Punctuation Marks

PUNCTUATION
These little marks can often be the cause of a lot of heartaches and headaches. Errors
in punctuation can often have unintended meanings.
Consider the difference the comma makes in these two sentences:

• Let’s eat, Grandpa.
• Let’s eat Grandpa.
However, punctuation doesn’t exist simply to cause problems; in fact, it was created to
help communication. These marks were invented to guide readers through passages to
let them know how and where words relate to each other. When you learn the rules of
punctuation, you equip yourself with an extensive toolset so you can better craft
language to communicate the exact message you want.
END PUNCTUATION
There are three punctuation marks that come at the end of a sentence: the period (.),
the question mark (?), and the exclamation point (!). A sentence is always followed by a
single space, no matter what the concluding punctuation is.
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 1
Periods
Periods indicate a neutral sentence, and as such are by far the most common ending
punctuation mark. They’ve been at the end of every sentence on this page so far. They
occur at the end of statements.
Question Marks
A question mark comes at the end of a question (How was

class today?). A rhetorical question is asked to make a
point, and does not expect an answer. Some questions are used principally as polite
requests (Would you pass the salt?). All of these questions can be categorized as direct
questions, and all of these questions require a question mark at their ends.
Indirect Questions
Indirect questions do not have question marks at their ends. They can be used in many
of the same ways as declarative ones, but they often emphasize knowledge or lack of
knowledge:
• I can’t guess how Tamika managed it.
• I wonder whether I looked that bad.
• Cecil asked where the reports were.
Notice how different word order is used in direct and indirect questions: in direct
questions the verb usually comes before the subject, while indirect questions the verb
appears second.
Exclamation Points
The exclamation point is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or

exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high volume, and often marks the end of a
sentence.
A sentence ending in an exclamation mark may be an exclamation (such as “Wow!” or
“Boo!”), or an imperative (“Stop!”), or may indicate astonishment: “They were the
footprints of a gigantic duck!”
The exclamation mark is sometimes used in conjunction with the question mark. This
can be in protest or astonishment (“Out of all places, the waterhole?!”). Informally,
exclamation marks may be repeated for additional emphasis (“That’s great!!!”), but this
practice is generally considered only acceptable in casual or informal writing, such as
text messages or online communication with friends and family.
Commas
the best and most instructive way for us to approach the comma is to remember its
fundamental function: it is a separator. Once you know this, the next step is to determine
what sorts of things generally require separation. This includes most transition words,
descriptive words or phrases, adjacent items, and complete ideas (complete ideas
contain both a subject and a verb). Commas are also used to separate similar items in
lists.
Coordinating Conjunctions
These are words that join two words or phrases of equal importance: for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, and so. When these conjunctions join two words or phrases, no comma is
necessary. Conjunctions are used to join two complete ideas, however, a, comma is
required:
• Paula and Lucca had a great time on their date.
• Minh turned off the lights but left the door unlocked.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction is a word that connects an independent clause to a
dependent clause. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. In other
words, it does not need any additional information to operate as a sentence. The
sentence "The student failed the test" is an example of an independent clause.
A dependent clause adds extra information to the main clause. These clauses cannot
stand by themselves and their meaning is dependent on the independent clause. They
are not complete sentences. For example, "because she didn't study" is not a complete
sentence.
However, combine the two clauses, and we have "The student failed the test because
she didn't study." A complete idea has been expressed and enough information has
been presented to fully explain the thought. What joined the two clauses? The word
“because.” And there we have our first subordinating conjunction.
Here are some common subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, because,
before, how, if, once, since, then, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, while.
Transition Words
Transition words add new viewpoints to your material; commas before and after
transition words help to separate them from the sentence ideas they are describing.
Transition words tend to appear at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence.
For Examples:
• Therefore, the natural gas industry can only be understood fully through an analysis
of these recent political changes.
• The lead prosecutor was prepared, however, for a situation like this.
• Sam was retired. Nevertheless, he wanted to help out.
As you can see from these examples, comma is always required after transition words.
Notice: These words require commas at the beginning or middle of a sentence. When
they appear between two complete ideas, however, a period or semicolon is required
beforehand.
Agreement / Addition / Similarity

The transition words like also, in addition, and, likewise, add information, reinforce ideas,
and express agreement with preceding material.
in the first place
not only ... but also
as a matter of fact
in like manner
in addition
coupled with
in the same fashion / way
first, second, third
in the light of
not to mention
to say nothing of
equally important
by the same token
again
to
and
also
then
equally
identically
uniquely
like
as
too
moreover
as well as
together with
of course
likewise
comparatively
correspondingly
similarly
furthermore
additionally
Opposition / Limitation / Contradiction

Transition phrases like but, rather and or, express that there is evidence to the contrary
or point out alternatives, and thus introduce a change the line of reasoning (contrast).
although this may be true
in contrast
different from
of course ..., but
on the other hand
on the contrary
at the same time
in spite of
even so / though
be that as it may
then again
above all
in reality
after all
but
(and) still
unlike
or
(and) yet
while
albeit
besides
as much as
even though
although
instead
whereas
despite
conversely
otherwise
however
rather
nevertheless
nonetheless
regardless
notwithstanding
Cause / Condition / Purpose
These transitional phrases present specific conditions or intentions.
in the event that
granted (that)
as / so long as
on (the) condition (that)
for the purpose of
with this intention
with this in mind
in the hope that
to the end that
for fear that
in order to
seeing / being that
in view of
If
... then
unless
when
whenever
while
because of
as
since
while
lest
in case
provided that
given that
only / even if
so that
so as to
owing to
inasmuch as
due to
Examples / Support / Emphasis

These transitional devices (like especially) are used to introduce examples as support,
to indicate importance or as an illustration so that an idea is cued to the reader.
in other words
to put it differently
for one thing
as an illustration
in this case
for this reason
to put it another way
that is to say
with attention to
by all means
important to realize
another key point
first thing to remember
most compelling evidence
must be remembered
point often overlooked
to point out
on the positive side
on the negative side
with this in mind
notably
including
like
to be sure
namely
chiefly
truly
indeed
certainly
surely
markedly
such as
especially
explicitly
specifically
expressly
surprisingly
frequently
significantly
particularly
in fact
in general
in particular
in detail
for example
for instance
to demonstrate
to emphasize
to repeat
to clarify
to explain
to enumerate
Effect / Consequence / Result

Some of these transition words (thus, then, accordingly, consequently, therefore,
henceforth) are time words that are used to show that after a particular time there was
a consequence or an effect.
Note that for and because are placed before the cause/reason. The other devices are
placed before the consequences or effects.
as a result
under those circumstances
in that case
for this reason
in effect
for
thus
because the
then
hence
consequently
therefore
thereupon
forthwith
accordingly
henceforth
Conclusion / Summary / Restatement

These transition words and phrases conclude, summarize and / or restate ideas, or
indicate a final general statement. Also, some words (like therefore) from the Effect /
Consequence category can be used to summarize.
as can be seen
generally speaking
in the final analysis
all things considered
as shown above
in the long run
given these points
as has been noted
in a word
for the most part
after all
in fact
in summary
in conclusion
in short
in brief
in essence
to summarize
on balance
altogether
overall
ordinarily
usually
by and large
to sum up
on the whole
in any event
in either case
all in all
Obviously
Ultimately
Definitely
Time / Chronology / Sequence

These transitional words (like finally) have the function of limiting, restricting, and
defining time. They can be used either alone or as part of adverbial expressions.
at the present time
from time to time
sooner or later
at the same time
up to the present time
to begin with
in due time
as soon as
as long as
in the meantime
in a moment
without delay
in the first place
all of a sudden
at this instant
first, second
immediately
quickly
finally
after
later
last
until
till
since
then
before
hence
since
when
once
about
next
now
formerly
suddenly
shortly
henceforth
whenever
eventually
meanwhile
further
during
in time
prior to
forthwith
straightaway
by the time
whenever
until now
now that
instantly
presently
occasionally
Space / Location / Place
These transition words are often used as part of adverbial expressions and have the
function to restrict, limit or qualify space. Quite a few of these are also found in the Time
category and can be used to describe spatial order or spatial reference.
in the middle
to the left/right
in front of
on this side
in the distance
here and there
in the foreground
in the background
in the center of
adjacent to
opposite to
here
there
next
where
from
over
near
above
below
down
up
under
further
beyond
nearby
wherever
around
between
before
alongside
amid
among
beneath
beside
behind
across

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PUNCTUATION

Consider the difference the comma makes in these two sentences:

A question mark comes at the end of a question (How was

The exclamation point is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or

Agreement / Addition / Similarity

in the first place

not only ... but also

in the same fashion / way

first, second, third

by the same token

Opposition / Limitation / Contradiction

although this may be true

of course ..., but

on the other hand

at the same time

in the event that

on (the) condition (that)

for the purpose of

with this intention

with this in mind

in the hope that

to the end that

for fear that

seeing / being that

Examples / Support / Emphasis

for one thing

for this reason

to put it another way

another key point

first thing to remember

most compelling evidence

point often overlooked

on the positive side

on the negative side

with this in mind

Effect / Consequence / Result

under those circumstances

for this reason

Conclusion / Summary / Restatement

in the final analysis

all things considered

in the long run

given these points

as has been noted

for the most part

Time / Chronology / Sequence

at the present time

from time to time

at the same time

up to the present time

in the first place

here and there

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