PROPOSAL

               Proposals attempt to persuade an audience to take some form of direct action: to authorize a
project, accept a service or product, or otherwise support a specific plan for solving a problem
improving situation. Proposals are written for decision-makers: managers, executives, directors, clients,
board members of community leaders.
What should a proposal answer?

 What exactly is the problem or need< and why is this such a big deal?
 Why should we spend time, money and effort on this?
 What exactly is your pain, and how do we know this will work?
 Why should we accept the following things that seem wrong or costly about your plan?
 What actions are we supposed to take?
To answer the given questions, you should do these:

 Spell out the problem (and its causes) clearly and convincingly.
 Point out the benefits of solving the problem.
 Offer a realistic, cost-effective solution.
 Address anticipated objections to your solutions.
 Induce readers to act.

Proposal Types
According to Origin
1. Solicited               those that have been requested by a client, customer or employer
2. Unsolicited          those that have been specifically requested
According to Audience
1. Internal                written for members of your organization
2. External                written for clients or funding agencies
According to Purposes
1. Planning               offers solutions to a problem or suggestions for improvement
2. Research              requests for approval for research projects
3. Sales                      major marketing tool that offers a service or product

       
 DESIGNING PRESENTATIONS
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this discussion is to provide basic, comprehensive information to assist
you in developing effective presentations. The use of visual aids, coupled with good public
speaking skill, work hand-in-hand to create effective presentations. Your speaking style and
stage presence are personal talents that you can refine with much practice and experience. Each
aspect of effective presentations, however, could not be detailed in this discussion. Instead, much
emphasis is given to visual aids which are essential to all successful presentations.
DESIGNING THE PRESENTATION
There is no secret to developing an effective presentation. Establishing your objectives,
planning and organizing your material, and using appropriate visual aids are the essential
ingredients. The recipe or effective presentations calls for a all three ingredients, and you must
use them in the order in which they are presented here. By establishing your objectives first, you
can prepare material that supports each objective. The use of visual aids will move you further
along toward your objectives by frustrating and emphasizing your ideas more effectively than
words alone. Let’s begin, then at the beginning: As you start to design your presentation, you
must ask yourself, “What do I want to accomplish by making this presentation”
Establishing the Objectives
For any successful presentation, you must know your objectives. It is these objectives
that drive your presentation and move the audience to your end goals. Your end goals may be
that the attenders take a particular action, adopt a new perspective, or respond to facts and
information. Establishing these goals requires careful planning. The key to designing your
presentation is determining these objectives. After all, they become the foundation upon which
your content, organization, and visual aids are built.
Establishing the objectives for your presentation requires an analysis of your own goals, as well
as your audience’s needs and expectations. By considering the nature of your audience, you can
more easily determine what you will present and how you will present it. An audience analysis
will enable you to:

 Select appropriate points of emphasis in your presentation 

 Develop a useful level of detail
 Choose and prepare appropriate visual aids
 Create a tone that is sensitive to your audience’s circumstances
Your presentations will ideally for a bridge between something you have and your audience
wants.
Let the audience analysis influence the form of information presented so you can create this
bridge.
Planning and Organizing your Material
After you have determined the characteristics of your audience, then you are ready to
plan and organize your material. The tips listed below will assist you in tailoring your approach
accordingly. Keep in mind that the use of visual aids will help to produce effective one-way or
two-way communication. Many factors are involved in choosing these visual aids, and the type
of interaction you want to develop with the audience will influence your choice.
 *Do not wait to prepare your presentation while on your way to the training session. You cannot
do your best at presenting or persuading by “winging it”
 *At a minimum, prepare an outline of goals, major issues to be discussed and information to be
presented to support main themes.
* Limit content to your major point and no more than five key supporting points.

* Analyze your audience. Prepare your content considering such things as whether they are
likely to be friendly or unfriendly, lay or technical in their background, and whether they want
only to listen or to respond and contribute.
* Select appropriate visual aids and a presentation style that will be effective in the physical
setting for your training session.
USING VISUAL AIDS 
Visual aids help your presentation make things happen. Visual aids help you reach your
objectives by providing emphasis to whatever is being said. Clear pictures multiply the
audience’s level of understanding of the material presented, and they should be used to reinforce
your message, clarity points, and create excitement.
Visual artists involve your audience and require a change from one activity to another:
from hearing to seeing. When you use visual aids, their use tends to encourage gestures and
movement on your part. This extra movement reinforces the control that you, the speaker, need
over the presentation. The use of visual aids, then, is mutually beneficial to the audience and you.
Visual aids add impact and interest to a presentation. They enable you to appeal to more
than one sense at the same time, thereby increasing the audience’s understanding and retention
level. With pictures, the concepts or ideas you present are no longer simply words – but words
plus images. The chart below cites the effectiveness of visual aids on audience retention.
Oral- 10%
Visual Alone- 35%
Visual & Oral- 65%
People tend to eye-minded and the impacts visual aids bring to a presentation are, indeed,
significant. The studies, below, reveal interesting statistics that support these findings:
* In many studies, experimental psychologists and educators have found that retention of
information three days after a meeting or other event is six times greater when information is
presented by visual and oral means than when the information is presented by the spoken word
alone.
* Studies by educational researches suggest that approximately 83% of human learning occurs
visually, and the remaining 17% through the other senses – 11% through hearing, 3.5% through
smell, 1% through taste , and 1.5% through touch.
* The studies suggest that three days after an event, people retain 10% of what they heard from
an oral presentation, 35% from a visual presentation, and 65% from a visual and oral
presentation.
The use of visual aids, then, is essential to all presentations. Without them, the impact of your
presentation may leave the audience shortly after the audience leaves you. By preparing a
presentation with visual aids that reinforce your main ideas, you will reach your main ideas, you
will reach your audience for more effectively, and, perhaps, continue to “touch” them long after
the presentation ends.
ADDING THE VISUAL DIMENSION
Visuals add an important dimension to a presentation, and you, the speaker, must capitalize on
this dimension. It is critical that you prepare visual aids that reinforce your major points,
stimulate your audience, and work well in the physical setting of your presentation.
Visual aids and audio-visuals include a wide variety of communication products, including flip
charts, overhead transparencies, slides, audio-slide shows, and video tapes. Demonstrating a
process or simply passing around a sample of some equipment or model are also effective way to
clarity messages visually. If visual aids are poorly selected or inadequately done, they will
distract from what are you saying. The tips listed below will help you in the selection and
preparation of visual aids.  

Tips on Preparing Visual Aids

 Start with at least a rough outline of the goal and major points of the presentation
before selecting the visual aid(s). For example a particular scene or slides may trigger
ideas for the presentation, providing the power of images. Do not proceed to far without
first determining what you want to accomplish, what your audience wants to gain, and
what the physical setting requires.
 Each element of an audio-visual product- a single slide or page of a flip chart
presentation for example, -must be simple and contain only one message. Placing more
than one message on a single image confuses the audience and diminishes the potential
impact of visual media. Keep visual aids BRIEF.
 Determine the difference between what you will say and what the visual aid will
show. Do not read straight from your visuals.
  Ask the audience to read or listen, not both: visual aids should not provide reading
material while you talk. Rather, use them to illustrate or highlight your points.
 Give participants paper copies of various graphic aids used in your presentation. They
will be able to write on the paper copies and have them for future reference.
 Assess your cost constraints. An overhead transparency presentation can always be used
in a formal environment if 35mm slides are too expensive.
 Account for production time in your planning and selection process. Slides must be
developed, videotape edited – you do not want to back yourself against a wall because the
visuals are not ready. You can often get production work done in 24-28 hours, but it is
much more expensive than work that is done on an extended schedule.   
 Use local photographs and examples when discussing general problems and issues.
While a general problem concerning welding safety, for example, may elude someone,
illustrating with a system in use at the site can bring the issue time.
 Use charts and graphs to support the presentation of numerical information.
 Develop sketches and drawings to convey various designs and plans.
 When a preparing graphics make sure they are not too crowded in detail. Don not
over-uses color. See       that the line detail, letters, and symbols are bold enough to be
seen from the back of the room.      
 Do not use visual aids for persuasive statements, qualifying remarks, emotional
appeals, or any type of rhetorical statement.
 If you have handouts, don’t let them become a distraction during the presentation.
They should provide reinforcement following your address. Consider giving them out
after the presentation, unless the audience will use them during the presentation or will
need to review them in advance of the presentation.
 Practice presenting the full program using graphic materials so you are familiar with
their use and order. If you use audio-visual materials, practice working with them and the
equipment to get the timing down right.
 Seek feedback on the clarity of your visuals and do so easily enough to allow yourself
time to make needed adjustments.
The question of what to use and how to choose is an excellent one. The next several pages will
help you answer this question by identifying the advantages and limitations of each type of
visual, as well as the development techniques required in preparing each. By looking at these
pros and cons, you can more easily decide what will work best for your presentation.

Audio-Slide Show

Auto-slide shows are self-contained having prerecorded sound tracks that ate coordinated with
slides by use of electric synchronizes. The recording tape includes electronic signals that activate
a connected slide projector so that an image appears simultaneously with the appropriate voice
message, music or sound effects. Audio slide programs can serve audiences ranging from a
handful to a couple of hundred people.
Some key points to remember when preparing your visuals:

 Simplicity is a key to gaining your audience’s attention and retaining their interest.
 Focus on one idea at a time. To include three or four ideas in a single visual usually
detracts from your presentation and is apt to confuse your audience.
 Do not repeat the text of your presentation work-for-word on the visual.
 Keep statements simple and to the point, using key words and phrases.
 Use only essential information which supports your statements: for example, do not
project all the statistics you are using. Pick only the key ones.
 Experiment with a variety of layouts to determine the most effective ones. Remember
that people retain information best through a picture or a chart than words.
 Consider audience size. Visuals must be prepared properly so that they are clear to even
those at the back of a large room.
 Consider handling out copies of your visual presentation. Be sure to have sufficient
quantity available for audience.

General Guidelines
 Keep it simple. It is easier for the audience if you use three simple visuals than a single
complex one.
 Keep your audience in mind when designing your visual aids. What terminology will
they understand? What examples have meaning for them?
 Proofread very carefully. Try to have someone else proof in addition to yourself. It is
hard to overlook errors when they are magnified in front of an audience. Remember, even
a small error in such a focal part of your program can undermine the creditability of your
entire presentation.
 Fonts should be clear and easy to read. Use Helvetica or similar san serif fonts.
Decorative fonts are not recommended. Use only one typeface per visual. Add variety by
using different sizes and bolding tittle lines.
 Colored fonts should have a dark background (dark blue is best) with primary titles in
either yellow or white and secondary titles in the remaining color. Details should be
shown in clear bright, light contrasting colors. Use no more than three colors per visual.
 Avoid using shades of the background color for titles or details
 Avoid commercial endorsements. A photograph of apparatus which incidentally includes
a trade name is allowed, but a table comparing attributes of identified vendor’s products
will not be allowed. There is much gray area in between these two examples: discuss any
concerns you may have with your session chair. The display of the logo of the company
with which you are associated is restricted for use to the first PowerPoint slide or visual
(usually the title slide). This restriction applies to logos of educational institutions as
well. Be particularly careful to avoid using company/school PowerPoint templates that
feature a logo or other form of identification on every slide.
 Test your presentation ahead of time. Make sure it is easy to read from an appropriate
distance, and that everything is in the proper order.
Text Pointers
The text (or word) portion of presentations is sued to state facts or objectives. When lines of
text alone do not illustrate your point, a chart, graph or graphic might be more appropriate.
  Avoid using more than six or seven words (30-40 characters) per line, six or seven lines
per visual. Make sure type is well spaced and not crowded.
 Eliminate words that do not add meaning, for example: the, an, etc.
 Avoid complete sentences. Use bulleted phrases.
 Be consistent in grammatical construction of lists; for example, use all verbs or use all
noun phrases.
 Use 36 point type for all times and for the text of visual aids to be used in very large
rooms.
 Use at least 18 point type for the main text in other than the largest rooms.
 Use bullets at the beginning of lines to separate ideas.
 If you are using PowerPoint, use functions that allow you to build information, bullet by
bullet, on a slide, to keep the audience from reading ahead.
  
Graphs, Charts and Diagrams
Tabular Charts
Tabular charts are used to show raw data and numerical relationships. Use only a few key
examples on the visual to illustrate your point.
Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are used to show absolute data or relationships and comparisons. Be sure to
include scales and values. Be sure the type is legible.
Pie Charts 
Pie charts are used to show absolute data or relationships or parts of a whole. No more
than eight segments are recommended.
Line Graphs
Line graphs are ideal for illustrating trends or performance over time. Your scale should
include significant dates and milestones. Graphs should include no more than three lines. In
black and white visuals, the lines should be distinctly different, e.g., dashed, solid, dots, etc. In
color visuals, the lines should be easily differentiated colors which contrast well with the
background.
Block or Process Diagrams
Block or process diagrams are good for illustrating structural relationships and designs.
Graphics of this type show how each piece contributes to the whole. Avoid overcrowding. Limit
your chart your no more than 10 simple geometric shapes and titles connected by lines and
arrows.
Photographs
Good quality photographic visuals can make a major contribution to your presentation.
Be extra careful with photographs: they must be very crisp and clear, high contrast between light
and dark areas. Do not superimpose text over the image. Be sure to test your photos, projecting
them to the size they will be when used to ensure that they are clear and easily recognizable.
RULES IN ORAL PRESENTATIONS
Rule 1: Talk to the Audience
Rule 2: Less is more
Rule 3: Only Talk When You Have Something to Say
Rule 4: Make the Take-Home Message Persistent
Rule 5: Be Logical
Rule 6: Treat Floor as a Stage
Rule 7: Practice and Time your Presentation
Rule 8: Use Visuals Sparingly but Effectively      
Rule 9: Review Audio and/or Video of Your Presentations
Rule 10: Provide Appropriate Acknowledgements  

DIFFERENT STAGES AND PART OF THE PROJECT

PARTS /CONTENTS OF A PROJECT PROPOSAL

1. Project Title - should be clear and specific phrase 
2. Introduction- provides an overview of the project
3. Rationale- may include theoretical framework statistics and figures, abstract.
4. Feasibility Study-conducted to determine if the project is doable/plausible
5. Market Survey- identifies the competition. The features and benefits offered by the
competing products and services, industry standards, the possible opportunities of the
proposed product
6. Beneficiaries- particularly if the proposed product/service is not for sale 
      Target Market- if the proposed product/service is for sale
7. Objectives- must be specific, measurable/quantifiable, attainable, realistic & time bound
8. Budget
9. Project Description
10. Project Schedule
a. Timeframe
b. Duration
c. Activities
d. Personnel
e. Output
11. Project Limitation and Risk Assessment
12. Related literature
 APPROACHES TO MARKET ANALYSIS
1. By Interview
a. Open- allows respondents to comment, elaborate or share their opinions.
b. Closed- provides limited and specific responses to questions
2. By Questionnaire-
Using survey sheets to gather information from respondents
3. By Focus Group Discussion-
With representatives of the market/beneficiaries
4. By Immersion-
Staying in the locality to personally experience or observe the ways of life of the
locals 
STAGES IN THE DESIGN PROCESS
1. Empathise
2. Define
3. Ideate
4. Prototype
5. Test
**** The design thinking process is broken up into five specific design thinking stages:
empathy, definition, ideation, prototyping, and testing
 Analyze the situation
o Before beginning the design, sort out what problem you are trying to address.

 Write a brief
o Write a short statement giving the general outline of the problem to be solved.

 Research the problem

o Sometimes a problem can be solved "straight out of your head," but in most cases
you will need to gain some new information and knowledge.

 Write a specification
o This detailed description of the problem spells out what the design must achieve
and what limitations will affect the final solution.

 Work out possible solutions

o Combine your ideas with information obtained from your research to suggest
several possible design solutions. Sketch several possibilities on paper.

 Select a preferred solution

o Decide which solution to develop. Although the chosen solution should, ideally,
be the one that best satisfies the specifications, other constraints such as time,
cost, or skills may limit the decision.
 Prepare working drawings and plan ahead
o Draw the chosen design including all the details that are important to its
construction.
 Construct a prototype
o Make the product. In industry a model is usually built first and the final product is
developed from it, but in most classrooms, the model is the final product.

 Test and evaluate the design

o Testing is ongoing as the construction progresses, but a final test of the entire
system or model proves if the project does the job for which it is designed. Look
back at the specifications and check the requirements carefully. Ask such
questions as: How well does the design function? Does the design look good? Is
the product safe to use? Were suitable materials used? How could I have
improved on my design?

 Write a report
o The report provides evidence of your work in analysis, planning, designing,
carrying out the practical work, evaluating, and communicating.

THE TECHNICAL WRITING PROCESS

1. Plan
2. Structure
3. Write
4. Review
5. Publish

 STEP 1 – PLAN
‘If you fail to plan, you plan to fail.’
- All projects need to be planned – at least at some level. Whilst you don’t have to go
create a detailed Gantt chart for every technical writing project, it certainly helps if you
answer some of the following questions before you put pen to paper. The results of this
planning may be as simple as some bullet points jotted down in your notepad – or you
may find that simply going through this as a mental exercise is sufficient.
- When you’re planning to write technical documents, you should ask yourself:
o Scope – How many documents do I need to write? What are their key
characteristics? Am I going to publish them in multiple formats – if so, are there
any production requirements I should be aware of?
o Timing – How long do I need to schedule for review cycles? What’s the final
deadline?
 o Process – What are the high-level steps that I need to follow to create the
documents?
- Along with these basic questions (which apply to almost any project – not just technical
writing) there are some specific writing-related questions that you’ll need to consider in
your documentation project:
o Audience – who am I writing for? Do they have a sophisticated command of
language? What are their education levels?
o Reviewers / Subject Matter Experts – these are the people who’ll lend their
technical expertise in the creation of the documents and review them for accuracy
o Existing information
o Style guide / templates

 STEP 2 – STRUCTURE

- A structure is the backbone of your document – the hierarchy of headings that define the
logical order that it will progress. Structure is absolutely essential to successful
documents, and it’s something that you should develop before you start writing. A well-
structured document is one that has had thought go into it beforehand, which means
you’re less likely to need to rehash it later on.
- It’s important to understand that structure isn’t a straightjacket – it’ll evolve and change
as you write and review the document. After you publish, you may end up with a very
different-looking document to the one you envisaged – that’s perfectly normal and there’s
nothing at all wrong with it!
- There are a number of common structural approaches when it comes to technical
documents:
o Narrative structure – The traditional approach – intro, body, conclusion
o Process-based structure – Common in technical documentation such as
procedures and user guides
o Library structure – A collection of articles on a common topic, loosely
structured
o System-based structure – Describing the components of a system such as an
auto manual
- Whatever approach you choose, you’ll need to work with your subject matter experts to
understand how the structure you’ve developed will accomplish the purpose you’ve set
out to do – whether it’s explaining how a product works, how to carry out a procedure,
presenting information in a tender or sales document, and so on.

 STEP 3 – WRITE

- Writing is where you convert your bare-bones table of contents and notes into a series of
drafts, culminating in a draft that’s ready for formal review. Contrary to popular
impression, writing is only about 20-30% of the process in a well-planned document –
much of the effort goes into planning, structuring, and reviewing your work. In fact, the
 more time you spend planning and structuring your work, the less time you’re likely to
spend on writing.
- There are a few time-honored (as well as some new) techniques that technical writers
draw on:
o KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid!)
o Plain English
o Five Ws (and One H)
o Inverted pyramid
o Verb-noun structure
o Active voice
- These techniques will help you write better documentation – documentation that your
audience finds useful, engaging and a pleasure to read. Of course, in order to apply these
techniques, you need to have a decent grasp of the English language.

 STEP 4 – REVIEW

- I like to think of review as the polishing stage. It’s where your document gets the trial by
fire, so to speak, of having others formally review it, as well as undergoing another very
important task – editing and proofing.
- If you haven’t already done so, you’ll now need to define who’s responsible for
reviewing what (also called a Review Matrix), or validating it if you’ve been proactive
and defined it during the planning step – which you should aim to do.
o Review by subject matter experts
o Testing a procedure / instruction to make sure you / a subject matter expert
can follow the steps
o Peer review by a colleague
o Editing and proofing
- The point of all these activities is to apply the appropriate level of quality control to
ensure your document is accurate, useful, usable, and so on – in other words, good
enough to publish. It’s not uncommon for documents to spend most of their time in the
review step – and by the end, they can be completely unrecognizable compared to how
they started.
- Review also involves an element of writing – documents will be reviewed, then revised.
High-profile documents – the ones where it really pays to put the effort in to making sure
they’re perfect – will be reviewed and revised many times before they’re ready to
publish.
- The final – and most crucial – aspect of review is sign off. This is the point where both
you – as the writer – and your reviewers are satisfied that your document is in a fit state
to be published to the world at large – whether that’s your team, company intranet, or the
entire world!
o Levels of Editing diagram – Defining the different levels of review such as
proofreading, copy editing, structural editing, and so on
o Editing Checklist – A checklist that guides you through the different levels of
editing
 o Editing Sheet – A document that professional editors use when editing a large
and complex document
o Review Log – To track the feedback received and actions taken to close each item
out

 STEP 5 – PUBLISH

- Publishing can be a complicated process – or it can be extremely easy. Publication is

where writers manufacture and launch the final product. This might be as straightforward
as emailing an approved document to your manager, or uploading it to a content
management system or intranet. On the other hand, it might involve some fairly
complicated logistics.
- I’ve personally been involved in projects where production involved graphic design,
translation into 40+ languages, production of multiple regional variations of the
documentation, preparing ‘docupacks’ for shipping to multiple regions worldwide… this
sort of thing is a real logistical feat, and it’s something you should consider early on in
the process – preferably whilst you’re still planning a document. Steps such as graphic
design, translation and print production can involve substantial time, effort and cost.
Stages of Project Proposal

1. Planning Stage
2. Preparation Stage
3. Proposal Presentation
4. Project Implementation
5. Post-Project Review and Analaysis