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Punctuation Marks
Punctuation Marks
These little marks can often be the cause of a lot of heartaches and headaches. Errors
in punctuation can often have unintended meanings.
However, punctuation doesn’t exist simply to cause problems; in fact, it was created to
help communication. These marks were invented to guide readers through passages to
let them know how and where words relate to each other. When you learn the rules of
punctuation, you equip yourself with an extensive toolset so you can better craft
language to communicate the exact message you want.
END PUNCTUATION
There are three punctuation marks that come at the end of a sentence: the period (.),
the question mark (?), and the exclamation point (!). A sentence is always followed by a
single space, no matter what the concluding punctuation is.
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 1
Periods
Periods indicate a neutral sentence, and as such are by far the most common ending
punctuation mark. They’ve been at the end of every sentence on this page so far. They
occur at the end of statements.
Question Marks
Indirect Questions
Indirect questions do not have question marks at their ends. They can be used in many
of the same ways as declarative ones, but they often emphasize knowledge or lack of
knowledge:
• I can’t guess how Tamika managed it.
• I wonder whether I looked that bad.
• Cecil asked where the reports were.
Notice how different word order is used in direct and indirect questions: in direct
questions the verb usually comes before the subject, while indirect questions the verb
appears second.
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 2
Exclamation Points
Commas
the best and most instructive way for us to approach the comma is to remember its
fundamental function: it is a separator. Once you know this, the next step is to determine
what sorts of things generally require separation. This includes most transition words,
descriptive words or phrases, adjacent items, and complete ideas (complete ideas
contain both a subject and a verb). Commas are also used to separate similar items in
lists.
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 3
Coordinating Conjunctions
These are words that join two words or phrases of equal importance: for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, and so. When these conjunctions join two words or phrases, no comma is
necessary. Conjunctions are used to join two complete ideas, however, a, comma is
required:
• Paula and Lucca had a great time on their date.
• Minh turned off the lights but left the door unlocked.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction is a word that connects an independent clause to a
dependent clause. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. In other
words, it does not need any additional information to operate as a sentence. The
sentence "The student failed the test" is an example of an independent clause.
A dependent clause adds extra information to the main clause. These clauses cannot
stand by themselves and their meaning is dependent on the independent clause. They
are not complete sentences. For example, "because she didn't study" is not a complete
sentence.
However, combine the two clauses, and we have "The student failed the test because
she didn't study." A complete idea has been expressed and enough information has
been presented to fully explain the thought. What joined the two clauses? The word
“because.” And there we have our first subordinating conjunction.
Here are some common subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, because,
before, how, if, once, since, then, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, while.
Transition Words
Transition words add new viewpoints to your material; commas before and after
transition words help to separate them from the sentence ideas they are describing.
Transition words tend to appear at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence.
For Examples:
• Therefore, the natural gas industry can only be understood fully through an analysis
of these recent political changes.
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 4
• The lead prosecutor was prepared, however, for a situation like this.
• Sam was retired. Nevertheless, he wanted to help out.
As you can see from these examples, comma is always required after transition words.
Notice: These words require commas at the beginning or middle of a sentence. When
they appear between two complete ideas, however, a period or semicolon is required
beforehand.
as a matter of fact
in like manner
in addition
coupled with
in the light of
not to mention
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 5
to say nothing of
equally important
again
to
and
also
then
equally
identically
uniquely
like
as
too
moreover
as well as
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 6
together with
of course
likewise
comparatively
correspondingly
similarly
furthermore
additionally
in contrast
different from
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 7
on the contrary
in spite of
even so / though
be that as it may
then again
above all
in reality
after all
but
(and) still
unlike
or
(and) yet
while
albeit
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 8
besides
as much as
even though
although
instead
whereas
despite
conversely
otherwise
however
rather
nevertheless
nonetheless
regardless
notwithstanding
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 9
Cause / Condition / Purpose
These transitional phrases present specific conditions or intentions.
granted (that)
as / so long as
in order to
in view of
If
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 10
... then
unless
when
whenever
while
because of
as
since
while
lest
in case
provided that
given that
only / even if
so that
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 11
so as to
owing to
inasmuch as
due to
in other words
to put it differently
as an illustration
in this case
that is to say
with attention to
by all means
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 12
important to realize
must be remembered
to point out
notably
including
like
to be sure
namely
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 13
chiefly
truly
indeed
certainly
surely
markedly
such as
especially
explicitly
specifically
expressly
surprisingly
frequently
significantly
particularly
in fact
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 14
in general
in particular
in detail
for example
for instance
to demonstrate
to emphasize
to repeat
to clarify
to explain
to enumerate
Note that for and because are placed before the cause/reason. The other devices are
placed before the consequences or effects.
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 15
as a result
in that case
in effect
for
thus
because the
then
hence
consequently
therefore
thereupon
forthwith
accordingly
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 16
henceforth
as can be seen
generally speaking
as shown above
in a word
after all
in fact
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 17
in summary
in conclusion
in short
in brief
in essence
to summarize
on balance
altogether
overall
ordinarily
usually
by and large
to sum up
on the whole
in any event
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 18
in either case
all in all
Obviously
Ultimately
Definitely
sooner or later
to begin with
in due time
as soon as
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 19
as long as
in the meantime
in a moment
without delay
all of a sudden
at this instant
first, second
immediately
quickly
finally
after
later
last
until
till
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 20
since
then
before
hence
since
when
once
about
next
now
formerly
suddenly
shortly
henceforth
whenever
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 21
eventually
meanwhile
further
during
in time
prior to
forthwith
straightaway
by the time
whenever
until now
now that
instantly
presently
occasionally
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 22
Space / Location / Place
These transition words are often used as part of adverbial expressions and have the
function to restrict, limit or qualify space. Quite a few of these are also found in the Time
category and can be used to describe spatial order or spatial reference.
in the middle
to the left/right
in front of
on this side
in the distance
in the foreground
in the background
in the center of
adjacent to
opposite to
here
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 23
there
next
where
from
over
near
above
below
down
up
under
further
beyond
nearby
wherever
around
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 24
between
before
alongside
amid
among
beneath
beside
behind
across
Material adapted by Professor Yidis Flores / Bibliographical Sources: Fundamentals of English Grammar, Betty Schrampfer Azar 25