A HISTORY OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY Among the Greeks and Romans From the Earliest Ages Till the Fall of the Roman Empire By E H BUNBURY With a New Introduction by W H STAHL Brooklyn College SECOND EDITION In Two Volumes — Volume I DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.Copyright © 1959 by Dover Publications, Inc All rights reserved under Pan American and International Copyright Conventions This new Dover edition first published m 1969 1s an unabridged and unaltered republication of the second edition published m 1883 with a new mtroduction by Professor W H Stahl, Brooklyn College Manufactured in the United States of America Dover Pubheations, Inc 180 Varick Street New York 14, NY.INTRODUCTION TO DOVER EDITION NO field of science provides a moze graphic record of man’s quest for knowledge and his attempts to gain control of his environment than the fields of geography and cartography Primitive men, moving about in search of food or a better livelihood, are aware of the advantages afforded by even rude maps The more perilous their journeys, the more reliable their maps are apt to be Frame maps, constructed from palm branches and sea shells, have enabled South Sea Islanders to navigate with safety over vast stretches of open water from one tiny atoll to another But it 1s when man emerges from reliance upon mere route-charts to the stage of contemplating the Jarger world beyond his horizons that he discloses the peculiar characteristics of his mind After he has made tentative con- tacts with the outer world, through his own explorations or the travel accounts of others, his reactions to those experiences, whether he records them verbally or diagrammatically, reveal the qualities of his intelligence It would be hard to find a truer index of the sntellectual or scientific sophistication of a people, at any given stage of their development, than the manner in which they conceive of the earth about them Before the time of the ancient Grecks, geography and cartography were in a primitive state The early Babylonians, for example, had developed remarkable precision and skill an observing and predicting the orderly movements of celestial bodies, but their conceptions of the earth were what one mught expect of a relatively isolated people A Babylonian clay tablet, dating from the Persian period, depicts the earth as a arcular plane, bisected by the Euphrates River, with the capital city of Babylon located near the center and a few adjacent countries bordering upon an enarcling ocean. Com- pare this crude representation with the vivid geographical descriptions found in Homer's Jhad_ and Odyssey, ranging from famalar details about localities in the eastern Mediter- jitv STAHL ranean area to fanciful accounts of dubtously :dentfiable regions along the western Mediterranean coast Homer lived. during the great age of Greek colonization that took place in the eighth and seventh centuies BC, when adventurous Greeks, diiven fiom then homeland by adverse economic or political conditions, were establishing maritime colonies from the east coast of Spain to the fai icgions of the Black Sea A strange and wonderful world was being unfolded to a natwially curious people The early Greek colonisis, in maintaming close contacts with ther mother ciues, were providing them with a rich store of geographical information It 1s not sur- prising that the Gieck cities along the Asta Minor coast that took a leading part in the colonizing movement became centers of geographical and cosmographical speculation Miletus alone established more than forty daughter cities and she could proudly claim as her citizens the three leading figures in early cosmography and geography, Thales, Anaxumander, and Hecataeus Bunbury’s History of Ancient Geography presents a full account of one of the most momentous periods in the history of geography A mere examination of Bunbury’s painstakingly reconstructed maps of the known world, as concerved by Home, Hecataeus, Herodotus, Lratosthenes, Strabo, and Ptolemy, will enable the reader to comprehend the stages through which the Greeks developed their world geography from the blurred and obscure notions of Mediterranean mariners, as related by Homer, to the ostensibly, though not actually, mathematical geography of Ptolemy We see that Homen’s concepuons of the outer world were so indistinct that nothing move than a tentative sketch 1s permissible Heca- taeus’ map, though comprehending the entire known world, 4s still reminiscent of the Babylonian world-map imasmuch as ut conceives of the earth as a circular plane, surrounded by a niver-like ocean, with Greece supplanting Babylon at the center. Herodotus was sufficiently sophisticated, through his own travels and the reports of navigators, to appreciate that the known world was not circular nor its continents sym-INTRODUCTION TO DOVER EDITION v metrical and that, while an ocean flowing about the African continent was admissible, there was no evidence for a circpmambient northern ocean Eratosthenes became the founder of the science of geography when he insisted that a true map of the world would have to be based upon astro- nomucally determined positions His world map is recon- structed upon an regular grid whose parallels aligned posi- tons that were reputed in his day to be in the same latitude Observe, however, that Eratosthenes has remtroduced a north- ern ocean, with the Caspian opening upon it as a gulf Strabo’s map incorporates a considerable amount of new data, much of it the result of Roman conquests Ptolemy's map represents the culmination of ancient geography It appears to be math- ematical, but actually there were very few positions whose Jatttudes had been accurately determmed in his day and accurate longitudes depend upon precise chronometers and astronomical instruments So Ptolemy was obliged to depend upon the same raw data as his predecessors, the dead-reckoning of travelers and seamen Consequently his map 1s full of gross errors but, even so, it 1s a magnificent achievement It was so impressive that it stifled all scientific development in cartog- raphy unti] the great age of exploration and, even a century after the voyages of Columbus and Magellan had exposed his erroneous conceptions, maps and atlases continued to be pub- lighed mm the Ptolemaic style The Greeks were primarily interested in two aspects of geography, coastal charts and mathematical geography, and both these interests reflect national traits—their love of sailing and of abstract thinking As a maritime people who had to depend mainly upon the seas for distant communications, they quickly appreciated the need for carefully compiled pulot- guides A number of noteworthy accounts of Greek coastal voyages, to which they gave the name pertplus, have come down to us. On the other hand, Greeks of the early period had little interest 1n internal geography Not untl historians entered the field with graphic accounts of military expeditions did Greek readers have an opportunity to gain an intimatevi STAHL knowledge of distant mterior regions Xenophon’s vivid report of the march of ten thousand Greeks deep into Persia (401 BC) and of their subsequent retreat across Armenia to the eastern shores of the Black Sea opened up new geographical vistas But it was Alexander's bicathtaking expedition to India, recorded by historians who accompanied him, that really turned Greck minds to world geography The Roman con- quest of Greece, beginning carly in the second century BC, continued the process of making cosmopolites of the Greeks, Greek intellectuals were being drawn to Rome, where they became interested in learning about the vast 1egions of western Europe that were falling before the Roman sword Impressed. by Roman achievements Greek philosophers were developing syncretistic tendenctes that were to manifest concepts of world citizenship and of the Roman empire as the fulfilment of the divine order on earth Stoic intellectuals like Polybius, Posido nius, and Strabo, each of them an intimate of at least one Roman general, came to realize that a grasp of world geog- raphy was a necessary loundation for their scientific and historical writings At the very trme that Roman military campaigns were stimu- lating Grecks to a greater interest in mmtetnal and world geography, the traditional Greek focus upon periplus geog- raphy was having a detrimental effect upon Roman geog- raphers During the early empire Roman ofhcrals were able to travel over fifty thousand mules of paved highway and had in their possession oficial maps in which the distances over this vast network had been accurately compiled from Roman milestones Roman geographers could have made extensive use of existing official data but mstead we find Mela and Pliny preferring to adopt the antiquated Greek periplus framework for their geographical works. Pliny was a top-level administrator with considerable experience in far-flung prov- ances of the empire He 1s known to have had access to the voluminous geographical data accumulated im Marcus Agrippa’s imperial survey, and he actually did make frequent use of these materials, yet he adopts as the tramework of hisINTRODUCTION TO DOVER EDITION van books on world geography two preposterous circumnaviga- tions of the Eurasian and African continents In his focus upon coastal areas Pliny gives scanty attention to interior geography We gather from this discussion that the Greeks did not develop most aspects ot geography to the high level they attained in some other branches of science Them accomplish- ments in mathematical geography, however, are among the most impressive developments in the entire history of science Beginning with Eratosthenes, who, about 225 BC, achieved a nearly coirect figure for the earth’s circumference, and con- tunuing through the contributions of Hipparchus and Marius of Tyre to the culminating work of Ptolemy, which lays down the principles of scientific cartography, we have a record of remarkable scientific attainment Bunbury 1s particularly expert in his discussion of this aspect of Greek geography It would be fitting, in this republication of Bunbury’s monumental work, 1f we could append a brief biographical sketch of England's greatest classical geographer Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury was graduated with distinction in Classics from Cambridge University and combined tus love for the Classics with a lifelong interest in geography He was elected a Fellow in the Royal Geographical Society early in hife and served as a Member of the Council of that Society for two years It 1s a frustrating experience to seek to glean snformation about hus life, beyond the salient points of his career, from published records One 1s compelled to resort to obituary notices, and then the reason for the difficulty 1s made plain The notice in The London Times draws attention to his extraordinary shy- ness, his painfully embarrassed manner in company, and his reluctance to be drawn into learned discussions Intimate acquaintances hardly knew of his scientific interests, not to mention the eminent regard in which he was held by scientific colleagues But editors in the scholarly and scientific world knew his true worth Much of Bunbury’s scholarship was lavished upon articles in encyclopaedias, mn particular William Smuth’s Dictionaryvut STAHL of Greek and Roman Geograpliy, but the present work 1s his perennial monument Bunbury's History of Ancient Geography has been acknowledged as the standard work in English, by virtually all scholars who have labored im this field It traces its durability to the thorough manner im which the author handles the ancient geogiaphical somces New light will constantly be thrown upon ancient geography by aichacologi- cal evidence and by textual emendation, but the ancient sources will ever serve as the basis of our knowledge To go beyond Bunbury 1s to work with the ougimal Gieck and Latin texts, many of which have not been translated into Enghsh Bunbury’s chapters on Homenic geography, Icrodotus, the Alexander expedition, Eratosthenes, Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy are exhaustive studies of monograph scope No less indicative of the labors involved in the preparation of these volumes are the chapters or sections devoted to minor geog- raphers and to several men who, though not regarded as geographers, made important contributions to the develop- ment of geographical knowledge By selecting geogiaphical passages scattered through then extant works or collectung quotations found in other authors, Bunbury was able to pro- vide coherent sets of geogiaphical views of these minoi figuies Among the more significant names we might menuon Heca- taeus, Nearchus, Megasthenes, Pytheas, Hipparchus, Polybrus, Agathaichides, Artemidorus, Tacitus, and Marinus of Tyre Also worthy of special notice are the extended discussions of mulitary campaigns and then bearing upon geography The republicauon of Bunbury's History will be welcomed by historians of science in many fields Copies of this work had become scarce and much rarer were scts with Bunbuny’s valuable maps intact The esteem that these maps have enyoyed as evident from the continual use that has been made of them an copies and reproductions right up to the present. February, 1959 W H STAHL Baldwin, New York Brooklyn CollegePREFACE. oe Tur present work is designed to supply a deficiency, which I have reason to believe has been felt by classical scholars. While there 1s no want of elementary trea- tises on ancient geography, and the requirements ot the more advanced student are fully answered by the elaborate articles im Dr Smuth’s Dictionary of Ancient Geography, so far as relates to the details of particular places and countries, 1f is remarkable that there does not exist m the Enghsh language any such lustoncal review of the subject as a whole, as 1s to be found in the mntroductions to the works of Mannert, Ukert, and Forhiger. But even these treatises, besides bemg con- fined to students who are famihar with the German language, can hardly be said to meet the demands of either the scholar or the geographer at the present day Ukert’s introductory volume was published as far back as 1816, and that of Mannert still earlier, while the more recent work of Forbiger (ztself published in 1841) is so disfigured by the accumulation of cumbrous and unnecessary lists of names as to be altogether repulsive to the Enghsh reader. Since the date of the works in question, not only has there been a great advance in classical scholarship, and the critical study of the an- cient authorities; but still greater progress has been 1xx PREFACE made in the detailed examimation of the regions and localities described by ancient geographers, many of which were very imperfectly known m modern times down to a recent period. It is not too much to say that there 1s scarcely a disputed question in ancient geography upon which some additional hght has uot been thrown by local 1esearches and investigations within the last fifty years. Tt has been my object in the following pages to pre- sent to the reader the restrlts of these recent mquizies - and while basing my work 1m all cases upon a careful and critical exammation of the ancient authorities, to avail myself to the fullest extent of the assistance to be derived from modern travellers and geographers. Several mstances have occurred durmg the progress of my researches, where additional mformation of this lund has served to elucidate questions which were still obscure when the chapters in which they are discussed were originally written. At the same time it must be constantly Lorne in mind that 1t is the main purpose of a historical review, such as the one I have attempted to give, of the pro- gress and development of geography in ancient times, to record the ideas formed and the information pos- sessed by the different authors from whom we derive our knowledge; and with a view to this I have en- deavoured in every instance, so far as possible, to arrive at my conclusions from a conscientious and independent study of the ancient authorities themselves, before con- sultig or referring to the comments and discussions of tmodern writers. In pursuing this plan, I have been materially aided by the valuable editions of Strabo byPREFACE x Kramer, and of Phny by Sulug—both of them subse- quent to the publication of the three German text-books above referred to—as well as by the admirable edition of the Geographi Greeci Minores edited by Dr. 0. Muller, a work which has conferred an mestimable boon upon all students of ancient geography. In referring, as I have done above, principally to the labours of the Germans in the same field with myself, T must not be regarded as ignoring what has been done in this country and in Frafce m connection with the same subject The first volume of Mr Cooley’s LHis- tory of Maritime and Inland Discovery (published in Dr Lardner’s Cyclopedia in 1833) contams a good popular sketch of the progress of geographical know- ledge in ancient times; but is certamly not adapted to meet the requirements of the classical scholar. The far superior work of M Vivien de St. Martim—the ZHis- toire de la Géographe et des Décowvertes Géogra- phiques—which was not published until the present work was alieady far advanced—contains a suffiaently full review of the whole subject for the purposes of the general reader: but the hmits withm which the author was necessarily confined, in order to include mm a single volume the whole lustory of geographical progress down to our own time, precluded his entering m detail into many questions the discussion of which formed an essential part of my own plan In one respect I have thought 1t expedient to depart from the example of my German predecessors, who have deemed 1 necessary to treat separately of mathematical and physical geography, apart from the descriptive and hustorical portions of the subject. In a work of whichaut PREFACE the historical form 1s an essential character, it appeared to me desirable to bring togethor all portions of the subject under one view; so that the reader might ses at once the condition of geographical knowledge at every successive period :—say for mstance in the time of Eratosthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy—mstead of having to turn to several different chapters for the information he requires. The unity and completeness thus given to the successive portions of the historical review appear to me grettly to outweigh the advan- tages derived from the more methodical subdivision. The comprehensive character of such a work as the one now submitted to the reader unavoidably exposes it to one disadvantage. It must of necessity compuise many subjects which could not be fully discussed with- out extending it beyond all reasonable limits, The geography of Herodotus; that of the Anabasis of Xenophon, of the campaigns of Alexander; the voy- ages of Nearchus and Hanno—might woll require a volume to each of them instead of a chapter. while several special topics, such as the passage of the Alps by Hanmbal, the landing of Oxsar in Brita, or the defeat of Varus in Gormany, havo to be dispaiched in a few pages, though cach of them has formed the sub- ject of numerous tracts and treatises amounting to a httle hterature of its own. In such cases I have been compelled to bring together in a brief summary the grounds of' the judgement at which I have arrived in each case, without bemg able to enter into ihe discus- sion as fully as I could wish. If in some cases I may have m consequence appeared to pass rather slightly over the arguments on ithe other side, I can only begPREFACE. xan my readers to beheve that this arises from the necessity of the case rather than fiom any overweening confidence 1m my own conclusions. In some instances, on the other hand, my readers may be disposed to complain that I have left questions unsettled, without pronouncing any opinion, where the evidence does not appear to me such as to afford rea- sonable grounds for a decision. To both classes of objections I can only reply in the words of Cicero— adopted by Ukert as the motto of is work—“sequmur probabiha, nec ultra quam 1d quod verisimile occurrerit progredi possumus, et refellere sine pertinacia, et refelli sine iracundia parati sumus.” It is only those who have devoted a considerable amount of attention to the study of ancient geography who are fully aware of the difficulties that beset the path of the mquirer at almost every step. But these difficulties have m many instances been greatly aggra- vated by the unwillingness of modern writers to apply to the statements of ancient authors the same rules of reasonable criticism by which they would be guided in other cases. Not only 1s geography im its very nature a progressive science, but the shghtest attention to its lustory m medieval or modern tmes will show that tho steps of 1ts progress are often vacillating and uncer- tun. Vague and fluctuating ideas concerning distant regions will be found floating as 1t were in a dim haze of twihght long before their outhnes come to be dis- tinctly discerned. Even the most t:ustworthy travellers ave compelled to 1ely to a certain extent upon hearsay evidence, im regard to the countries or provinces that they have not themselves visited, and in the case ofaay PREFACE less quahfied observers it is generally difficult to dis- tinguish what they have really learnt from ther own observation and what they have derived from othor sources. Without rccurring to the ease of Marco Polo and other medieval tzavellers, 11 will be sufficient to turn to the map of Central Afmca as it stood before the tme of Park and Hornemann, and to trace tho progress of discovery in that great continent, and the various theories by which geographers sought 1o explain or reconcile the statements*of successive travellers, in order to see what difficulties surround any such attempt mm the absence of clear and definite information. But xf this 1s the case even in modern times, where the information of the geographer is derived from the statements of trustworthy observers and scientific tra- vellers, far more does it apply to the position of the ancient geographer. Voyages and travels for the pur- pose of exploration were almost entirely unknown: and he had to pick up his information as best he could from the accounts of merchants and casual travellers. The inaccuracy of these reports, and the consequent vague- ness of the statements derived from them, 1s frequently pointed out by ancient writers, But they had nothing else to fall back upon, and no means of correcting them by more accurate observations. Yet, notwithstanding this obvious consideration, it has been too much the custom m modern times to treat the ancient writers on this subject as if they possessed an authority to which they are certainly not entitled. Instead of at once drawing the line, as would be done without hesitation in the case of a medisval writer, between what was accurate and trustworthy and whatPREFACE, xv was vague and inaccurate, the most fanciful suggestions have been made and ingenious theories invented to account for what was simply erroneous. Even the supposition of vast physical changes has been intro- duced or adopted, rather than acknowledge that Hero- dotus or Strabo can have made a mistake. It has been my endeavour in the following pages, as far as possible, to exercise a discrimmating judgement in sifting truth from falsehood , and while domg full justice to the real merits of successive writers, tS discard without scruple those statements where they have been obviously mis- led by imperfect information, or by adherence to a mistaken theory The historical form of the present work necessarily involves a certain amount of repetition, Nor have I been careful to avoid this. Many persons will, I believe, take up particular chapters of the book who will shrmk from the labour of perusing the whole: and I have therefore endeavoured to make each successive portion —especially the reviews of the different leading authors on the subject, such as Strabo, Pliny, or Ptolemy—as complete im itself as possible No English book, as far as I am aware, contains a similar analysis of these well- known authors, who are too often quoted for detached statements by writers who are wholly unacquainted with their real authority and value. I am aware that I shall incur the censure of many of the more advanced scholars of the present day for having adhered to the old orthography of Greek names. I must confess myself one of those who fail to see the advantage of the changes recently introduced: changes that can hardly yet be said to form a permanent orXVL PREFAQE, established system. But, mdependent of my own pre- ference for the sysiem to which L have been accustomed from my youth, two considerations would in themselves have deterred me from imtroducmg any such innova- tons im the present wok. The one is that as my subject included Roman as well as Greek geography, I should have had to follow two different systems of orthography in different portaons of the book, and to write the same names in two difforent modes, according as I was reviewing a Gréék or a Latin anthor. To this must be added that as the book now presented to the reader 18, from its nature, in some degree a supplement to the two valuable Dictionaries of Ancient Biogiaphy and Geography edited by Dr. Smith, wluch are at pre- sent m the hands of all scholars, I should have been unwilling to deviate from the practice which has been there adopted. With regard to the orthography of oricntal names, which are necessarily of frequent occurrence in the fol- lowmg pages, I have contented myself with writing them as I found them in the authority lefore me, or m the case of well-known names im the wode commonly recerved, Having no knowledge myself of any of the oriental languages, 1t was impossible for me to attempt to follow any uniform system in this respect. The present work, hke those of Mannert and Ukert, 1s confined to the geography of the ancient world as known to us through the Giceks and Romans. In the very brief introductory chapter, I have only touched upon that of other nations with refercnce to its bearmg upon the geography of the Grecks at the earliest period when we have any mformation concerning it. To in-PREFACE xv vestigate the details of the geographical knowledge— lumited as 1t undoubtedly was—possessed by the Egyp- tians or Assyrians, would be wholly foreign to my subject, and is a task for which I feel myself entirely incompetent, It may perhaps be necessary to observe that the maps mserted in these volumes are not designed in any degree to supply the place of an Atlas of Ancient Geography, but solely to illustrate the particular sub- jects discussed, or to bring more distinctly before the eyes of the reader the general outline of the geogra- phical systems formed by successive writers, so far as it is possible to extract these from their writings alone. In the preparation of these maps, I have derived the greatest assistance from the series of those contributed by Dr. ©. Muller to the valuable “ Adlas of Ancient Geography edited by Dr. Smith and Mr. Grove ;” and I take this opportumity of expressing in the strongest manner my sense of the obligations that I owe hm. Scarcely less valuable 1s the aid I have received from ius admirable edition of the Geagrapht Gree Manores (already referred to), without which it would have been scarcely possible for me to have executed in a satis- factory manner the portions of my work relating to the writers in question.CONTENTS OF VOL I or OHAPTER IL INTRODUCTORY § 1 Geography more or less studied by different nations according to cireum- stances—httle cultivated by the Chaldeans or Egyptians §2, Or by the Jews No mfluence everersed in this respect upon the Grecks §8 The Phomiotns, ther exdensive commerce and long voyages §4 Geographical knowledge denved from thence 1ts extent and limits very mperfectly known § 65 Trade of the Phemerans m tn the Cassiterides, or Tin Islands Gades, the centre of the trade §6 Their trade in amber, brought from the northern shores of Burope §7 The carrying trade of the Algean and the Mediterranean m their hands § 8. ‘The Cyetans the earhest Greek people devoted to navi- gation Notices of them in the Odyssey §9 The Trojan War a proof of an advanced state of navigation . . . Page 1 OHAPTER II. VOYAGE OF THE ARGONAUTS. § 1. The voyage of the Argonauts a mere legendary tale—ongunally quite un- connected with Colchis“6F"the Phasis, §2 Apphed by the Greck colonies to the locales on the Euxme § 8 Various accounts of them return §4 That given by Apollomus Rhodius §5 Different accounts of earlier wnters, Possible basis of truth m the legend 19 PAGE NOTE A Angonautica of Orpheus ea 28 OHAPTER IIL HOMERIO GHOGRAPHY Sgorroy 1—General Views §1 Eerhest notions of Greek geography denved from the Homeric Pooms— “these petverted by later writers and commentators. Necessity of adhenng to the orignal § 2 Idens of Homer concerning the earth xxxx CONTENTS OF VOL 1 and heavens His mention of Atlas § 3 Ideas conceammg the sun and stars §4 No names for cudial pomis Namos of wmds §5 Has views of the sea and tho Ocean iver. § 6 No knowledge of tho three continents : ” VPage 81 Snorton 2—Geop aphy of the Read §1 Local geography ot Croece and tho nohbowing seas well known to Homer but all beyond vaguo or unknown § 2 ‘Tho Catalogue of tho ships §8 Catalogue of the Tioan turces. $4 Witont of Rnow- edge proved by these vory hmuted, §6 Vane midweabons of mow distant counties § 6. Knowledge of Photucin and Exypt — § 7 Vague and fabulous adens of sAtInopa 0 39 Snoriox 8—Geapraphy of the Odyssey §1 The outer wold im the Odyssey—the scene of poctreal fictions and legends § 2 ‘These worked up by Homer mto a poetic wholo, but not ito a geogiaphieal system §3 Attachment of legonds to dehmte localities § 4 Voyago of Ulysses; the Cicones, Cape Mala, the Lotophagi § The Cyclopes §6 Thelslandof AMolus §7 The Lestry gones §8 The Island of Cnoo—visit of Ulysses to Hades, ‘The Crmmerians §9 Homeward voyago tho Sirens, Soylla and Charybiis Thrmalkia § 10 Island of Galypso+ voyage fiom thence to Pheacia § 1L The Pheactans—a fabulous people, enonconsly phoed m Coroyia § 12 Tihnea and the neighbouring islands: dfh- culties m regard to thar desouption, §18 Dutichum. No lear wea gaven of those westein aslandy § 14 Voyage of Menclans Myypt, §15 The Ethiopians § 16 Ignoinco of Homer of tho onstorn nations and of the west of Emopo . . fos 49 vAUR NUTE A Composition of the Homene Poems . 75 » B- Tomense aden of the would a) » © Tho fom winds in Homer . 7 » D_ The Lmstrygones . ob » B Thetsland of Gree, 78 » FE the Plancter 9 > @ Comse fiom Ogygin to Schorin., =. BL » I Dulchium 1 > 1 Homeue Ithaca . 83CONTENTS OF VOL I ‘xxL CHAPTER IV HOMER TO HLCATaUS Suotton 1—Poetcal Notices subsequent to Homer §1 Want of materials for tracing the progress of geogiaphieal knowledge after Homer Hesiod his poems largely interpolated Geographical notices contamed im them §2 The Be Cycle and the Homene Tlymns § 3 Other poets before the First Olympad Anstcas of Proconuesus Page 85 Szorron 2—Colonres §1 Great development of Greck entgpise m the 7th and 8th centuries Be Foundation of colonies in Sicily §2 InSouthemItaly §3 At Coreyra and in the Adnatic and in Campama § 4 Massilia and its colomes § 5 The extension of Greek settlements m Spam and Afiiea checked by the Phomcians §6 Cyrene and its colomes mm Labya §7 Commercial mtercourse with Egypt Naucratis §8 Exploration ot the Huame Colones of Miletus and Megara §9 Settlemonts on the west and south coasts §10 On the northern shoves and in the Crimea §11 Communications with the terior Ansteas of Procon- nesus The Aimaspians and Hyperboreans § 12 Destruction of Miletus, and fall of its power §13 The Phocwans their voyage to ‘Tartessus Mamtime power and trade of the Samians and Rhodians— Colonies of Rhodes § 14 Commeroial achvity and naval power of Gormth §15 Of Mogma §16, Of Algma §17 Of Chalas and Enetiia mm Eubcea Oolomes of Chaleis Inferior postion of Athens before the Persian War § 18 Oolomes and commerce limited to the land seas—the Mediterranean and the Euxme §19 Relations of @reeks with the Phocians §20 And with Egypt §21 Indi vidual visits to Egypt and Babylon Increasmg knowledge of Asia alter the use of the Persian monarchy 91 Suomon 8—Physscal Pfulosophers 1 Rise of philosophical speculation m Grgete 'Thalef of Miletus, hus astro- nomial views, §2 Anaximander” the mentor of mays §8 Anan- menes §4 Pythagoras and his followas then improved system of cosmical science §5 How fu mflucnoed by ideas derived fiom the East ‘The spherical form of the eth not yet + 1ecognied truth 120 zaaE NOTE A Date of foundation of Cyrene 127 » B_ Dates assigned to Geek colomes mm the Euxme 138 » © The “Thalassociates” of Castor 130xt CONTENTS OF VOL I. CHAPTER V MEOAT AUS Seorion 1 —Geography of Hecateus §1 The work of Hecataus of Miletus the first regular geographical treatise Hs hfe and date Imperfect character of existing remains § 2 Ths work mostly a Periplus of the Mediterranean, but contamed. notices of Asia, §3 His travels §4 Artangementofhiswnk § 5. Ivtent of bis information, mm regard to the coasts of the Mediterranean § 6 He had no hnowledge of western and northern Europe Imperfect acquaintance with Scythia §7 His knowledge of Asia m general He gives the first notices of Fwdia §8 Descibed Beypt in detal, Hhs notices of the restof Afiica §9 His general notions on geography, His map of the world § 10 His division of the world into contagents $11 Bhs want of judgement Page 184 Szotion 2—~Hecateus to Herodotus §1 Writers after Hecateus Hellanicus and Damastes § 2. Geographical notices in Aschylus and Pindar ‘The wanderings of Jo in the « Prome- theus Vinctus’ §3 The ‘Promethous Solutus’ and the ‘Persm,’ §4 Pindar his geographical notions eee 48 vaor NOTE A Character of extant fiagments of Hecae Us 158 » B_ Intorcourse of the Gueeks with Etruria 1b, CHAPTER VL ‘HERODOTUS, Snortox 1.—General Views—Europe §1 Importance of the work of Herodotus in a geographical pomt of view. Itsdesultory and wregular character Shght notice of the Carthaginians and Tyrrhenans §2 Bef notioes of Southern Ttaly and Sicily. §8 Histravels thei extent § 4, Outline of Ins views of the con- figuration of the world Asia The projecting Agim, § 5, Explana- tion of bis views § 6 Hiss ignorance of the west and north of Europe He rejected the notion of the Casstendes, and of the river Endanus,, and of a northern ocean § 7 Imperfect knowledge of contral Europe Thrace andthe Danube ‘The Getw and Sigynna §8 Ls de- sonption of the Danube and its tnbutanes ‘The Carpis and AlpisCONTENTS OF VOL I, xx 9 The Keltw and Kynetes. §10 His comparison of tae Nile and the Ister* therr mouths opposite to one another .. Page 156 ' Snorton 2 —Soythea §1 Extensive mformation obtained by Herodotus concerning Scythia,’ § 2 Donved 1n patt from personal knowledge, He discards the fables crment concaimng the Hyperboreans, &c, § 3 His account of the Buxme Sea § 4. Erroneous estamate of ats length § 5 Exaggerated notion of tho Palus Mmotis § 6 Erroneous idea of the Tauie Penm- sula §7 Groat rivers of Scythia the Ister § 8 Its magnitude and equable flow §9 TheTyras §10 The Borysthenes §11 The Tanas § 12 Extent of lus knowledge of these nvers §13 Other nivers the Pantiapes, the Hypacyns, and the Gerthus, cannot be identified §14 The Oarus, the Lycus, &0, equally obscure. § 16 Imperfect sources of information § 16 Valuable ethnographical notices His Soytuans a distinct people, §17 Form and boundaries of Scythia §18 Division of the Soythan tribes § 19. Nations surrounding Scythia ‘The Agathyrs:. the Neu: §20 The Andro- phagr. tho Melanchlem §21 The Budim and Gelom § 22. The Sauromats § 23. Nations towards the north-east beyond the Budim ‘Vhyssagets and Turew The Argippet, § 24 Fabulous nations to tho north, ‘Lhe Issedones, § 25, Tho Armaspans, Abundance of gold §26 No mention of the Volga § 27. The Caspian regarded by Herodotus as surrounded on all sides by land a 172 Sxorion 8 —Eapeditvon of Darius into Scythea $1 Geographical details of the expedition accord well with the other state- ments of Herodotus §2 Narrative as given by Herodotus §3 Its chfficulties cannot be received as historically correct 5 but presents fow geographical difficulties . . . ” 202 pace NOTE A The Acts of Herodotus + 207 » B The Cmmenans see 208 » © TheGheek Stadium . 209 » D_ Navigation of the Borysthenes + all » EB Rivers of Scythia. 212 » F The river Oarus. + 218: » G Tamits of Scythe a4 » HE Ethnognaphnea relations ofthe Seythvans of Herodotus ais Expedition of Darrus 217xxiv CONTENTS OF VOL T OUAPTER VII GHOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS ASIA Sxorron 1 —General Views §1 Limits of Ins knowledge of Asia nearly confined to the Persian Empire §2 Imperfect acquamtauce with Araba §3 Tho Krytinwan Sex and Arabian Gulf No knowledge of the Persian Gull §4 Tgnoance of the countnes noith of the Pasian Empue § 5. Confusea notions of the Araxes §6 Tho Massageto, their abundance of gold § 7 Account of India lis knowledge confined to the counties on the Indus §8 Voyage of Scylax of Caryanda §9 Tho Pactyans then mode of procurng gold. Indian ants §10 Probable locahty and ongm of the fable § 11 Scanty information concerning India m othor respects Pago 218 Suction 2—Persian Empire Satrapres §1 Ths catalogue of the Satrapes donved from an authentio soureo § 2 Erroneous geographical notion of Asia Mmor §3 Imperfect ideas of the provinces of Upper Asia No knowledge of the Taurus as a moun- tam system §4 fhs enumeration of the Satrapies properly ethno graplueal, rather than geographical § 5 Satrapos of Asia Minor the first, second and third, including Cappadoua —§ 6. The fourth, Ghaa the fifth, Syna the sth, Egypt and the Cyrenaica § 7. ‘Theseventh Satrapy—the Gandanans, & §8 The eighth, Susana the ninth, Babylonia and Assyna §9 ‘Tho tenth, Media: tho oloventh, the Casplans, & § 10 "Cho twelfth, Bactua the tlurteonth, Armenia and adjacont tribes. § 11 The fourteenth, the Sagutians, Zaangians, &e §12 The fifteenth, the Sacw and Casmans §13 Tho six- tecnth, the Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, and Auans, § Lt ‘The seventeenth, the Pancamtans and Ithtopans, § 15, The eighteenth, the Matiemans, Saspmians, &c the nmeteenth, the Moschi, Macroues, &c the twentieth, India §16 Character of this hist a statistical document, without any atlempt at geographical arrangement § 17 Curions account in Herodotus of a plan surrounded by mountams and sending foith five nvers Impossible to dently . 281 Srcrion 3 —Loyal Road to Susa. §1 Account of the hine of route from Sardis to Susa, introduced as an mer dental digression, §2 Iis details and distances §3 Its valuable character Difficulties m detml § 4 Followed the upper road trem Saidis to the Tigris, not that taken by Cyrus and Alexander 249 Pace NOTE A Indian Tribute . 255 » B_ Soylax of Caryandy 256CONTENTS OF VOL I xxv Page NOTE GC Crspatyrus 256 » D> Indian ants es 257 » & Eebatana 258 » F Royal road toSusa 259 » @ Uncertainty of measurement 261 CHAPTER VIIL GEOGRAPHY O¥ HERODOTUS: AFRICA. Snotion 1 —General knowledge of the Continent. §1 Character of his acquamtance with African shores of the Mediterranean Hs knowledge of tho imterorlerived through Egypt and Cyrene §2 Hhs account of the Upper Nile as far as Merce §8 ,Meroe ‘The Automoh §4 Supposed the Nile above Merve to flow from the west §5 Agreement of this view with his account of the Macrobian Ethopians § 6 Sources of the Nile unknown . theory of Herodotus. § 7 Narrative of the expedition of the Nasamontans into the mterior Tho discovery of great river, probably the Joliba or Quorra §8 The Macrobian Ethiopians expedition of Cambyses against them §9 Erroneously placed on the Nile by Strabo §10 Division of Northern Africa mto three zones § 11. Lane of mhabrted spots fiom distance to distance m a direction from east to west §12 The Orsis of Ammon §18. Augila The Garamantes § 14, The Atarantes and Atlantes §15 Desert character of the interior § 16. The Troglodyte Ethiopians § 17. Libyan tribes adjoining the Gyronaica, and slong the shores of the Mediterranean §18 The Nasamones and Psylh The Lotophagi the Machlyans the island of Cyraums §19 Tales of fabulous races rejected by Herodotus §20 The Syrhs and the Lake Trtoms § 21 Account of dumb commerce carried on by Carthagmian merchants on the Atlantic coast Cape Solocis. § 22 Foundation of belief that Africa was surrounded by the Ocean Page 262 Szorion 2—Osrcumnangation of Africa by Necho §1 Narrative as reported by Herodotus § 2 Dafferences of opmion con- cermng 1 m ancient and modem umes §3 Arguments of Major Remnell m its favour. §4 Prema facie mprobability of the story absence of all details § 5 Argument from the sun bemg on the nght hand not conclusive Other difficulties § 6, Subsequent neglect of the voyage and discovery paralleled by similar cases m modern times §7 The voyage cannot be disproved, but must be regarded as ex- tremely improbable §8 Other statemonts of the Carthaginians §9. Unsuccessful attempt of Sataspes A 289xxv CONTENTS OF VOL I PAaR NOTE A Use of camels 299 » B_ Distances on the Nile ab » © The Dodecaschenus 301 » D The Automoh 302 . » B_ Distances on the Upper Nile o » FE Come of the Nile from west to east. 303 » @ Supposed somos of the Nile . «304 » H_ Expedition of the Nasimonians 305 » I Difficulty of communication with intexzor 307 » K_ Erroneous position of Carthage ++ 308 nL The Oases : a) » M_ Symmetrical ariangemont of Orses 309 nN Confusion of Great Oasis with that of Ammon od » © The Atlantes offferodotus 310 » P_ The Lotophagr + StL » Q The atver Cinyps + . 312 » RB The Syrhs 313 » S TheLakeTutom . . 314 » T Thessland of Cyraums 316 » V- Cneumnavigation of Africa Opimons of modein waiters + B17 OHAPTER Ix. VOXAGE OF HANNO §1 Narrative of the voyage tiansmtted to us, Its first objoct was colo- nization Progress as far as Come §2 Furst voyage from Ceme to tho South §8 Second voyage Piocecils as far as the Southern Hom, Thegonllas §4 Authentic character of narrative, Difference of opmion as to extent of voyage §5 Toston of Ceo § 6 First voyage reached the Senegal § 7 Socond voyage, Cape Verdo, ‘Thoon Ochema Sonthorn Horn § 8. Explanationof fires § 9. Tho gonllas really apes § 10 Erronoous notions concerning the voyage of Hamno found mm later writers § 11 Difficulties m regard to earher part of voyage §12 Carthagiman colonies soon abandoned Page 318 PAGE NOTH A Editions of the Periplus 332 » B PostonofCane . . . 888 a» C Views of Hecen : + 384 » D_ Notice of Gerne sn Seylne + tb EB The river Chremotes 835CONTENTS OF VOL I. XXVLL CHAPTER X WRITERS AFTER HERODOTUS Suorion 1 —Ctesias § 1 Progress of geographical knowledge from Herodotus to Alexander imper- fectly known Its limits httleextended § 2, Thucydides His work throws little hght on goography. § 8 Antiochus of Syracuse § 4 Ctesias Ins hfe and works ‘Tho Pasica §6 The Indica, full of fables and absurdities §6 Marvellous ammals §7, Precious stones Page 336 Szorton 2—The Anabasis of Xenophon § 1, Histoncal narrative by Xenophon gf the march of Cyrus and the retieat of the Ten Thousand: its charm §2 Hhs estimates of distances $8 March of Cyrus through Phrygia to Cilicia §4 He ciosses the Euphrates at Thapsacus §6 Advance from thence to Babyloma § 6, Battle of Cunaxa and subsequent movements of the Greeks §7, Thow retieat as for as Opts §8 They quit the Tigns: ther march through the Carduchans into Armema §9 Thar Ine of route traced thus far. § 10 Dufficulty in following 1t to the uxine ‘Steps of the progress according to Xenophon § 11 Cannot be identi~ fied in detail =§12 Independent tribes on the Euxine, § 13. Inter- esting notices by Kenophon of the nations through which he passed 842 PAGE NOTE A Composition of the Anabasis 859 x» B_ Computation of distances m Parasangs 3b in © Rate of marching + 864 » D~ Route of Cyrus through Phrygian... 363 » BE Passes between Cilio and Syria, B64 » F March fiom the Gulf of Issus to the ‘Euphrates : 365 » G Thapsacus be te » H Postion of Pyle + 866 > 1 Site of Cunaxa : . 369 » K_ Sittace : 370 » L The Median Wall oO 370 » M_~ March along the Tigris. + 872 » N- Rumod aates of Assyna 34 i» © Somees of the Tigris » 3 PL Descent through Armema to Trebizond 376xxv CONTENTS OF VOL. I CHAPTER XI WRITERS AFTER XENOPION Sxorion 1—Ephorus The Periplus of Seylua §1 Kphoras Ins Instonical writmgs, contamed a general geomaplial roview §2 Ths general views §3 Ihs account of Scythia § £ Of Asia Mimo §5 Of Afien §6 Of tho Nile §7 ‘Theopompus his work of comparatively little mlevest to geography Mentioned the capture of Rome by the Gauls § 8 Tho Peuplus ascribed to Seylan My chmacta §9 Itydato enoncously ascribed to Scylay of Car yanda $10 Its plan and anrangement’ confined to the Meditenancan Sea imperfect knowledge of some parts §11 Detaled account of the Adnatie supposed st to suave an mmo! the Ista, §12 Full account of the Greek colonies on the Eusine § 13 ‘Tho coasts of Asta Minot and Afinca § 14 Notices of the Atlantic coast of Alricn Cape Solos and Ceine § 15 No account of Indian Ocean § 16 Distances generally given m days’ voyages §17 Last of islands Pago 379 Sxorion 2—Aristotle §1 Anstotle has loft no regular work on geography , but notices mn his works on the Heavens and the Meteorologua § 2, hs cosmieal views derived fiom Eudoxus of Omdus § 8 Lhs viows conccrmng the Habitable World §4 Sproulations connected with physical geo maphy §6 Erroneous ideas concammg the meat nives of Asta §6 And of the West of Europe —linyeilect knowledge of Aliwa §7 Descrabed the Caspian Sea ssasolated § 8 Thy Atlantis of Vator 305 PAGu NOTE A Age of Scylax se 404 B Order of islands m the Moditernancan 406 OHAPTER XII EXPEDITION OF ALHXANDER. Suorsox 1.—Campaigns on Central and Western Asua § 1 Alovandar’s expedition into Asta forms an gia m angiont geogiaphy IL fiust opened up to tho Greeks a Tah ER Towledge of the mlouo. of Asia §2 Lbs campugain Europe agaust the Trabalh He crosses the Danube §8 Aitacks the Lllynans recalled to Thebes § 4. Ho crosses the Hellespont battle of tho Giaucus Hay opmations m Asia Mino. § 6, Advances though Phnygia to Godium. § 6, March by Anoy1aCONTENTS OF VOL I XXIX and through the Cilcn gates to Tarsus Battle of Issus §7 Occupres Syria and Egypt Hs expedition to the temple of Ammon Foundation of Alexandra §8 His advance mto Asia crosses the * Euphrates and the Tigris battle of Abela §9 Occumes Babylon and Susa advances to Persepohs § 10 Pursues Darus from Ecbatana through the Pyle Caspie death of Danus § 11 Halt at Lecatompylus . descent into Hyrcama § 12 Subsequent campaigns lay though regions previously unknown § 18 Conditions of marches determined by nature of the country’ imperfection of itmerancs § 14 He pursues Bessus, but turns off mto Aria, and thence into Drangiana advances through Arachosia to the foot of the Hindoo Koosh Founds Alexandria ad Caucasum § 15 Investigation of route § 16 Site of Alexandua, § 17 Crosses the Hindoo Koosh ato Bactria §18 Operations im Bactna and Sogdiana advance to the Iaxaites §19 Impossilnhty of followmg military movements in detail § 20 Foundation of cities general character of the country § 21 Impoved knowledge of the mvers Oxus and Iasartes but the latter confused with the Tana § 22 Both flowed mto the Caspian § 23 Hearsay mformation concermng other tubes § 24 ‘The beythians beyond the Iaxartes Page 407 Snorton 2—Multary Operations im India. § L. Alexander regrosses the Hindoo Koosh* engages n the reduction of the mountain tribes. the rock Aornus § 2 Impossibility of following Ins movements m detail § 8 Or determmmg the postion of the soveral tubes § 4 He crosses the Indus and the Iydaspes defeats Powus ad advances to the Hyphass § 5 Tho pumt which he finally reached cannot be determmed § 6 Difficulty m following hus operations m the Punjab § 7 Returns to the Uydaspes, and descends that siver and tho Indus to the sea § 8 Piogiess of voyage down the river § 9 Enaggciated account of the Indus its supposed sources, §10 Its Delta sie of Pattala § 11 Dihiculty of adentfymg the tribes on the Indus the Malh, Oaydinew, & 12 Alexanda designed the pormancnt conquest of the regions on the Indus § 18 Accounts of the wealth and populousness of India aoe ; 438 Suorion 8 —Buturn to Babylon §1 Return of Alexander to the West through Gedrosia § 2 Great difficulties and suffermgs on the march § 3 Ehs piogiess through Carmamia, rejomed by Nearchus and Ciateius § 4 Returns to Susa visits the Persian Gulf and Ecbatana. § 6 Preparations for explonng the Caspian Sea § 6 Returns to Babylon receives embassies from many nations, pothaps fiom the Romans § 7, Prepares a flect for theXxx CONTENTS OF VOL T congnost of Arabia * sends out expeditions to explore the Peist in Gull his death § 8 Lhs projeots NOTE A » Rehesnuee NSMhacGHureyv O8FN Aa Gordium Pyle Gihow ‘Mountam Passes near Issus March to the Oracle of Ammon The Oasis of Ammon Thapsacus Battle of Arbela Retreat of Danius to Bebatana Passes between Susa and Persepolis The Pyle Caspue Hecatompylus Zodracnta Estimated distances Supposed measurements of Alexanito."s route Rate of travelling on diomedaries ‘The Indian Caucasus Aatacoana and Alexandita im Ais Routes from Horat ito Bactria Piophthasia Indion tribes west of the Indus Chmate of Arachosia Site of Alexandiia ad Cancasum Passes of the Hindoo Koosh Comparative value of the hutorans of ‘Alexander . Legends concenmg Bacchus and Ha~ cules ‘The rock Ao.nus: Peucelaotis . Taala . Passage of the Hydospos Geography of tho Punjab Altsis on the Hyphasis Sangala and the Cathzx Boats on the Indus Descent of the Indus Confluence of the Hydasyas with the Acesines Comse of the Hyphans ‘The Indus rdentafied with thé Nile ‘Width of the Indus Source of the Indus Delta of the Indus Site of Pattala . Citaes of the Malli ‘The Oxydiaow $9 Cities founded by him age 406 467 b 469 470 aut 472 475 C7 477 479 480 481 ab 483 484 485 486 488 1 489 490 492 403 496 wb 498 499 wb 500 503 505 506 507 508 509 wb 510 511 512 513 514 SMS Page 454CONTENTS OF VOL, I xxx tach NOTL Uu Changes m the course of the Indus 510 » Vy Match though Gedosia 518 » Xx Route though Gediosia and Carmina 519 . » Yy March of Cratorus 521 » Ze Embassy of the Romans to Alexander 522 » AA The Pallacopas + 52k CHAPTER XIII VOYAGE OF NEAROHUS. §1 Authentic character of the narrative, Modern writers on the subject, §2 No statement of pont of defature §3 Pot ol Alexander Voyage fiom thence to the Arabs § 4 Coast of the Orta Cucala, Malana §5 Coast of the Ichthyophagi difficulties and prvations $6 Geograplucal details § 7 More rapid progress as far as Dadis §8 Batile with whales §9 Popleximg astionomical statement §10 Voyage along the coast of Carmania and the Pasian Gulf Meoting with Alexander § 11 Voyage continued along the coast of Persia §12 Duration of voyage its chatacter its importance enaggerated + «Pago 685 vAox NOTE A Comparison with Play 542 uw B_ Boumate of dutances by ea Supponed difference of stadia Bae » Port of Alesander : 546 » D_ The wland of Ashtola D aT 3 _E_ Supposed astronomical changes 548 » F The land of Ormuz 5 549 » = G Dnidotss : + 580 OHAPTER XIV. SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER Suorron 1—Megasthenes Increased knowledye of Indue §1 Bstabhshment of Scleucus in the dommion of Upper Asia. New division of saiapios § 2, Renewed mtercourse with India Sandia- cotius His fnendly relations with Seloucus § 3 Megasihencs Ths woik the chief authority of the ancients concernmg India § 4 Great Indian monatchy on the Ganges § 5, Jouney of Meyasthanes tho royal road. § 6 Lbs account of the Ganges and of Pahbothia $7, Other nations of India consttulton of mouaichy, § 8. CastesAKXIL CONTENTS OF VOL. I § 9 Pinlosophers § 10 Natural productiops § 11 Fabulous tales §12 Geogaphical formation § 13 Fast accounts of Tapio bane §14 Danmechus Notiers of India by Patrocles Page 652 Snorion 2—Lactrrun Provinces Patrocks §1 Revolt of Ractna and Sogdiana establishment of a Greek monarchy there §2 Very hitle mlormation coucernmg at No extension of geomaphical Knowledge §8 Wealth and power fora short time $1 Pittoces was governor of the provinces fiom Inthe to the Caspr asserted the Caspuan to be an met ol the Ocean Tlts authonty on Uuis punt unvasally reserved . bY CHAPTER XV THE PTOLEMIES IN EGYPT Suorron 1 —he Ptotemies in Egypt The Red Sea The Nile § 1 Eatension of geograplncal knowledge ansmng from foundation of Aley andsia, and of a Gieek monarchy 1m Vgypt § 2 Extensive trade m the Red Sca, and foundation of cates to promote 1t Aismod, Baremee, Myos Honus § 3 Settlements further south —Ptolemais Mpithoras §4 Land of Cmmamon and the Southan Horn. § 5, Tiade with India+ not ducet, but through the Sabeans § 6. Account of theso by Agathachides, Arabia Ful. § 7 Progress of knowledge of the Nile Meroe The affluents of the Nile § 8. ho two arms the Blue and White Nile the Sembutwe« the Cataracts § 9 No a+ tension by conquests in Ethiopa ot m the inteuor of Labya § 10 ‘Mimosthenes Ins treatwe on Ports one of the éluef authonties of Enatosthenes hs division of the wmds . . . 576 Sueri0N 2—Progress of Discovery im Western Eu ope Pytheas Timavus, § 1. Extension of knowledge of Western Europe clnefly owmg to Pytheas, Has date §2 His account of Butan and Thule. rocoved by Exa- tosthenes, but rejected by Polybis and Strabo §3 Examinttion of Jus statements with regard to Gaul and Spam §4 And to Bntam and Thule §5 His supposed voyage to the Tanus Ths account ot the origin of amber §6 Other paiticulais conccming northern lands, founded on trath Ths astronomeal observations. latitude assigned to Thule §7 No mention of Cassleridus § 8, Timaus:CONTENTS OF VOL I XXXIL Ins histotieal work — Geographical notices contained mn it ‘The rsland of Mictis §9 ‘Theophrastus ‘The treatise “De Mirabilbus ” ascuibed to Aristotle, but belongs to thud century Be § 10 Cunions notices contamed im it Fnst notice of the Fortunate Islands § 11 General extension of trade and intercoutse co Page 589 1s0n NOTE A Myos Homus 607 » B Afiwanclephants ab > © Land of Cmmamon 608 nD Monument of Adults v9 n & The winds as known to the anuents 610 » Dimensions of Burtam ola » G $n G Lewis on eedibnhty of Pythew ah n Astronomical phenome? t Thule ols CHAPTER XVI ERATOSTHENES |“ 1 Ehatosthones the parent of scientific geography His date and hfe §2 Dicamchus his predecessor Ins woiks §3 Hs attempts to moasute the elevation of mountams §4 State of geogiaphical scionce an the tme of Fiatosthenes He undertakes to reform the map of the wold § 5 His adeas of the position and figme of tho cath §6 His attempt to determine its circumference §7 Defects of his method, ‘and sourees of error §8 Result after all a nea approximation Te reckoned 700 stadia to a degree §9 His conception of the Inhalnted World § 10 His attempts to determme its hmits § 11 Draws one main parallel from the Sacred Promontory to the Indian Occan, § 12 Points thiough which 1 passed in the Meditemanean Its maccuracies §13 Draws a mendin Ime through Alexandra and Rhodes at ught angles with it § 14 Exrors m latitude §15 Stil greatet errors m. longitude §16 Mode of calculation of distances Has estimate of Jength of Mediterranean §17 Other distances given in Mediterra~ nean §18 His imperfect knowledge of Westen Emope Followed Pytheas m regard to ‘Thule and Butain Ill acquamted with Scythia and Germany §19 Determmation of northern and southern hms of the world § 20 Other distances along principal mendian Excess im computation § 21 Continuation of parallel of latitude eastward thiough Asia Its comenence with range of Mount Taurus § 22 Distances along this parallel Length of habitable world § 23 Elis ideas of the Hastein Ocean and of the Casan § 24 Of India, and Yaprobane §25 Of Arabia § 26 Its physical character and tarbus2001 CONTENTS OF VOL. I. $27 Of the Red Sen $28 Ths acomate knowledge of the Nile and als tubutanes §29 Ignorant of the rest of Atmen § 30 He gave few details of countries § 81 Ibs division mto Sphramdes —§ 32, Ibs views on Homeric geogiaphy § 83 Lmperieeb ideas of physical googiaphy § 84 Speculations on changes mm sea level § 85 Notavos of changes m suilace of carth ea ne Paye 615 Paah NOTE A Obsoryrtions of latstude =. GL » B Gossellin’s theay + bb3 C Southern laut of habitable world + bb4 D_ Distance fiom Alcandiss to Rhodes , 665 E, Promontory of Tam uns cameecol » .LIST OF MAPS IN VOL. L. a Paar 1 Mar vo miostrars roe Wanpentnes or Unyssns to face 84 2 Tre Wortp accorpixe to Hrcarause » U8 8 Tum Wornp accorpixe to Heroporus soy 1 4 Sxeren or ScyrHta acconpise ro Heroporus +» 206 5 Map vo mausrnare THE VovacE or Hanno » 330 6 Mar vo musrrare tus Mancurs or XeNopuon AND Avenanver wx Lower Asta pene een 55) 7 Map vo muusreare Tue OPERATIONS BEFORE AND APTER que Barrez or CuNaxa » 872 8 Auexanpen’s Camparons IN Asta a 404 9 Auexanpen’s Camparens my Invra .. » 518 10 Mar or tH Wornp accorpnig ro Eravosraexrs » 660 Note —I am aware that I may appear hable to the charge of inconsistency, mn prosonting tho render with a map purporting to repesent the voyago of Ulysses, when I have expressed in the body of my work my conviction that Homer had no such map present to his mind, and did not attempt to embody in any dufinite form hs vaguo pootical conenptions of the wandermgs of Ins he1o from land to Jand and from one mythical tsland to another But such arepresentation has beon 80 generally mscited i all treatises on ancient geography, and discussions of what 1s termed Homeric geography, that I thought somo renders would complain ofits absence, and at the same timo it may assist thom in followmg the nanative am the text, and recalling to the mmds the order of sequence of the locahixes montioned It will at least bring clenrly before their eyes the utter absence of all relation with the real localities in the Meditonanean, with which those mentioned by Homer were brought m connection by local tradition and the perverse m- genuty of commentators ‘With rogan! to the two maps attempting to represent. the wen of the world a wayXXXVI NOTE formed by Hesatens and Herodotus, I havo not dovisted from tho eustommy mode of representmg the two continents of Europo and Asia, and the Medi- torranean Sea, m accordance with their truc position ‘Tho chango in tho Gureotion of the Mediterranean introduced by Dr © Mullor doos not apfieax to me to reat upon sufficient grounds to wanant its adoption At the samo time, it must be frecly admitted that tho map of the world according to Mcoutmus 1 in great measure conjectural, for which reason 1 havo confined myselt to a rough and general outhne Even for that of Herodotus, though the historian has furmshed us with many valuable materials, whieh have boon tully discussed m the teat, there 1emams much to bo filled up by conjecture, and many daftieul tres that cannot be solved with any approach to ecrlamnty eHISTORY oF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY. §1 Tar study of Geography, like that of Astionomy, 1s to a certain extent a necessary concomitant of civilization, but will be found to have been puisued more or less by different nations according to the circumstances of their position No people that have made even the first steps m the progress towards cultivation and enlightenment can have failed to direct their attention towards those heavenly bodies which so much i- fluence the condxtion of all the mhabrtants of this earth, which determine the changes of the seasons, and afford the only natural measures of time Hence astronomy, m a 1ude and popular sense of the texm, must have existed from the earliest ages among all nations that we1e not utterly barbarous, and there seems no doubt that 1t was carried to a gieat extent and attamed a surprismg degiee of perfection among the earliest nations of antiquity, whose civilization we have any means of estimating. But while the natuial situation and circumstances of the Egyptians, the Chaldwans, and the Assynians—therr open plains and starry cloudless skies—were emumently caleu- lated to direct their attention to the prosecution of this study, at was otheiwise with geography In all these cases thew civilization was emmently local im its character. Derived m the first mstance fiom the pecular local cixcumstances in which it grew up, 1t was to a great extent confined by the2 HISTORY OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. Cuar T influence of those cucumstances within the samo original limits Egypt cspecially 1etamed through all the ages of ats early greatness the samo isolated character that China continued to hold down to a very recont period. Tho occa~ sional outbreaks of ambitious monarchs, who for a time ex- tended the dommion over tho neighbommg portions of Asia, produced no permanent iesult: and tho Egyptian monarchy, when 11 fist came m contact with tho Greeks, was still limited to the valley of tho Nule, as 1t had been eighteen centuries before The same thing was thetcase, though to a less degree, with. the monarchies of the Chaldeans and the Assynans, which successively ruled m the valley of the Euphrates and the Tigus. The Assyuans, mdecd, eatended their domimon over a considerable part of Asta, and the adjoming island of Cyprus, but thei peculiar civilization was confined to the district in which 1t arose, and a few isolated monuments alone attest therr eaily connection with any other nations or countmes. Geography mdecd may, m a certain restrictod senso, be regarded as applymg even to that hmited knowledge of ono’s own country and its natural features and boundaries, which every man of cultivated intelhgenco must imevitably possess. But it 1s only m proportion as 1t extends beyond these nanow limits, and compuises other counties, and a more considerable portion of the earth’s surface, that 1t approaches to the cha- racter of a science ( There can be no doubt that the ancient Egyptians not only possessed what may be called an accmate geogiaphical knowledge of Egypt, but that they had acquirod at least general information conceiming other countries that bordered on the Mediterranean, as well as those that adjoined them on the East | But how far they may have attained to anythmg like a definite geographical idea of any of those more distant lands, and their relative position, 1s a question that must be left to Egyptologers to detormino; if mdeed there exist the matenals to cnable us to aniyo at any con- clusion on the subjectOuap I INTRODUCTORY. 3 Commercial relations, which mm almost all countries have been the precursors of geogiaphical knowledge, could have produced but little effect of the kmd m Egypt Maritime com- imerce was indeed almost wholly wanting foi the Egyptians appear to have entertained, in all ages, a deeply rooted aversion for the sea and all maritime pmsuits, and though the pro- ductions of distant lands were brought to them by thei neigh- bours the Phcenicians, and probably also by caravans across the deserts of Syria, this mode of traffic would hardly lead to any increased. information concemmg the countnes fiom which they were deived. ° § 2, The earhest nation of which the literature has survived, that of the Jews, was almost as much cut off fiom mtercouse with other races, by the circumstances of 1ts position, combined. with its pecular mstrtutions, as were the Egyptians, The special character of their literature was also such as to afford little opportumty for any expositions of a scientific nature. and while the earlier books of the Old Testament contain numerous geographical details concerning Palestine and the noighbourmg distuicts, there 1s nothing that affords any dea of the general notions of the Jews on the subject, or the extent of ther geographical honzon The genealogy of the sons of Noah, found in the book of Genesis, is indeed an ethnological document of the Inghest interest, as embodymg the carhest traditions concerning the ielations and affinities of the different nations and races of men known to its author, but 1t conveys no information as to ther geographical position, no. must 1t be hastily assumed that the wiiter had any defimte ideas upon this subject. There can be little doubt, for mstance, that the name of Javan was the same as 1s found m Greek mythology in. the fom Iaon o1 Ion, as the founder of the Toman race, But it bad certamly no local connection with the people situated on the coast of the Aigean, who were designated by that appellation m the time of Heiodotus and whether it 1s intended to apply to the Helleme race generally, or to tho mhabitants of the peninsula now known as Asia Minor,—4 HISTORY OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. Ouar I im which sense 1¢ appears to have been employed at a later period,—we have no means of determmmg But whatever may have been the nature and oxtent of the geogiaphical knowledge possessed by the Egyptians o the Hebiews, 1t may be safely asserted that it had Inttle, if any, influence upon that of the Giceks The latter, mdecd, be- lieved themselves to be indebted to the Egyptians fm the elementay pimerples of geometry ,* they probably denved fiom the Babylonians the imvention of the gnomon, or sun- dial, as well as the division of the day into twelve homs? But these scientific mventions were cortamly not introduced into Greece until long afte: the period when ow. acquaintance with Greek literature gives us the means of judging for our- selves of their attammentsin geography The results of such an inquiry, as we shall presently see, are conclusive as to the fact that their geogiaphical knowledge in tho earhest ages was limited to the countries m ther immediate neighbowhood, and to the gioup of nations that swrounded tho Aigean Sea, All beyond was vague and indefinite deuved from hearsay reports, 1mperfectly undeistood, or mxed up with mytholo- ; gical fancies and fables of poetical ougin. §3. There was, however, one people which exercised con- siderable mfluence upon Hellenic culture and evilization, that calls fo. more especial notice in this place. Tho Phomeinns, unhke the Hebrews and the Egyptians, were essentially a commercial and seafarmg people, and the carhest notices of them that we find, both m the Hebrew and Greek literature, concun m representing them as skilful and dmg navigators, eapable of conducting long voyages, and brmging back the productions of distant countnes to exchange with thor more sedentary neighbours Unfortunately thein native literature jhas utterly penshed, and ther early lustory 1s a blank. 2 Herodotus, u 109 to Anaximander, who lived in the 6th sting 2s expresly stated by Horo- | century, vo Probably he was am dotus (Le) Other wniters, however, | reality the first to introduce it into asoubed the mvention of the gnomon | GroceCuar I INTRODUCTORY. 5 Whether or not there be any foundation for the tradition recorded by Herodotus, that the onginal abode of the Phoom- ciags was on the Enythrean Sea, from whence they migrated to the tract on the shores of the Mediterranean which they uwhabited in historical times, “and immediately betook them- selves to long voyages, fighting their ships with the waies of Egypt and Assyna,”* 1t throws no ght upon the ongm of this peculia tendency, which so remarkably distinguished them from all other Semitic nations ‘To a cerita extent, indeed, its causes are not far to seek Confined to a narrow sea-board, and excluded fiom all sextension of their teiritory towaids the imteuior by ranges of mountams, which at the same time afforded them abundant mateials fo. shipbuilding, it was but natural that they should devote themselves to mantime puisuits. and the similar mstances of Amalfi, Genoa, and Venice, m the middle ages, show how easily even a scanty population, begimmmg with very hmited 1¢- sources, bit devoting all then energies to mamtime commerce, /may attain to a maiked supeioity over all their vals But the extent of that commerce and the length of the distant voyages which we find them undeitaking at this ealy peuiod, as compaied with what were customary among the Gheeks and other ancient nations, even m a more advanced condition, undoubtedly present a perplesimg problem, which we have no means of solving The earliest notices which we find of them im the Hebuew literature represent them as bemg, as early as the time of Solomon (about Bo 1000), aheady familia: with the voyage to Tashish, by which there seems no doubt that we are to undeistand the region im the south of Spam known to the Grecks in the early ages as Tartessus* * Herodotus 1 1 (The same state- ment is ropeated an vii 89) This tra- dition has been adopted a3 authentic, or ag resting upon a basis of truth by several modem writes, meludng ‘Movers (Die Phonizier, book 1 ch 1), while others, among’ whom 1 Mr Kenrick (Phartora, p 52), reject xt as altogether unworthy of credit «Tins subject 18 fully investigated by Mr ‘Twisleton, m hus article Tansnisu, i Dr Suuth’s Dictionary of Builteat Antaguatses, vol un6 HISTORY OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY Cnar I It is entirely n accordance with this that one of the carliest of their colonial settlements, of which the date can be fixed with any approach to certamty, was that of Gadeira, or Gades, in the distuct thus designated, the foundation of which 18 ascribed to a period as caly as Bo 1100. It1s smgular that, according to the tiaditions preserved to us, this distant colony preceded any of thosc in the Mediterranean, where Utica, on the coast of Afiica, was established a few yeais later, while Carthage, which was destined to attam to so proud a pro- emimence over all other Phosnician colonies, was not founded till near three hundied years later ® Unfortunately the dates thus transmitted to us 1est upon yery doubtful authority; but the testimony of the earhest extant Greek literate, m the form of the Homeric poems, 1s conclusive as to the general fact that the Phonicians were at that remote period the puncipal traders and navigators m the Aigean Sea and the neighbourmg parts of the Meditenancan. They combed, as was gencially the caso with the caihest voydgers, the two objects of trade and piracy, especially for tho Indnapping of slaves. But whatever may havo been thor evil practices in this respect, 16 seems clear that thoy possessed at this time the whole carrymg trade of the seas with which the Greeks weie familar, and thus becamo the mtermedsaries through whom the arts and civihzation of Egypt, Assyna, and Babylonia passed into Grecce. It was through the samo channel that the Greeks first became acquainted with various productions of more distant lands, such as ivory and frankn- cense, both of which were familar to them 1m the days of Homer. Nor were the Pheemcians engaged only m the transport of 5 According to the anonymous author of tho treatise On Wonders, falsely ascribed to Anistotle, but probably about a century later, Uticn was founded 287 years before Carthago, a statement he professes to have derived from 'Tyrian records (De Merab, § 134) Unfortunately the date of Caithago itsclf 18 not known with cortamly, aud the conclusion adopted by Movers (Die Phomever, vol 1 pt upp 150-157) and Mr Kenrick (Phantom, p 145) of Bo 81318 admitted to rest only on abalanes of evidence, ‘The statement that Gadovra was settled n “ fow years” before Utica rosts on the auihouity of ‘Vellerus Patuculus (1, 2).Cuar I INTRODUCTORY. 7 foreign commodities Among the productions of then own coasts was the shell-fish, from which they learnt at a very early period the at of extractmg the pmple dye, for which they were famous 1n all ages, and of which the Tyu1ans continued to be the chief manufactmers even under the Roman Empire. Glass also was an article extensively manufactmed by them, so that 1ts mvention was by some authois asciibed to the Sidomans, and iichly embioidered 1obes and garments me repeatedly mentioned m the Homeric poems as the work of Sidoman artists. On the other hand, we learn from the Hebiew| Senptures that Hiram, king ofsTyre, was able to fumsh to Solomon skilled aatificers and artisans m almost every depait- ment of work requisite either for the constiuction or ornament of the Temple at Jerusalem.’ In all the ornamental aits indeed the Phoenicians appear to have been at this period as much mm advance of then neighbouis the Jews, as they undoubtedly were of the Greeks. § 4, That this extensive commeice must have led to a wide expansion of the geographical horizon amongst the Pheenicians, as compared with thc neighbours the Egyptians or the Hebrews, may be assumed as certam But what were the real extent and limits of the knowledge thus acquired, and how far it was embodied in a distinct geographical form, are questions which, from the total loss of the Phoenician literature, we are wholly unable to answer. While we find im the earliest Greek 1ecords many vague and dimly-traced ideas as to the wonders | of “the far west,” which are im all probability deuved fiom Phoenician sources, 1t 18 remarkable that no definite allusion is found to the countries in which that people had aheady esta- blished themselves, long before the date that can be plausibly assigned to the earliest remains of the Greek ltcrature. Not only 1s the name of Tartessus not found m the Homeric poems, but the whole of that cycle of myths, which was im later times connected with the name of the Greek deity Herakles, but * Soo 1 Kings vu ; 2 Chron a8 HISTORY OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. Onar I unquestionably belonged onginally to the Tynian god Mclkarth, 4s conspicuously wanting. No allusion 1s found to the island of Erythea and the tuple-headed Geryones with lus herds of cattle, or to the golden apples of the Iespeudes, or the Columns of Herakles. The name of Atlas 1s indeed found, but with nothimg whatever to connect him with the mountam that subsequently bore his name, or with the local habitation assigned him on the straits that led into the western ocean." Whatever ideas the Greeks may have denyed from tho Phoenicians concernmg the western portions of the Mediter- ranean were of so vague and oating a character, that they can hardly be said to have assumed any geogiaphical form; and they certamly afford us no clue to what may have been the conceptions enteitamed by the Phocians themselves. With /read to the East, on the contaary, they appear to have derived. no ideas at all Though the extent and character of the commerce carned on by the Pheonicians with the distant regions of the Hast 1s still a subject of much controversy among Qusental scholars, 1+ may be assumed as cortuin that they received the commodities of India and other distant Jands, either direct from the countries themselves, or moic probably from an mtermediate entrepét m Arabia, as we shall find was the caso with the Gieeks at a much later peuod.® In this respect indeed they appoaa to have been very much m the same position as the Venetians in the middle ages, and to havo {constituted the only channel through which the valuable pro- ducts of the East passed into the hands of the western nations. As we learn from the Hebrew witmgs that this was the caso Jas early as the time of Solomon (3.0 1000), it 1s certainly ( strange that not the shghtest trace or allusion m any form 1s 1 This point will be more fully ex- ammed 1m the next chapter * On this subject I must refer my readers to the learned and able ariicles on Tansuisx ond Orme, by Mr ‘Twisloton, in Dr Sraxth’s Diet of Babl Geogr , where tho wholo question wall be found fully snveshigated * ‘This appears fiom tho well-known passage im the Furst Book of Kings, ch xx ‘Tho moro elaborate desonp- tion uf the commerco of Tyo in tho 27th chapter of Ezclnel belongs of course 1) a much lator period, about the begmnmg of tho sixth century, Bo.Cur 1 INTRODUCTORY. 9 to be found in the Homeric poems to those regions of the far East, which wee to the Gieeks im all subsequent ages pre- emumently the land of marvel and of mystery. The only geographical notion—vague and floating as it was —which must have been deiived by the early Gieeks from this source, was that of the Aithopians—“burnt or black men”—a nation with whom the Egyptians had long been famihar, and of whom the knowledge probably passed from them through the Phoenicians to the Greeks Through the Egyptians also must have come the fable of a 1ace of Pygmes, situated apparently m the Sofith of Africa, on the Ocean stream, and engaged im constant wars with the cranes that visited their country as immigrants from the North? § 5. It does not fall within the scope of the present work to enter mto a detailed examination of the Phoenician commerce, even if there were more trustworthy materials than are really available for such an mquiry. But two of the artcles which the Gieeks unquestionably derived from them, and which they were supposed to import from some of the most distant regions of the known world, require a special mention im this place, fiom their connection with geogiaphical questions that we shall find recurring at almost every stage of ow future mvesti- gations Tin and amber, two pioducts of are occurrence, and almost wholly unknown within the basin of the Mediterranean,? were certainly both of them well known to the Greeks; and in ‘both cases there seems no room to doubt that they had been , mtioduced to them by the Phoenicians. Tin, which was called by the Greeks cassiteros, 1s repeatedly mentioned in the Homeric poems,* and although its use as a separate metal would always be limited m extent, it was employed from a author, and the fact seems to havo certamly beon unknown in anacnt tames 2 Homer, Iliad, x1 25,34, xvut, 474, 564 Its ready fusbility 18 alluded to by Homod, Theogon vy. 862. 2 "Phe passages in the Homene poems which refer to the Athiopians ‘and the Pygmies will be considered in the next chapter + Amber 18 found, though in small quantities, near Catanta an Sieily, but no notice of this is found m any ancient10 HISTORY OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPIY. Cuar I very early period as an alloy of copper, its mixture with which produced the compound now known as bronze, so valuable from its superior hardness, and which on that account was extensively used by all the nations of antiquity. But there exists much difference of opmion with regard to the quarter from whence this tm was procmed by the Phoenicians m carly ages At a somewhat later period, but still long before the time of Herodotus, 1t 18 certam that the prmerpal, if not the sole, source fiom which the tim used by the nations of the Meditenanean was supplied, was fiom certam islands 1a the Western Ocean, knowm to the Giecks by name as the Cassiterrdes 01 Tin Islands, but the situation of which was unknown to Herodotus,‘ and probably also to all his contem- poranes Late formation however leaves no doubt that the {islands thus designated were the Scully Islands, together with the adjacent penimsula of Cornwall, which was eroncously sup- ,posed to be a larger island of the same guoup, and from which in .eahty all the tin was procwed® No allusion to theso islands 1s however found m tho Homeric poems, nor in any author earher than Herodotus, and 11 is probable that for centuries the Greeks continued to receive thow supplies of this important metal from the Phoenicians without any mqury as to the locality fom which it was denved That people wero also from very early ages distinguished for their skill as workers in metals, and there can be no doubt that it was from them the Grecks fist learnt the art of making honze, and piobably in the first imstance imported all articles composcd of that metal ready manufactured ° 4 He says distinctly that he has no Inouledge of tho lands called Cassi forides, from which tin was brought Qu 115) But, be adds, xt 18 certain that, ag well as amber, af was brought from the extreme regions of the world No tm is found m the Selly Idlands, nor 18 xt probable that at evor ‘was produced there , but the oceurroneo of this group of islauds wo nea. to tho mainland naturally Jed to the suppo- sition that Ue whole were connocted together "im 18 also found 1 considerable quantities m Devonshire , bui from its inland poattion on tho borders of Dart- moor, this 18 much lees likely to havo attracted the attontion of traders than ‘that of Comwall * Homer dhetinguishos Sidon by the