4  0 
Answer: 1  x  4 or x  0 or it can be written in another way x  1;4  0 .
Example 7.
Solve the inequality: x 4  7x3  12x2  0 .
Solution:
x 4  7x3  12x2  0
 
x2  x2  7x  12  0
 
x2  x  3  x  4  0 

Answer:   x  3 or 4  x   or it can be written in another way x  ;3  
4;  . 
265
Example 8.
 
Solve the inequality: x2  9  x2  4x  3  0 . 
Solution:
x 2
 
 9  x2  4x  3  0
x  3  x  3  x  1  x  3  0
x  3  x  3  x  1  0
2
Root 3 is used two times (even amount of times – multiplicity of root 3 is 2), thus sign of the factorised
3;1  3 .
Answer: 3  x  1 or x = 3 or it can be written in another way x  
Example 9.
Solve the inequality: 5x2  6x  11  0 .
Solution:
5x2  6x  11  0 :(–1) – can be excluded from the inequality as always negative number.
5x2  6x  11  0

 11 

5 x  1  
x  5   0
 
:(5) – can be excluded from the inequality as always positive number.
 11 
x  1  x  0
5 
11  11 
Answer: 1  x  or it can be written in another way x  1;  .
5  5
266
Examples 10.
What is the smallest possible integer value of x for which (x – 8)  (x + 5) <0?
Solution:
Original inequality is already written is factorised form.
Thus,
(x – 8)  (x + 5) < 0

x  5;8 
So, the smallest possible integer solution is –4.
Answer: –4.
267
Solution of Rational Inequalities
Rational inequality always includes x in denominator and power of x must be positive integer.
I. To solve rational inequality we must factorise the expression completely (if it is possible !).
II. After this process we must use intervals for determining the sign of factorised expression.
III. Roots for which denominator is 0 cannot be included in final solution (division by 0).
IV. If some root (zero, solution) is used odd number of times (multiplicity of root is odd) then sign
of the factorised expression will be changed to opposite, when variable x passes the value of this
root.
V. If some root (zero, solution) is used even number of times (multiplicity of root is even) then sign
of the factorised expression will not be changed to opposite, when variable x passes the value of
this root.
VI. If factorised inequality contains always positive or always negative expression then we are able
to exclude this expression from the inequality:
1) if exluded expression is always positive then inequality sign will not be changed to opposite.
2) if exluded expression is always negative then inequality sign will be changed to opposite.
Example 1.
x3
Solve the inequality:  0.
x 5
Solution:
x3
0
x 5
Original inequality cannot be factorised anymore.
Thus,
Answer: x  3 or x  5 or it can be written in another way x  ;3  5;  .
268
Example 2.
x2  7x
Solve the inequality: 0.
x2  25
Solution:
x2  7x
0
x2  25
  0
x x  7
x  5  x  5
 
Answer: 5  x  0 or 5  x  7 or it can be written in another way x  5;0  5;7 .
Example 3.
x2  7x  10
Solve the inequality:  0.
9  x2
Solution:
x2  7x  10
0
9  x2
x  2  x  5  0
3  x  3  x
Roots –3 and 3 cannot be inclusive, because for these values of x denominator is 0.
  
Answer: x ≤ –5 or –3 < x ≤ –2 or x > 3 or it can be written in another way x  ;  5  3;  2  3;   . 
269
Example 4.
4
Solve the inequality:  5.
x
Solution:
4
5
x
4
5  0
x
4  5x
0
x
Simplified inequality cannot be factorised anymore.
Thus,
4  4
Answer: 0 < x ≤ or it can be written in other form x  0;  .
5  5 
Example 5.
4
Solve the inequality: x.
x
Solution:
4
x
x
4
x0
x
4  x2
0
x
2  x  2  x  0
x
Root 0 cannot be inclusive, because for this value of x denominator is 0.

Answer: 2 ≤ x < 0 or x ≥ 2 or it can be written in other form x  2;0  2;  . 
270
Example 6.
x2  8x  12
Solve the inequality:  0.
36  x2
Solution:
x2  8x  12
0
36  x2
x  2  x  6  0
6  x  6  x
Root 6 is used two times (even amount of times – multiplicity of 6 is 2), thus sign of factorised expression
will not be changed to opposite, when variable x passes value of 6.
   
Answer: x < –6 or 2 ≤ x < 6 or x > 6 or it can be written in other form x  ; 6  2;6  6;  . 
271

PART I (SAT Theory)

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PART I (SAT Theory)

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SAT, Subject Tests in Mathematics Level 1 & 2 and IGCSE Theory (I) Copyright © 2019 All Rights Reserved

Main Number Sets 14

Relationship Between Main Number Sets 16

Quadratic Equations ax2  bx  c  0 17

Incomplete Quadratic Equation 17

Complete Quadratic Equation 18

Solution of Complete Quadratic Equation if Coefficient b is Even 18

Private Cases for Complete Quadratic Equations 19

Factorizing of Quadratic Expression 20

Completing the Square 22

Properties of Certain Fractions 26

Periodic (Recurrent) Fractions 28

Certain Fraction as the Difference of Two Other Certain Fractions 30

Digits and Numbers 33

Digits Places of a Number 34

Rounding to Significant Figures 37

Number Notation According to its Digit Places 42

Properties of Positive Numbers 44

Factors and Multiples 46

Main Divisibility Tests 48

Additional Divisibility Tests 50

Prime and Composite Numbers 52

Finding the Number of Factors 55

GCF - Greatest Common Factor 60

LCM - Least Common Multiple . 61

Table of Consecutive Numbers 74

Statements on Even and Odd Numbers 74

Finding Amount of Integers in the Segment 77

Finding Amount of Multiples in the Segment 77

Sets and Operations on Them 79

Venn Diagram Problems 81

Properties of Powers and Roots 86

Changing the Subject of a Formula 88

Parts, Proportions and Percents

Finding the Value of a Number Part 99

Finding a Number from the Value of its Part 99

Finding Relationship of Parts Between Two Numbers 100

Direct Proportion 101

Inverse Proportion 102

Examples of Part and Proportion Problems 102

Finding the Value of a Percent from a Number 111

Finding a Number from the Value of its Percent 112

Finding Percent Relationship Between Two Numbers 112

Examples of Percent Problems 113

Mixture Problems 158

Relationship Between Revenue, Cost Price and Profit 166

Formulas of Simple Interest Increase (Decrease) 166

Formulas of Compound Interest Increase (Decrease) 168

Formulas of Compound Interest Increase (Decrease) with More

Frequent Interest Charge 174

Number of Solutions of Linear Equation 181

Number of Solutions of Linear Simultaneous Equations 187

Properties of Absolute Value 194

Properties of Even and Odd Roots 194

Clock Problems 197

Finding Number of Hours and Minutes Between Two Dates 198

Defined Operations Problems 201

Picking Number Problems 203

Work Problems 209

Rate Problems 217

All “Average Rate” problems 225

Coin Problems 229

Age Problems 233