1. What happened at Chernobyl?

The 1986 Chernobyl disaster triggered the release of substantial amounts of radioactive
contamination into the atmosphere in the form of both particulate and gaseous radioisotopes.
As of 2020 it is the most significant unintentional release of radioactivity into the environment.
The work of the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), suggests that
the Chernobyl incident cannot be directly compared to atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons
through a single number, with one being simply times larger than the other. This is partly
because the isotopes released at Chernobyl tended to be longer-lived than those released by
the detonation of atomic bombs
2. What are the consequences of that disaster?
 Ukraine, Belarus, and parts of Russia received substantial amounts of radiation exposure
after the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, but prior to the disaster the number of children
affected by thyroid cancer was relatively low globally. Every year about, "0.1–2.2
individuals per million of all aged under 15 years old worldwide" were affected by
thyroid cancer. Research has shown after the Chernobyl disaster the level of thyroid
cancer, particularly in children near the radiation exposure, has abnormally increased.
Although iodine-131 has a relatively short half-life compared to other radioactive
isotopes, iodine-131 made its way through the food chain through a milk-to-consumer
pathway. 95% of iodine-131 was ingested through milk shortly after the disaster.
Communities were unaware of the contamination deposited in soil and the transforming
capabilities of radiation into other food sources. Through the consumption of milk,
children received abnormal amounts of radiation exposure. Children are still being born
with severe birth defects and rare types of cancer in areas near to Chernobyl, three
decades on from the world's worst civil nuclear disaster.
 A large swath of pine forest killed by acute radiation was named the Red Forest. The
dead pines were bulldozed and buried. Livestock were removed during the human
evacuations. Elsewhere in Europe, levels of radioactivity were examined in various
natural food stocks. In both Sweden and Finland, fish in deep freshwater lakes were
banned for resale and landowners were advised not to consume certain types.
Information regarding physical deformities in the plant and animal populations in the
areas affected by radioactive fallout require sampling and capture, along with DNA
testing, of individuals to determine if abnormalities are the result of natural mutation,
radiation poisoning, or exposure to other contaminants in the environment (i.e.
pesticides, industrial waste, or agricultural run-off).
Animals living in contaminated areas in and around Chernobyl have suffered from a
variety of side effects caused by radiation. Oxidative stress and low levels of
antioxidants have had severe consequences on the development of the nervous system,
including reduced brain size and impaired cognitive abilities. It has been found that birds
living in areas with high levels of radiation have statistically significantly smaller brains,
which has shown to be a deficit to viability in the wild. Barn swallows that live in or
around Chernobyl have displayed an increased rate of physical abnormalities compared
to swallows from uncontaminated areas. Abnormalities included deformed toes,
tumors, deformed tail feathers, deformed beaks, and deformed air sacks. Birds with
these abnormalities have a reduced viability in the wild and a decrease in fitness.
 Moeller et al. claimed in 2007 that these effects were likely due to radiation exposure
and elevated teratogenic effects of radioactive isotopes in the environment although
these conclusions have been challenged. Various birds in the area appear to have
adapted to lower levels of radiation by producing more antioxidants, such as
glutathione, to help mitigate the oxidative stress.
Invertebrate populations (including bumblebees, butterflies, grasshoppers, dragonflies,
and spiders) significantly decreased. As of 2009, most radioactivity around Chernobyl
was in the top layer of soil, where many invertebrates live or lay their eggs. The reduced
abundance of invertebrates could have negative implications for the entire ecosystem
surrounding Chernobyl. The Chernobyl fallout had a major impact on both agricultural
and natural ecosystems in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, as well as in many other
European countries. Radionuclides were taken up by plants and later by animals.
 The issue of long-term effects of the Chernobyl disaster on civilians is very controversial.
The number of people whose lives were affected by the disaster is sizable. Over 300,000
people were resettled because of the disaster; millions lived and continue to live in the
contaminated area. On the other hand, most of those affected received relatively low
doses of radiation; there is little evidence of increased mortality, cancers or birth defects
among them; and when such evidence is present, existence of a causal link to
radioactive contamination is uncertain.
Epidemiological studies have been hampered in Ukraine, Russian Federation and Belarus
by a lack of funds, an infrastructure with little or no experience in chronic disease
epidemiology, poor communication facilities and an immediate public health problem
with many dimensions. Emphasis has been placed on screening rather than on well-
designed epidemiological studies. International efforts to organize epidemiological
studies have been slowed by some of the same factors, especially the lack of a suitable
scientific infrastructure.
Furthermore, the political nature of nuclear energy may have affected scientific studies.
In Belarus, Yury Bandazhevsky, a scientist who questioned the official estimates of
Chernobyl's consequences and the relevancy of the official maximum limit of 1,000
Bq/kg, was imprisoned from 2001 to 2005. Bandazhevsky and some human rights
groups allege his imprisonment was a reprisal for his publication of reports critical of the
official research being conducted into the Chernobyl incident. The economic damage
caused by the disaster is estimated at $235 billion.
 Twenty-five years after the incident, restriction orders had remained in place in the
production, transportation and consumption of food contaminated by Chernobyl fallout.
In the UK, only in 2012 the mandatory radioactivity testing of sheep in contaminated
parts of the UK that graze on lands was lifted. They covered 369 farms on 750 km2 and
200,000 sheep. In parts of Sweden and Finland, restrictions are in place on stock
animals, including reindeer, in natural and near-natural environments. "In certain
regions of Germany, Austria, Italy, Sweden, Finland, Lithuania and Poland, wild game
(including boar and deer), wild mushrooms, berries and carnivorous fish from lakes
reach levels of several thousand Bq per kg of caesium-137", while "in Germany,
caesium-137 levels in wild boar muscle reached 40,000 Bq/kg. The average level is 6,800
Bq/kg, more than ten times the EU limit of 600 Bq/kg", according to the TORCH 2006
report. The European Commission has stated that "The restrictions on certain foodstuffs
from certain Member States must therefore continue to be maintained for many years
to come" The ruins of the Chernobyl reactor, now contained under a metal shell, are still
highly radioactive and will likely remain so for up to 20,000 years.