Ernst and Peter Neufert Architects’ Data Third Edition Edited by Bousmaha Baiche DipArch, MPhil, PhD School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University and Nicholas Walliman DipArch, PhD, RIBA School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University b Blackwell ScienceThroughout history man has created things to be of service to him using measurements relating to his body. Until relatively recent times, the limbs of humans ware the basis for all the units of measurement, Even today many people would have a better understanding of the size of an abject if they were told that it was so many men high, so many paces long, 80 many feet wider ar so many heads bigger. These are concepts we have from birth, the sizes of which can be said to be in our nature. However, the introduction of metric dimensions put an end to that way of depicting our world Using the metric scale, architects have to try to create ‘9 mental picture that is as accurate and as vivid as possible, Clients are doing the same when they measure fooms on a plan to envisage the dimensions in reality. Architects should familiarise themselves with the size of rooms and the objects they contain so that they can Picture and convey the real size of yet-to-be designed furniture, zooms of buildings in each line they draw and ach dimension they measure. We immediately have an accurate idea of the size of an jobject when we see a man (real or imaginary) next toi It i a sign of our times that pictures of buildings and rooms presented in our trade and professional journals are too fften shown without people present in them. From pictures alone, we often obtain a false idea of the size of these rooms and buildings and are surprised how different they appear in reality ~ frequently, they seem ‘much smaller than expected. One of the reasons for the failure of buildings to have cohesive relationships with fone another is because the designers have based their work on different arbitrary scales and not on the only true Scale, namely that of human beings. It this is ever to be changed, architects and designers must be shown how these thoughtlessly accepted measurements have developed and how they can be avoided. They have to understand the relationship between the sizes of human limbs and what space a person requires in various postures and whilst moving around, They must also know the sizes of objects Utensils, clothing ete. in everyday use to be able to determine suitable dimensions for containers and furnitue. In addition, architects and designers have to know what space humans need between furniture ~ both in the hhome and in the workplace ~ as well as how the furniture ‘can best be positioned. Without this knowledge, they will bbe unable to ereate an environment in which no space is wasted and people can comfortably perform their duties ‘or enjoy relaxation time, Finally, architects and designers must know the ‘dimensions for minimum space requirements for people moving around in, for example, railways and vehicles, These minimum space requirements produce strongly fixed impressions from which, often unconsciously, other dimensions of spaces are derived ‘Man is not simply a physical being, who needs room, Emotional response is no less important; the way people feel about any space depends crucially on how it is divided up, painted, lit, entered, and furnishes. ‘Starting ‘out from all these considerations and perceptions, Ernst Neufert began in 1926 to collect ‘methodically the experiences gained in a varied practice ‘and teaching activities. He developed a ‘theory of planning’ based on the human being and provided 8 framework for assessing the dimensions of buildings and their constituent parts. The results were embodied in this INTRODUCTION book. Many questions of principle were examined, developed and weighed against one another for the fist In the current edition up-to-date technical options are included to the fullest extent and common standards are taken into consideration, Description is Kept to the absolute minimum necessary and is augmented or replaced as far as possible by drawings. Creative building ‘designers can thus obtain the necessary information for design in an orderly, briel, and coherent form, which otherwise they would have to collect together laboriously from many reference sources or obtain by detailed measurement of completed buildings. Importance has been attached to giving anly a summary; the funclamental data and experiences are compared with finished buildings only if it is necessary to provide a suitable example BY and large, apart from the requirements of pertinent standards, each project is differant and so should be studied, approached and designed afresh by the architect. Only in this way can there be lively progress within the spit of the times. However, executed projects lend themselves too readily to imitation, or establish Conventions fram which architects of similar projects may find difficulty in detaching themselves. It creative ‘atchitects are given only constituent parts, a8 is the intention here, they ate compelled to weave the components together into their own imaginative and unified constuction Finally, the component parts presented here have been systematically researched from the literature to provide the data necessary for individual building tasks, checked ut on well-known buildings of a similar type and, where necessary, determined from models and experiments The objective of this is always that of saving practising building planners from having to carry out all of these basic investigations, thereby enabling them to devote themselves to the important creative aspects of the taskMAN: THE UNIVERSAL STANDARD = } J 1 € J | ‘The oldest known code of dimensional relationships of man was found in a burial chamber of the pyramids near Memphis and are estimated to date back to roughly 3000 fac. Certainly since then, scientists and artists have been trying hard to refine human proportional relationships, We know about the proportional systems of the Empire fof the Pharaohs, of the time of Ptolemy, the Greeks and the Romans, and even the system of Polycletes, which fo ong time was applied as the standard, the details given by Albert, Leonarde da Vinci, Michelangela and the people of the Middle Ages. In particular, the work of Direr is known throughout the world. In all of these works, the calculations for a man’s body were based on the lengths of heads, faces or feet. These were then subdivided and brought into relationship with each other, so that they were applicable throughout general lif, Even within our ‘own lifetimes, feet and ells have been in common use as measurements ‘The dotails worked out by Durer became a common standard and were used extensively. He started with the height of man and expressed the subdivisions as actions Yah = the whole of the top half of the body, from the crotch upwards ‘Y4h = leg length from the ankle to the knee and from the chin to the navel length of foot head length from the hair parting to the bottom of the chin, distance between the nipples ‘Wioh= face height and width (including the ears), hand length to the wri ‘ii2h= face width at the level of the bottom of the nose, leg width (above the ankle) and so on. The sub-divisions go up to Yeoh. Yen Yeh During the last century, A. Zeising, brought gre clarity with his investigations of the dimensional relationship of man’s proportions. He made exact ‘measurements and comparisons on the basis of the golden section. Unfortunately, this work did not receive the attention it deserved ‘until recently, when a significant researcher in this field, E. Moessel, endorsed Zeising’s work by making thorough tests carried out following his methods. From 1945 onwards, Le Corbusier used forall his projects the sectional relationships in accordance with the {golden section, which he called ‘Le Modulor’~ p. 30. 15MAN: DIMENSIONS AND SPACE REQUIREMENTS Body measurements” | I WAUMUAU JAW : 8 @ a 7 TNS eo ) @ eee ‘A : ip PEEL Soman aonMAN: SMALL SPACES@ sevine D riod sou ©-@ eredin ot ern seen water vga bamane ‘The function of housing is to protect man against the woat and to provide an environment that maintains his well-being ‘Tho required inside atmosphore comprises gently moving te. ‘ot draughty), well oxygenated air, pleasant warmth and sir humidity and sufficient light. To provide these conditions, important factors are the location and orientation of the housing in the landscape (»p. 272) a8 well asthe rangement ‘of spaces in the house and its typeof construction The prime requirements for promoting a lasting feeling of wellbeing are an inuated construction, with appropriately Sed windows placed correctly in relation to the roam furnishings, sufficient hesting and corresponding draught-tre ventlation “The need for air Man breathes in oxygen withthe air and expels carbon dioxide ‘and water vapour when he exhales. These vary in quantity ‘epending on the individual's weight, food intake, activity and Ssuteounding environment ~ (= Ie has Bean calevated that on average human beings produce 0.020m%m of carton dioxide and 40gih of water "A carbon dioxide content between 1 and 3% can stimulate deeper breathing, 80 the si inthe dweling should not s far as possible, contain more than Ti. This means, with a single change a ar per hour, a requirement fr an ar space of 32m? por ‘adult and 151m? foreach chil. However, because the natural rate fof air exchange in freestanding buildings, even with closed ‘windows, reaches 12 to 2 times this amount, 16-24" is Sulciont (depending on the design) as a normal ar space for adults and 8-121? for children. Expressed another way, wih 3 oom height 225m, a room floor area of 6 4-8.6m foreach adult is adequate and 32-4 8m? for each child With a greater rate of air exchange, fe. sleeping with a window open, oF ventilation ‘ia ducting), the volume of space per person for ving rooms can be reduced to 75m? and fr bedrooms to 10m! per bed Where air quality is likely to deteriorate because of naked lights, vapours and other pollutant as in hospitals or factories) {and in enclosed spaces (such as you in an auditorium) rate of ‘exchange of air must be artificially boosted in order to provide the lacking oxygen and remove the hermful substances. ‘Space heating ‘The room temperature for humans at rest i atts most pleasant bbetwoon 18" and 20°C, and for work between TS%and 18°C, depending on the level of activity. A human being produces ‘about 1.5kcalh per kg of body weight. An adult weighing 7Okg therefore generates 2520kcal of heat energy per day, although the quantity produced varies according to the circumstances. For instance itinereases with & drop in oom temperature just ‘asi does with exercise ‘When heating 8 foom, cate must be taken to ensure that low ‘temperature heat is used to warm the room aie on tho cold side the room. With surface temperatures above 70-80°C decom position can take place, which may irritate the mucous membrane, mouth and pharynx and mako the air feel too dry Because ofthis, steam heating and iron stoves, with their high surface temperature, are not suitable for use in Blocks of flats MAN AND HIS HOUSING ee Room humidity Room ar is most pleasant with 2 hhumiaty of 50-60%, & should be maintained between limits 40% and 70%. Room air which is toa moist promotes germs, maul ald bridging, rot and condensation. ~ @). ‘The production of water vapour in humo beings varies in accordance with. the prevailing conditions and performs an Important cooling function. Production inereases with rising warmth of the room, particularly when the temperature goes bove 37°C blood temperature © sat accumsan ond ose. © Maman expenditure ot anarsy — 7 2 yg © mententn Saar 1920 © seaesart osuuseezesa © Fatt comfort eat © Fats ot coment © Hen nn tows © nse| HA © Fits of contort ® ‘aa ot contort ROOM CLIMATE Inthe same way asthe earth has a cima, th neds of bung alsa have climote wth mansurble valves for rpressre, Mum, ‘empeatre, velocity ofr eeation and mara sunshine the or ‘trated eat Eton contol of toes factor ado optima oom omlo and cones fo mans overall heath and sty to peor \satever tasks hee engaged in. Thermal orto expr when ‘he thermal processes hin the bady aren blanc ohn ebay ‘Ssspated rom the Boaycoresoonds with the equim loss of est tothe surrounding area Temperature regulation and heat loss from the body ‘The human body ean is torr the atest which owes hea ing increasing the Blood cxculation speed, vascular dilation and secreting Seca. en cold the ody uses msclar siweing 1 gover Heat is Tost from the Bodin three main ways: conduction, onvection and radiation, Conduction sth races of hal Wane Hors tne surfoce to another surface when they ae in contact (a. fet in ontact wt the foo Tha rat of heat taser dope o the erase Brea in contac, the temperature frente! and the thermal Eondvctvies ofthe matte involved. Copp for example has 3 high thermal conductivity whe tat of as owe making porousinauiatng ‘mato. Convection is tha prowess of yest ben tse the sek ‘arm the surroundings ‘This process goveroad bythe weossy of {he ereulting atin te oom andthe temperature ferent between the cated and undated teas fh body. Ai eteuation azo civen by convecson: nr wotms troy contact wth hot objects fey. ‘adits rises, cool off on the caling and sks again, As suites the a caries stand floating partls wr The ua the heating tedium fows eg water in radiator ta ques the development Steeulaion All sbjects sncluding the human body, em heat sa in szordance to fomperstaresifferonoe bebween the body sage ad that ofthe ambient ares. re proportional ete power a othe boys $Sooolut fomperature and thoretors 1 mes oe hgh the temperature ‘Sutles Tha wavelength of ha action lo changes wt temps the higher the surface temperatre he shore the wavelength Abo 500°C: heat bogomes wale as gh. The rosaton below thi bent Is {led ina reanont raion rales no cectons, penta th ‘Srathout eating te ands absorbed by for rfectad of ther sd Sods In absorbing fe vadaton,theea sod bodies nlusing Maran Bote) are warmed This rion heat absorption by the body te ram te stoves! isthe mort passant anasto for humans for pysloe ‘easans and als the most hel ‘ther heat exchange mechanisms used bythe human body are ot moisture trom the sweat glands and breathing, The four pressure eifermtiolhetweon the sin and Surrounding areas are key factors here [an air temperature of 20-24 rs comvortble Both in summer ang in ‘ter The surrounding surtace areas shoul not ier by move tan 253° rom the sir temperature Achange n thea tempersture ca be Compensated or by changing ths Secresing st torperatore meron the ‘soo grast For coma, heal conduction to the Floor vis the ost mut be avoided io. tho Noor temperature should be 17 on more The surface temperature ofthe ceing dopants upon the Height o the tom. The temperate seed by humane is sommunere athe overage ten f important to contol sir maverent and humidity 35 fa 96 possible The movemant can be sensed a draughts ond tis has bret of focal eoting ofthe Body relive nr mums of 400% = Comfort With afomer humdy eg, 9) parte ae aba To mintoin the quality of he a controlied ventions ideal. The co; euntant ofthe ar must bo replaced by oxygen. ACO, content of Ose by volume should not be exceeded and thereore in ving ooms and bedrooms provide fortwo to three mr emanges par hoot “ho Tran eb requirement at humans comes to about 32 mh s0 the Bir change ining rooms should be 04-0. timer the room ‘main ea surface re ee s [sane ws “a Soon Comparative elative humidity values@ eth bed on am intrseton samen @ Seamer ony HEHE tt SSreccteettneeattore! ©) Srtirrnmed etrosinee BUILDING BIOLOGY For aver a decade, medical doctors such as Or Palo and Dr Hartmann et the Research Forum for Geobiology, Eberbach: Woldbrunn Waldkatzenbach, among others, have been researching the effects thatthe environment has an people: articular the effects of the ground, buildings, rooms, building materials and installations, Stretched across the whole of the earth isa so-calld ‘global net 1 consisting of stationary waves, thought 10 be induced by the sun. However ts regularity, according to Hartmann ss sch that Soagests an earthly radiation which emanates from inside the sarin and i effected! by erstaline structures in th earths crust, ‘which orders it in such @ network. The network ie orientated ‘magnetically, n tps of about 200mm wih from the magnetic 2 spacing of about 250m. At ght angles to these ae other strips Tuning n an eastiwestcvection ata spacing of about 2m = These strips have been revesled, through experience, 10 have psychologically detimental effects, particulary when one is repeatedly at rest over a point of intersection for long periods (eg. when in bed). In addltion to this, rooms which correspond to the right angles of the net do not display the ‘same pathogenic influences, These intersection points only become really pathogenic when they coincide with geological disturbances, such as fouls fre the most influential 3) Henge, there a cumulative effect involved so the best situation isto make use ofthe undisturbed zone or area of 180+220m between the global stip = ‘ecording to Hartmann, the most effective action isto mave the bed out of the cisturbance area, particularly away from the According 10 Palm. the apparent global net of about 2<250m is made up of half distance ines. The actual network ‘vould be, asa result,» global net with strips at 5m and S-6m fenties, running dead straight in the eastwest direction all round the earth: Every Th one of these net sips i¢ reported to be of a so-called 2nd order and have an influence many times Greater than the others. Also based on sevenths, an even Songer disturbance zane has been identified asa so-called 3 trder: This 8 t @ spacing of about 250 and 300m respectively. The intersection points here aro also felt particularly srongiy ‘Also according to Palm, in Europe thee are deviations from the above norm of up to 18% rom the norhisouth and the eastwest directions, Americans have observed such sips with the aid of very sensitive cameras fram aeroplanes fving at 2 height of Several thousand meters. Io addition to this, the diagonais also form ther own globsl net, running north-east 10 southwest and from north west to eouthveast = @. This, {00 has its own pattern of strong sevenths, which are about one Auarer as song again in thee eect This stated tht locating of the global strips depends on the reliably of he compass, and that modern building constuction Cam infvence the neode ofthe compass. Thus variations of 1-2 Sslready result in faulty location and ts is sigaficant because the f2dges ofthe stps are particularly pathogenic. Careful detection athe relationships requires much time and experience, art bfton needs several investigations to cross check the results. The fisturbance zones are located with divining rods or radio fequipment Just a the radition pattern is broken vertically athe interesction between ground and aire. atthe earth's surface), Endros has demonstrated with models that these brake ar also ‘detectable on the solid floors of multitorey buildings. 7. He has shown @ clear ilustration of these breaks caused by an linderground sear) and measured the strength of the ‘istrbances above a watercourse 3) ‘The main detrimental affect of such pathogenic zones is that of ‘devitalisation' Tor example, twedness, disturbances of the heart, kidneys, circulation, breathing, stomach and metabolis and could extend as far ae serious chronic diseases such a Eancer-In most cases, moving the bed 0 @ disturbance: tie zone fives rele wthin a short space of me». The effect of so Called neutralising apparate debatable, many of them having been discovered to be a source of dsturbanos, Disturbance does not occu, seems, n rooms proportioned to the golden section eg. height 3m, wth 4, length Sem) ond round houses oF hexagonal plans honeycomb) are also praised 22 smasatanonephoce” © matte ahd pane ° ° o°0 00 54 ° Po ° C6 ° se z ® 8: Sen © Pome srctr of ete ‘Atphat sheeting diverts the south inlined radiation ‘mre ot emanatians ote begining of tenet oom ae thick (at comprened end ead: bitomen ‘couted) beer BUILDING BIOLOGY Physicist recognise that mater exist n three ‘phate’, depending on ‘ae tomperatre and extonalpressur (al sah (hd ae fe) (Gaseous. For example, wih eter whon under OC i exste 989 sod (Gi namely ce at norma temperature = (b= water wien over 100" ‘Tel= eam. Other matera change phase at ierant tempat ‘The atoms of molacie that makeup the material ae in coneart ration. In sod metas, for example, the atoms worte around Fed bocomes incessingyaptated unt the mating pint reached A this temperature, tho Bonds holding specie atoms together are broken ‘doe and metal quetsctonoceurs enabling te atoms fo move more frety 2. Furor heating eauses more exatation othe tome unt the ting point reached. Her, the mation i eo enerpete thatthe sams an escape al ner atom forces ofatacon and tapers to form the fmieous state" @. On the vere sii, a ome or maeclat ‘movement tops compel t absolute zero, O kevin OK =-273 1810). “Those transitons in metals ars, however not typical ol al raters. Tae atomic or molecular arangement of each material {Gvesitits awn properties and setotes how treet a and atc te Surroundings. In the case of glass, for example, although st Spparenty soldat room temperature, it does not have a crstaline Structure, the atoms being in random, amorphous state Kl therefore, technically, a supercooled liquid. The density of vapour ‘molecules in air depends on the tomporatur, so the wate’ molecules Aifuse to the cooler sie (where the density is ower. To replace thom, aie molecules aise to the lnsige, both movements being Indore bythe ifaion resistance ofthe wal construction = Many yoars of research ‘on building materia by Schrader Speck suggest tht organic materials abeor or bres up raciation of neal ‘ngin For instance, saphat mating, wth 100mm stp edge overs _ilround plac on concrete Moors verte he previously penetrating fedation. The adjcant room, however received bundled diverted ‘ays. = -. in an aternaive xperment. p granuleteg crt floor ‘showed 3 capacity fo abso the radiation, Conk aheats 2530 thick {not compressed and sealed), tongued and grooved al ound ses stable ‘Clay i regarded asa “healthy earth’ and brieks and rooting tos fied at about 850°C give the optimum living conditions. For breklaying,sulphueeee white ime is recommended, produced by aking burnt imo i a saking pit and where fety limes produced fvough maturation” Hydraulic ime should, however, be used in walls subject to damp. Lime has wellknown antaeptic qualities and |S common uted as ime wosh in sables end cow shed, Plaster is considered best whe i ed ae far alow 200°C as possible, preferabiy with a constant humic sila to. ama textes leather sk ete} Sandstone a natural ime-randstone ie stzeptab ut should not be used for compete wall, Timber is light and warm and is the most vital of buling ‘materials, Timber preservation treatments sould be derived fom the dilaton of wood welt (eg. 26 wood vinegar, wood olor wood tar) Timber reacts well to odours and. a therefore ‘eeommendd that gnuine timber be used for ter cladding, necessary a8 plywood using natrat glues. Ideally the “ld ules Should be fllowod: timber fled only in winter, during the waning ‘moan, then watered for one year ina cly pit before ti sow Howover this every expensive For inslation, nara! building materials such a8 cork granules and cork sheets (ineluding those with bitumen coating! ee Fecommended, 26 well as al plant based mating (eg. sen gre, coconut fibre ete together with expended tay end datomaceous ‘arth fossil meal Pastis, mineral floes, mineral woo, gas bre, berated concrete, foamed concrete and corrugated surmni tt {te not considered tobe sattartory [Norm lasso lanng o erytl gs counts as neutral Geter sail is quartz glass for bi-glass), which vansmite 70-00% ofthe Sits'ilet ight. Doubts exist about coloured glass. Glazing units With glass wolded edges ae preterabie to those with metal or plate Ssiled edges. One is seopteal about coloured gas Mats fjected by Palm for extorar wal, a well ¢ for vse on largo areas. This icles copper for rots on dwelinge (but not On churches. Ganeraly the adic st avoid the extensive oe of meta Coppers oarated he baton i ejected raster, logy, case ‘turbance in radi of fm) Zine ale tolerated, ase end Bronce, too, acceptabe 275% copper and aluminium i regarded 9s having ‘ature, Asbestos sould not be used With pstog is ecomnended at searell study ie made ofthe contents and method of manuteture ‘ofthe paint in oxder to prevent the troducton of damon adation Piast are_genorly ogorded having no harmful ade effects Concrete, partcully renforeed coneet, i rojected in abe and arches bis however, permed in foundotions and calorSen os setae oS ron Bo © Qy'ancrte Moor rien “2980 produced se rele [rPiediphn dopant om {he in of dy isco © circa econ bot te 2 occonng to Lat BUILDING BIOLOGY A differentiation should be made between concrete with clinker ‘aggregate and man-made plaster {which have extremly high fadistion values} and ‘natural cement and plaster Lightweight oncrete with expanded clay aggregate is tolerable. ‘All pipes for water [cold oF hot), sewage oF gas radiate to theie surroundings and can influence the organs of living ‘creatures as well as plants. Therefore, rooms thal are occupied ‘by humans and animals for long periods of time e.g. bedrooms | land living roams) should be as far away a5 possible from Pinework Consequently, is recommended that all Installations are concentrated inthe centre of the dweling in the kitchen oF bathroom, ar collected together in a service wall, (p.277 @). ‘There is @ similar problem with electrical witing carrying aiternating current. Even sf cutrent does not flow, electrical fields with pathogenic effects are formed, and when current is being drawn, the electromagnetic fields created are reputed to be even more havmful. Dr Hartmann found an immediate cure irone case of disturbed well-being by getting the pation pull ‘out the plug and therefore eliminate the current in the flex ‘which went around the head of his bed ~ (Dn another case Similar symptoms were cured by moving a cable running ‘between an elatric heater and the thermostat from behind the head of the double bed to the other side of the room» Loose cables are particularly woublesome, as they produce 3 50H? alternating field syndrome. In addition, lectrical frquipment, such as heaters, washing machines, dish washer, boilers and, particulary, microwave ovens with defective seas, situated next to or beneath bedrooms send oUt pathogenic Faciation thraugh the walls and floor, 80 that the inhabitants fare often in an area of soveral influences ~ (3). Radiation can largely be avoided in new buildings by using wiring with npropriate insulating sheathing. In existing structures the only Solution isto relay the cables or switch off the current at the ‘meter For this purpose it's now possible to obtain automatic shutoff switches when no current is being consumed. In this fase, a separate circuit is required for appliances that cun constantly (eg. freezers, refrigerators, boilers et ‘Additionally, harmful radiation covers large areas around transformer stations (Schroder Speck measured radiation from 23-10-20000V station as far away as 30-50m to the north and 420-150m to the south), electric raiiways and high volage power lines, Even the power earthing of many closely spaced houses ean give rise to pathogenic effects, ‘The human metabolism is influenced by ions (electically charged particles). A person in the open air I subjected to an Slectrcal voltage of about 180Y, although under very sight turrent due tothe lack of @ charge casi There can be up to Several thousand ions in one cuble metre of air. depending on ‘Geographical location and local conditions» @). They vary in ‘Sze and it the medium and small ions that have a biological elect. A strong electrical force fold is produced between the ‘mostly negatively charged surface of the earth and the [ostvely charged air and this affects the body. The esearch of ‘Tachishewsk) inthe 1920s revealed the beneficial influence of negative ions on animals and humans, and showed 3 progressive reduction inthe electrical potential of humans with Increasing age. In edltion, the more negative ions there are in the air the slower the rate at which humans age. Research in the last 50 years has also confirmed the beneficial effects of Iegative ions in the treatment of high Blood pressure, ath, Cireulation problems and rheumatism. The positive ions are predominant in closed rooms, particularly they are dusty. Fooms; but only negatively charged oxygenated air is biologically valuable. There isa large choice of devices which fan be placed in work and utility rooms to artificially produce the negative ios 8. which produce the desirable steady fil Such steady fields (continuous current fields) change the polarisation of undesirably charged ions to create improved oom air conditions. The devices are available in the form of Celing electrodes and table or floor mounted units (SU ie.a measurement value; derived trom Suhr, the home town of Schrader Speck! 23THE EYE: PERCEPTION 00 00 00 00 000000 00 H }/00 0000 oO}eso ne unualy ‘igonometry| JL Te, © spar rt into ot {oe seen bat ste so ‘Tanta woicniepercoved——_profectins must bs paced ‘rom ground inet Sotcienty bi wp ose a THE EYE: PERCEPTION Interpretation ‘The activity of the eve is divided into seeing and observing. Seeing first of all serves our physical safety but observing takes over where seeing finishes; it leads to enjoyment of the ‘pictures’ registered through seeing. One can differentiate between a sill and a scanned picture by the way that the eye stays on an object or scans along it. The Stil picture is displayed in a segment of the area ofa circle, whose diameter isthe same as the distance of the eye from the object. Inside this ied of view the objects appear tothe eye ‘at a glance’ ~The ideal still picture is displayed in balance. Balance is the first characteristic of architectural beauty, (Physiologists are working on a theory of the sixth ‘sense ~the sense of balance or static sense -that underpins the sense of beauty we feel with regard to symmetrical harmonious things and proportions |~ pp. 27-30) or when we are faced with elements that are in balance.) Outside this framework, the eye receives its impressions bby scanning the picture. The scanning eye works forward along the obstacles of resistance which it meets as it directs itself away from us in width or depth. Ostacies ofthe same ‘oF recurring distances are detected by the eye as a beat’ or ‘2 ‘mhythm’, which has the same appeal as the sounds received by the ear from music. ‘Architecture is Frozen Music, This effect occurs even when regarding still or ‘scanned picture of an enclosed area (P and @ ‘A room whose top demarcation (the ceiling) we recognise in the still picture gives @ feeling of security, but fon the other hand in long rooms it gives a feeling of depression. With a high ceiling, which the eye can only recognise at frst by scanning, the room appears free and sublime, provided that the distance between the wall, and hence the general proportions, are in harmony. Designers ‘must be careful with this because the eye is susceptible to ‘optical illusions. It estimates the extent of width more fexactly than depths or heights, the latter always appearing larger. Thus @ tower seems much higher when seen from ‘above rather than from below ~ p. 24 {9 and GB. Vertical ‘edges have the effect of overhanging at the top and horizontal ones of curving up in the middle ~ p. 28 () ~ & 88. When taking these things into account, the designer should not resort to the other extreme (Baroque) and, for example, reinforce the effect of perspective by inclined Windows and cornices (St Peter's in Rome) of even by Comnices and vaulting painted in perspective and the like The decisive factor for the measurement of size is the size of the field of view and, if applicable, the field of vision +) and, for the exact differentiation of details the size of the field of reading») and ). The distance of the latter datermines the size ofthe details to be differentiated ‘The Greeks complied exactly with this rule. The size of the emallast moulding under the cornice of the individual temples of varying height is so dimensioned that, at an angular distance of 27°» @), it complies with the reading field of 0°, From this alsa results the reading distances for ‘books (which varies with the size of the letters) and the seating plans for auditoriums etc. 2526 see aon tel ‘toe tt ang See Inet the sane oe ight sda are ona Oneonta @ ightness of surfaces © romecras sae © White «dominant ote MAN AND COLOUR Colours have a power over humans, They can create feclings of well-being, unease, activity or passivity, for instance. Colouring in factories, offices or schools can lenhance or reduce performance; in hospitals it can have a positive influence on patients’ health. Ths influence works indirectly through making rooms appear wider ar narrower, thereby giving an impression of space, which promotes a feeling of restriction or freedom. S)- 7) I also works directly through the physical reactions or impulses evoked by the individual colours .2)and @). The strongest impulse offect comes from orange: then follow yellow, red, green, and purple, The weakest impulse effect comes from bive, ‘reeny blue and violet (i.e. cold and passive colours) ‘Strong impulse colours are suitable only for small areas ina room. Conversely, ow impulse colours can be used for large areas. Warm colours have an active and stimulating effect, which in certain circumstances can be exciting. Cold colours have a passive effect - calming and spiritual. Green causes nervous tension, The effects produced by colour ‘iso depend on brightness and location. Warm and bright colours viewed overhead have @ spiritually stimulating effect; viewed from the side, 2 warming, drawing closer effect; and, seen below, @ lightening, elevating eect. Warm and dark colours viewed above are enclosing or dignified; seen from the side, embracing; and, seen below, suggest safe to grip and to read on, Cold and bright colours above brighten things up and are relaxing: from the side they seem to lead away; and, seen below, look smooth and stimulating for walking an. Cold and dark colours are threatening when above; cold and sad from the side; and burdensome, dragging down, ‘when below. ‘White is the colour of total purity, cleanliness and order White plays a leading role in the colour design of rooms, breaking up and neutralising other groups of colours, and thereby create an invigorating brightness, As the colour of order, white is used as the characteristic surface for warehouses and storage places, for road lines and traffic markings» B. © rman sien Values between theoretical white (100%) and absolute black (0%) white paper a chalky white 80 citron yellow 70 ivory approx. 70, cream approx. 70, gold yellow, pure 60 straw yellow 6 light ochre approx. 60, pure chrome yellow 50 pure orange 25-20 light brown pure beige mid brown simon pink full scarlet deep violet light blue deep sky blue turquoise blue, ps approx. 25, approx. 25, approx. 15, approx. 40, 16 10 approx. 5 140-50 30 wre 18. {grass green approx. 20 asphalt, ry approx. 20 lime green,pastel approx 50 asphalt, wet approx. 5 silver grey approx. 35 oak dark approx. 18 grey lime plaster approx. 82 09k light approx. 33 try concrete, grey approx 32 walnut approx. 18 plywood approx. 38 light spruce approx. 50 yellow brick approx. 32 aluminium foil 8 Fed brick approx. 18 galvanised iron sheet 16 dark clinker approx. 10, mid stone colour 35© Ween yconter ma” © Fire © eewinaa ante nsegon © @ decaoon and te goean DIMENSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Basis ‘There have been agreements on the dimensioning of buildings since eally times. Essential specific data originated in the time of Pythagoras. He started from the basis that the numerical proportions found in acoustics ‘must also be optically harmonious. From this, Pythagoras developed his right-angled triangle (). It contains all the harmonious interval proportions, but excludes both the disharmonious intervals (.e. the second and seventh ‘Space measurements are supposed to have been derived from these numerical proportions. Pythagoras or diophantine equations resulted in groups of numerals.» 2) = that should be used for the width, height and length of rooms. These groups can be calculated using the formula er ae beoe Wy? 2) t2exey my? + x2) In this x and y are all whole numbers, xis smaller than y, and mis the magnification or reduction factor ne shapes named by Plato and Vitruvius are portance (ie. cele, triangle (6) and square (© from which polygonal traverses can be constructed. The respective bisection then results in further polygonal traverses. Other polygonal traverses (e.9. heptagon. » ‘nonagon fi) can only be formed by approximation or by superimposition, So we can construct a fifteen sided figure *@ by superimposing the equilateral triangle on the 1900 OF pentagram has 2 natural relationship with the golden section, just like the decagon which is derived from it 9, and + p. 90. However, in earlier times its particular dimensional relationships found hardly any application. Polygonal traverses are necessary for the ‘design and construction of so-called ‘round’ structures. The ‘determination of the most important measurements (radius Band r. chord c, and height ofa triangle h} are shown in 8. © soos ‘Aporoximatad nonage So @ Meonrement cateiaionn polvgonal averse p28 (3 formate a28 © Sete rend ram ne AE © ver nto © mapreertecrrtaes @s DIMENSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Basis A ightangled jose te. raving wo ties ingle ih ¢baseto ses ‘aloof 2 tne ngle stones av oozl angle wt» bose and sie at con be contanes by angen Secs se by Knee ot Catal cratucon fr nedetermntn LV of the devenslonal elaionshipe for the Seasoury Cath Greate cele = @ is someuhat ‘nae pointed tanto prveus one seabed oe tag Iermined byte pot ofa slowes ease hoe Shores sed for ells soo roman ‘pot om eve gue, he snore Sroporions of she Setagon canbe deta o's hoe ate of Stctures, The scales dogonl angers Shas fore The ianglos het sth dagen ore saree neve OD Th sis oth ectangle depicted in nave a rai of 1st inacordane wih a halving or soubogs of thereon ove ha some ao a0 The sop ees crectogon mate ovale georene ates , Th tape ofoqoreronirom crac oncuren The conneston newoan sare vot of whole numbers s own nh The process of otrng mates posible the apc of square rots for busing in non tecengur canoes By buling up approximated voce tr car een MengenghaitonSeelopod the MERO space ames Te Drinaleethes-celd ani The nocrates Orin ight angio areconpenssted tory" te eee Sonnestona ofthe fode at ea, A aut ateenned ‘opronmatedcallaton of sqrercot ot enolenenta ‘itor nonvecanguly compan mca fae le af goninued octone [a'p, Solute eons cerca an +8=1 146 il sereaons— sls —$_- aver — ass = a tet @ Hamam steae aecorang to) Gace ner tna) aometrca!princnte DIMENSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Appli cof geometrical and dimensional relationships on details given earlier was described by Vitruvius. investigations the Roman theatre for example ‘The applies ‘According is built onthe triangle tuned four times» (Dthe Greek theatre fon a square turned three times.» 2\ Both designs result in a ‘dodecagon, This is recognisable onthe stars. Moessel has tied to detect the use of proportional relationships ia accordance with the golden section 3. although this not obvious. The only {Greek theatre whose plan view is based on a pentagon stands in Epidaurus Ina housing estate recently uncovered in Anica: Osta the ole harbour of Rome, the golden section is recognised 3s being the design principle. This principle consists of a bisection of the tiagonal ofa square he points at which the arc oftheccle cuts the sides of the square are joined with \22, a nine-pan grid is ‘obtained. The square the miles called the square ofthe Holy Section. The are AB has up to 8 0.6% deviation and the same length #8 the diagonal CD of the base square. Thus the Holy Section shows an approximate method for squaring the circle = @) The whale buning complex, rom ste pian to the general frrangament deals, s but with thse dimensional proportions, In his four books on architecture, Palladio gives eometical Key, which is based on the detals given by Pythagoras. He uses the same spsce relationships ‘crle Iwlangle, square, ete) and harmonies for his structures (» 3) fn fa ‘Such laws of proportion can be found formulated in ansolutely clear rus by the cultures of the ancient peoples of the For East. > 49. Toe indians with their "Manasara’. the Chinese with their modulation in accordance withthe Toukou’ ‘and, particularly, the Japanese with their ‘Kiwatiho! method have created “structural systemotics, which guarantee Traditional “development and offer immense economic advantages. Inthe Téth century and later, it was net 2 harmonic but an additive arrangement of dimensions which was preferred» 2. ‘The Octametor system developed trom this. Iwas only with the introduction of the modular ordering system that the Understanding of harmonic and proportional dimensional telationships returned ~ € tals of the coordination System and coordination dimensions ae given on pp. 34-5, © marae @ saoenese weary utang @ oui © Ser ey Pat's © Reno bates ecm mede ot ven ‘Sctped am angeDIMENSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Application of Le Modulor The architect Le Corbusier developed 9 theory of 8 Proportion, which is based on the golden section and the o 080m, for engineering structures 1.0-1.5m deep, ‘Methods to improve the load-bearing capacity of the site Vibratory pressure process, with vibrator, compact in 2 radius of 2.3-3m:; separation of the vibration cores approx 1.5m; the area is thus filled; improvement depends on the granulation and original strata. Ground compression piles: Core is filed up with aggregate of varied grain size without bonding agent. Solidification and compression of the ‘round: pressure injaction of cement grout not applicable to cohesive ground and ground which is aggressive t0 cement: only applicable in quartzous ground (gravel, sand land loose stonel; injection of chemicals silicic acid solution, calcium chloride); immediate and. lasting petritaction are 5354 @ oma for ériven ples “tie Edt EARTHWORKS AND FOUNDATION STRUCTURES To calculate the active soil pressure on retaining walls =) and the permissible loading sub sol, the type, composition. extent, stratification and strength ofthe ground strata must be know Where local knowledge is inadequate, trial excavation and boreholes are necessaty (separation of the bore holes = 25m) For pile foundations, he bore depths should extend ta the foot of the piles +2: According to the method of measurement, these depths can be reduced by a third [T = 1B or 2 = pile iameter, but 26 0m) For tho required pile separations for bored piles for driven piles ~ @y Tho stated values do not apply to load-bearing plugged and bored pile wall. For the requisite depth of the load-bearing ground under bored piles 3 for compressed conerete bored piles, rechtel System Pile foundations: Loads ean be transmited bythe piles tothe load-bearing ground by surface friction, end bearing oF both bearings: the type of load transfer depends on the building site and the nature of the piling. Bearing pile foundations. load transmission takes place at ends of the piles onto the ood bearing ground andior through skin tretion, Suspended pile oundetions: the piles do not extend downwards unt the ends are on the load: bearing region. Weak load-bearing layers are compacted by pile driving Type o load transfer Frition piles essentially transfer the load through surface fection via the load bearing region around the circumference a he pile. End bearing pes the load is principally "wansmitted by the pile end on ta the bearing statu inthis ease surface friction isnot significant. The permasible end pressure is significantly increased in some types of pile by widening the ‘bates ofthe ples, Position of he piles inthe ground: Faundation piles are in the ‘round over their whole length. Retaining and projscting piles ae free standing piles, whose lower portions only are below Ground: the tops of these piles are exposed and therefore Subject to buckling stresses. ‘Materials wood, stool, concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete piles, ‘Method of insertion in the ground: Driven piles are rammed into the ground by pile driving hammers. Jacked piles are inserted by pressure. Bore piles are inserted by way of a bore hole, Serewed piles are inserted by rotation, With driven tube piles, a stee! tube former is driven into the ground and withdrawn as the concrete pile is cast in it, A distinction is made between piles which compact the ground, pierce it. of 'ass through @ hole in Type of loading’ Axially loaded giles. Bering piles are subject to compressive stresses ~ the load being transmitted through point pressure and surface friction. Tensile piles are subjected to tensile stress with loads transmitted through surface friction. Horizontally loaded piles. Retaining or projecting piles are subject to bending stresses, e.g, Narizortally Toaded large bore piles, sheet piles Monvfacture and instalation: Prefabricated piles are made in finished sections and delivered to the point of use, and driven into the ground by hammering, pressing, vibrating, screwing or by inserting in rendy-prepared bore holes. In situ piles: oe created in hollowed: out chamber inthe ground, sch 9 bored piles, tube piles, auger piles Ea and cylinder piles. Mixed foundation piles are assembled from in situ and i Prefabricated parts. In situ Piles provide the advantage ‘that their length is nt etical bre constuction, and can be esigned on the basis of compaction results, and examination of cores of the Ground strata obtained during x © compressed concrte ore git rsh! System) the boring process.62 @ Beating srry MASONRY Natural Stone Masonry in natural stone is referred to as random rubble squared, dressed, ashiar, uncoursed, coursed, ec. Ga Stone quarried from natural deposits should be laid in the forientation as found in the quarry»), @. @, to give an atvactive and natural appearance this is also better Irom 9 Structural viewpoint as the loading is mainly vertical in pressure between the courses. Igneous stone is suitable for random luncoursed masonry » 2. The length ofthe stones should be four or five times their height, ao more, and certainly no less than the stone height. The stones’ sizes of great signtcance to the ‘scaling of a building. Attention must be paid to good bonding on both sides. n natural masonry, the bonding should show good craftsmanship across the whole cross section. ‘The following guidelines should be observed. 'a) Nowhere on the front end rear faces should more than three joints run into each other (b} No butt joint should run through more than wo courses. {e) There must be a minimum of ane header on two stretcher courses, or the header and stretcher courses should attemate with one other. (d)The depth of the header must be approx. 1.5 times the height of @ course and not less than 300 mm. (6) The stretcher depth must be approx. equal to the course height. (0) The overiap ofthe but joints must be = 100mm [masonry courses) and 160mm on ashlar walling =) — 7 (a) Thelargest stones shouldbe builtin atthe corners. -(P)=\6) “The visible surfaces should be subsequently pointed The masonry should be levelled and trued for structural bearing every 15-20m (scaffold height. The mortar joints should be facing layer can be includ i the load bearing crass section Ifthe Uiekness 2120mm -» (9) Front focing (cladding of 25-S0enm thieknoss (Travertine, limestone, granite, eis not include in the ‘rosesection and the acing anchored tothe masonry with now corroding tie rods, with 9 2mm separation fam tT © Rearetetane Fe a aaa eat eet © Netem™ atinte \ © ‘sit nat panera © ‘site tat tact tt MASONRY Bricks and Blocks As per BS 6100: Section 5.3: 1984, masonry several terms: unit (spacial, shaped, standard plinth, bullnose, squint, solid, cellular, hollow, perforated, common, facing, split-faced, lintel, fixing, conerete, calcium silicate, sandiime, fintlime, fired-elay, terracotta, Taience), header, stretcher, closer (king, queen) and air brick. Brick @ ‘masonry unit not over 338mm in length, 225mm 0 wi 113mm in height. The term ‘brick’ includes engin fogged, hand-made, stock, wire-cut, rusticated, rubbs land damp proof course bricks. Block: a mas exceeding the size of any dimension of brick, inc dense concrete, lightweight concrete, ight aggregate concrete, aerated concrete, autoclaved aerated conerete, thermal insulation, foam-filad concrete, clinker, dry walling, cavity closer and quoin blocks. All masonry work must be horizontally and vertically tre, and properly aligned in accordance with regulations. On double leafed masonry » 7) + Q; floors and roof must be supported only by the inner leat. Masonry leafs should be joined with a min, ofS stainless steel wite ies, 3mm in diameter, per sa mm. The ties are separated 250mm vertically and 750mm horizontallyMASONRY Bricks and Blocks Pte t Masonry walling has to be braced with lateral walls and the tops restrained by upper floors (cellular principle. Bracing ‘walls are plate-ike components whieh stiffen the structure against buckling» p. 63 43. They are rated as supporting walls if they carry more than their own weight from one. storey. Non-supporting walls are plate-like components which are stressed only by their own weight and do not provide buckling support, Recessos and slots have to be cut ‘out or positioned in the masonry bonds. Horizontal and slanting recesses are permitted, but with a slenderness: ratio of © 140mm and thickness > 240mm under special requirements + p. 63 08. Ties should be provided for connection between external walls and partition walls acting as bracing walls that transmit horizontal toads, Horizontal reinforcement is required in structures of more than two complete storeys or which are more than TEltim © Ware cers long, ifthe site conditions damand it, or where there are walls with many or large openings (if the sum of the ‘opening widths is more than 60% of the wall length, oF whore the window width is over 3 of the storey height ar ‘more than 40% ofthe wall length) © Seow © setting ot mensions for maronry work {ted cowitoe ‘ing chonateMASONRY Bricks and Blocks Solis masonry walling comprises a single teal, where the facing work is attached to the background masonry by @ ‘masonry bond. Each course must be at least two brick blocks in depth, betwaen which there is @ continuous, cavity free longitudinal mortar joint of 20mm thickness, The facing leaf is included in the load: bearing cross-section . 63 In double leaf walling without cavity, for load considerations, only the thickness of the inner leaf is taken into account. For calculating the slenderness ratio and spacing of the bracing components, the thickness of the inner shell plus half the thickness of the outer 8 used. i regulations allow it the cavity can be completely filled {double leat cavity walling with insulating cavity fil, Double leaf cavity walling without cavity fi. min. thickness of inner leat”; outer leaf > 118mm: the ait gap should be 6Omm wide; the leafs are connacted by ties 1 =(2. The outer leaf must be supported over the whole area and attached at least every 12m. The air gap is to extend from 100mm above the ground to the roof, without interruption, The outer leafs are to be provided with ventilation openings top and bottom, on every 150mm? ‘wall area lincluding openings). Vertical movement joints are to be provided inthe outer lea, atleast atthe corners of the building, and horizontal movement joints should be provided atthe foundation level 2 Reinforced masonry. wall thickness = 115mm, blockibrick strength classification =12, mortar Il; joints with 20mm reinforcement; steel diameter = 8mm, = 5mm at crossover points. cy aa or ‘Wail types, wall thicknesses: Evidence must be provided ee oe of requited structural wall thicknesses. This not necessary pe oe non where the selected wall thickness is clearly adequate. When wave [ozo Ponte {va [rae [28 | selecting the wall thickness, particular attention should be wa [oe fe Ps Ps [6 TT pict to the function ofthe walls with regard to thermal and ve [ow [~« [f= [= |e] sound insulation, fe protection and damp-proofing. Where » [oe pos pe Pep ep] external walls are not built of frost resistant brick or stone, {an outer rendering, oF other weather protection should be Provided ® Areas of openings in non-supporting walls (nly mortar ta ort ‘Supporting walls are predominantly subjected to compressive stresses. These panel type structural elements enon — a are provided for the acceptance of vertical loads (e.g. floor Soy | os and root loads) and horizontal loads (.9, wind loads. me |v | as | & minim mc ohana nde at © Minima thicknesses of external party and staircase wal “Thickness and spacing af bracing wall 6566 EXTERNAL WALLS Low-energy Building Construction The thermal insulation characteristics of external wails is an important flement in the saving of thermal energy, The insu lation provided by low energy building construc tion is greatly affected by the connections between the various building compo rents. Significant heat losses can accur in these locations. Standard cross sections depicting various types of building materials indicate the insulation values which can be achieved. A large range of building materials are available, such at concrete, masonry, timber, insulation materials, plaster, cork, feeds and clay. Clay nas proved itself as @ building ‘material for thousands of years. is the most Common and most tested ‘material in the world and, biologically and ecologically, is an exemplary. materia Finished clay insulation products are now available ‘and are well suited. to today’s level of technology aw. © (Woatmon teoouse ® Wrecmna @ veiaton of = @ Porton ty insuatingMASONRY BONDS © enanan vone © eration 08 Eagan bond @ Te setter, © enating with © atin eter vont @)Ouararnpstenar nana (D) Sete © Seether one wth ‘ting righ ad att © Rierieencsnn © tee © Se @ Mic ma @ with 42 rick panel Cer Sm soe ® @ wii on r @ Bete tn owe GB) Ans ten v2.4 ek) ) An28 ten v4 ck) GB) A425 Cale + o72 ® covet rat + © seratas putin oo wth cnt hanger | # © covet root PN Mb ee 3M © oar rot with tt oom ROOF STRUCTURES Couple roofs represent the most economical solution for low building widths Collar roots are never the cheapest for slopes under 45%, but are suitable for large free span roots, Simply supported roofs ate always more expensive than couple roofs and are only used in exceptional Roofs with two hangers (vertical posts! almost ‘always are the most economical construction. Purlin roofs with throe hangers are only considered for very wide buildings, >>>)> Roofs form the upper enclosure of buildings, protecting them from precipitation and atmospheric effects (wind, old, heat). They comprise supporting structure and a rool cover. The supporting components depend on the materials used (wood, steel, reinforced conerete, raat slope, type and weight of roof covering, loading, ete. Loading assumptions must comply with current regulations (dead-weight, live loads, wind and snow loadings). distinction is made between roots with and without puri, bacause of their different structural system, and of the different functions of the supporting components. However, these two types of construction may be combined. The different types of load ‘transfer also have consequences for the internal planning of the building. © ‘rend prt oatROOF STRUCTURES Ina purin root, raters have a subordinate funetion (round src ner sare sn paul ar aspen Selene Same, cnaucg las ava Fem the ‘aero th spp neg suppose fo tania tance resol Coy ye ge S SHES Mvtaner"Doute oice pur ove aove a apt one hanger, situated inthe centre ofthe root, Suitable when the length of the raters «5m: on wider house structures, with rafter length = 4.5m, then two or more purlins with suitable vertical hangers are required. A rafter root (rigid triangle principe) is possibe in simple form, with short rafters up 2 45m, If the rafters’ length exceeds 4.5m, intermediate support is required in the form of collars. This regular, strong system of construction provides supportfree Aestsined couple oot with hangers and inte raters internal roof space. Couple close roofs require a strong tensile connection between the feet of the rafters and the calling beams. Sprocketed eaves are a common feature, ‘giving a change of angle in the roof slope. Simple couple {and collar roof construction is unsuitable for large roots, Collar roofs are suitable for building widths to approx 120m, rafter lengths up to 7.5m, collar lengths up to 4m The collar roof isa threelink frame with a tension member, Prefabricated roof trusses are a very common form of structure for pitched roofs. While economical in the use of timber and light and easy to erect, they have the disadvantage of totally obstructing the roof space. LW | © search Seppo op “ind fe ith gong a eat or ft ot erect) mma conto om ndings 73ROOF STRUCTURES © nro sti sabROOF FORMS ROOF COVERINGS Thatched roots are of rye straw or reeds, handthreshed 1.2-1.4m long on battens, 300mm apart withthe thatching materia aid buttond upwards and built upto a thickness of 180-200mm. The life of such a roo! is 60-70 years in a sunny climate, but barely half that in damp conditions, Shingle roots use oak, pine, larch, and, rarely, spruce. Slate roofs are laid on = 25mm thick sheathing of = 160mm wide planks, protected by 200 gauge fet against dust and wind. Overlap is 80mm, preferably 100mm. The most natural ‘effect is given by "German slating’ . (2. Rectangular patterns are more suitable for artificial slates (coment fibre tiles} {3 Tiles: choice of plain tiled, interlocking tiled, oF pantled roof 48, 18-4) ar concrete raat tiles with ridge ‘capping ~ 5. Special shaped tiles are available to match standard roo! tiles + 9: @ Tater oot of rye stam © Sree ranane owe einm © sina rot oasunine Segre © Crt 8 ® Osta preter) se nea 516 Olena cea BAAR RRR ROOF COVERINGS Cement fibre sheet roofs have corrugated sheets with purins 700-1450mm apart with 1.6m long sheets, oF 1150-1175mm_ with 2.5m long sheets. Overlap: 150-200mm »1)- 2 Metal sheet roots are covered in rine, titanium coated zinc, copper, aluminium, galvanised steel sheet, etc. - ©) + ©, Many shapes are available for ridge, eaves, edge, ete. Copper sheet comes in commercially produced sizes 18. Copper has the highest ductility of al metal roofings. so it Is suitable for metal forming operations, pressing, stretching and railing, The ‘characteristic patina of copper is popular. Combinations involving aluminium, titanium coated zine and galvanised steel should be avoided, combinations with lead and high Grade steel are quite safe. Copper roots are impervious to ‘water vapour and are therefore particularly suitabie for cold roots = p.81 Roo! load: calculation in KN per m of root surface. Root coverings ate per Tm? of inclined roof surface without rafters, purins and ties. Roofing of roof tiles and conerete roof tiles: the loadings do not include mortar jointings ~ ada (O.1kN/m? for the joints. © Eaten Orme Sp nanan So eae = S summa © fuer = == i 3 Osman © mse es 7 el sea ° 2 | Bie] fT ee eee ‘Sheet voting iniiniesty © misemw oo / of ® farted somerLOFT SPACE Unoccupied roof space in old Alpine farmhouses served a ‘stores’ for the preservation of harvested crops ihay, straw, tc). They were open at the eaves, so that cold external ai circulated around the roof area, the temperature being litle different from the outside (D, $0 that snow would lie Uniformly distributed on the roof. The living rooms below wore protected from the cold by the goods stored in the ‘oof space. If the roof space was heated, without adequate thermal insulation, the snow would melt and ice would build up on the roof. . The installation of thermal insulation material under the ventilated roof alleviates the Situation. Openings are arranged on twa apposite sides of the ventilated roof space, each equivalent to at least 2% of the roof area which is to be ventilated. So that dampness can be removed, this corresponds on average 10 a slot height of 20mmim (5 = © saci © aro: clean os vntatineonecian op rotere CEI soy © ster goto rm ot ROOF SLOPES AND FLAT ROOFS Cold root .p. 81: constructed with ventilation under raat ‘covering: critical in respect of through flow of air ifthe stone is lass than 10%, therefore, now only used with vapour barrier. Warm roof in conventional form x (consteuction including a vapour barrier from beneath is roa! structure — vapour barrier ~ insulation ~ weatherproofing ~ protective layer. Warm roof in upside-down format. p. 81 construction from beneath is roof structure ~ weatherproofing — insulation using proven material — protective layer as applied load. Warm root with concrete ‘weatherproofing -.p. 81: built rom underneath: insulation = concrete panels as roof structure and waterproofing (risky), Solid slab structure ~ must be arranged to provide room for expansion due to heat; consequently, flexible joints arrangement over supporting walls .p. 80 5)~8)and ssparation of internal walls and roof slab (Styrofoam strips ‘are first attached by adhesive to the underside of the slab). Prerequisites for correct functioning: builtin slope > 1.5%, and preferably 3% (or a build-up of surface water can result) Vapour barrier: if possible, as a 2mm roof felt Incorporating aluminium foil on a loosely lad slip layer of perforated glass fibre mat on top of the concrete root sla, treated with an application of bitumen solution a a dust seal. The vapour barrier is laid as far beneath the 100! bull Up as required to exclude condensation =2)+ 3) Insulation of non-rotting material foam); see dimensions in @ two:layer arrangement or single layer with rebated joints: idealy, interlocking tebates all round, Roof membrane on vapour permeable membrane (corrugated felting or insulating layer to combat bubble formation}, triple layer using the pouring and rolling technique with two layers of gla fibre based raofing felt with a layer of glass fibre matin between, or two layers of felt using the welding method with thick bitumen course [d2 5mm. A single layer of sheeting is permissible, but due to risk of mechanical damage caused by the thinness of the layer and possible faulty seams, two layers offer additional safety Protective layer should consist, it possible, of a 50mm ballast layer with 15-30mm grain size on a doubled hot brush applied layer on a separating membrane; prevents bubble formation, temperature shocks, mechanical and damage trom UY tadiation. Additional protection with &-mm layer of rubber shred sheeting under the ballast layer. The joints should be hot sealed (a basic prerequisite for terraces and roo! gardens). Essential detail points Outlets. p, 80 + @)~ @ always thermally insulated, two draining levels, wth connection also at the vapour barter, to form an outlet then sealed against the drain pipe. For thermally insulated discharge pipe with condensation layer . 80 @) for prevention of damage due to condensation ‘The surface slope to the intakes should exceed 3%. A ‘ventilator’ for the expansion layer is nat required. The flexible joint should be continued to the edge of the root P. 80 + )~@, The edge details must be flexible, using aluminium or concrete profiles» p. 80.» ~ @l zine Connections are contrary to technical regulations (eracking of roof covering). Wall connection should be > 150mm above the drainage level and fixed mechanically, not by adhesive only If steel roof decking is used as @ load-bearing surface, the roof skin may crack due to vibration: precautions are required to increase the slffness by using @ thicker sheet or a covering of 15mm woodwoo! building board mechanically fixed), to reduce the vibrations (gravel ballast layer) and crack resistant roof sheeting! The vapour barrier on the decking should always be hot fused ldve 10 thermal conduction} 7980 FLAT ROOFS Warm Roof Construction m1 US esse 2) with nntted downoz @ Aeeroot conatsetion Ofer © Src FLAT ROOFS Cold Roof Constru Roof terrace suraces are loose laid in a bed of shingle or on block supports. Advantage: water level is below surface, no severe trezing. Roof garden has surface drainage through drainage layers, balasting of shingle or similar, with fier layer on top» p: 8022 Roofs aver swimming pools, et. are suspended clings with ventilated or heated voig: sop Table)» p. 79. Usual, the Contribution of al layers up to the vapour barr, nclaing the at boundary layer gives a max. 13.5% of the resistance to heat ik ‘On wood» is a simple solution, and good valve for money. NB: insulation above the vapour barrier should be thicker than with @ eonerete root, not anly due to the low surface weight, but also because the contribution of the layers {up to the vapour barrier (air Boundary layer + wa0d thickness) would otherwise be too high 'An inverted root») isan unusual solution with long-term durability (up to now. however, only achievahle with various polystyrene foam materials. Shingle alone a8 the upper root layering is insufficient in certain cases; itis better to have paved surface, Advantage: quicly waterproof, examination for Setocts i easy, no limit to use, Insulation 10-20% thicker than for a normal swarm root, Wath a concrete roof + (D, due ta the position of the lays dry out inthe summer; unsuitable for humid rooms. The risk is dopendent on the care taken bythe manufacturer to avoid racks duo to the geometry shrinkage) and solving the problem ‘of connections to, and penewations a, the concrete ‘A completely fat cold aot (6) # only allowable with vapour barrier: eifusion resistance — pp. 111-14 of the inner Skin = 10m: the air layer here is only for vapour pressure balance, analogous to the warm roof, as it daes not function properly as a ventilation system unless the slope is at east 10%. Layer sequence. @) and (. NB: inner skin must be aitight Tongue and groove panelling is not. Insulation» p. 79. Waterprooting as for warm raat» p. BO, Slope » 15%. Preferably 3% ~ important for drainage. inlets. should be insulated in the or cavity region; use insulated inlet pipes» Iris necessary for the vapour barrier to be unbroken (ght ‘overlapping and wall connections, particulary for swimming pools: unaveidabie through-naling = permissible), On light constructions, the internal temperature range should be improved by additional heavy layers (heat storage) under the insulation. Untavourable internal temperature range: temperature fluctuations almost the same as those outside lmplias an internal climate similar to that of an unheated army hut; this cannot be improved by thermal insulation alone. A ‘ick response heating system andor addtional thermal mass is required. For the artificial ventiaion of rooms under cold ‘0s always maintain a negative pressure; otherwise, room ar will Be foreedinta the root eavity. oseeeil atROOF GARDENS History The concept of roof gardens and roof cultivation had already been exploited by the Babylonians in biblical times bby 6003c. In Berlin, in 1890, farm house roofs were covered with a layer of soil as @ means of fre protection, in which vegetation seeded itsel. Le Corbusier was the first in our century to rediscover the almost forgotten green root ‘The characteristics of roof cultivation 1 Insulation by virtue ofthe layer of air between blades fof grass and through the layer of soil, with is root mass containing microbial life processes process heat) ‘Sound insulation and heat storage potential. Improvement of sir quality in densely populated Improvements in microclimate Improves town drainage and the water balance of the countryside Advantageous effects for building structures: UV (fertile fadiation and strong temperature fluctuations are prevented due to the insulating grass and soil layers. 7 Binds dust 8. Part of building design and improves quality of life c ‘3. Reclamation of green areas, © Rennes © Nonccty ree anti pl. van" 4 Snot er ee i: = hee © Sen te @ manag,ROOF GARDENS Roof slope The slope of a double pitch root should not be greater than 25%. Flat roofs should have @ minimum slope of 2-3%. ‘Types of roof cultivation Intensive cultivation: the roof is fitted out as a domestic ‘garden, with equipment such a8 pergolas and logaias: Continual attention and upkeep are necessary; planting grass, shrubs and trees. Extensive cultivation: the Cultivation requires a thin layer of soil and requires 3 ‘minimum of attention; planting — moss, grass, herbs, herbaceous plants and shrubs. Mobile cultivation: plants in tubs, and other plant containers serve forthe cultivation of roof terraces, balustrades and balconies. Watering Natural watering by rain water: water is trapped in the Grainage layer and in the vegetation layer. Accumulated water: rain water is trapped in the drainage layer and is mechanically replenished if natural watering is inadequate Drip watering: a water drip pipe is placed in the vegetation fr drainage layer to water the plants during dry periods. SSprinkling system: sprinkling system over the vegetation Fortier © Perrsomsnen tering te Fertiliser can be spread on the vegetation layer or mixed wwe” with the water during artificial watering Ota’ © Berar os @ roo pe fet eaten 83ROOF GARDENS Roof Construction For the vegetation layer, expanded clay and expanded slate are used, these materials offering structural stability, soil ‘eration, water storage potential and lending themselves to landscaping. Problems tobe solved: storage of nutrients, soil reaction (pH value), through-ventilation, water storage. ‘The fiter layer, comprising fiter material, prevents clogging of the drainage layer. The drainage layer prevents excessive watering ofthe plants and consists of mesh fibee mats, foam drainage courses, plastic panels and protective structural rials. The protective layer provides protection duting the jetion phase and against point loading. The root ion layer of plants, et. are retained by PVCIECB and EPOM sheeting. The separating layer separates supporting structure from the root cultivation. Examples = — 8 ilystrate a range of customary lat roof structures and Variations. incorporating root cultivation. Before roo! Cultivation is applied, the integrity of the roof and of the individual layers must be established. The technical Condition of the roof surface must be carefully checked, ‘Attention should be paid to: construction of the layers (condition); correct roof slope; no unevenness: no roo! sagging: no waterproofing membrane faults (bubbles, crackingl: expansion joints; edge attachments; penetrating florents (light shafts, roof lights, ventilating pipesl; and drainage, Double pitch roofs can also be cultivated, but much preparatory construction work is needed when inclined roots fre cultivates (danger of slippage, soil drying out) @ etromoctve oot culation © Gonmratonay ond86 D standard adeon ayers @ Av eepored sree, promi rotng AN ASA © “eowinnd sucess tere content TENSILE AND INFLATABLE STRUCTURES ‘The construction of awnings and tensile roofs is becoming ‘more widespread. These constructions vary from simple ‘awnings and roofs, to technically very complicated tensile structures of the most diverse types. ‘Materiais: artificial fibre material (polyester) is used a the base fabri, with corrosion resistant ang weather proof protective layers of PVC on both sides. Characteristics: high strength (can resist snow and wind loads|; non-rotting; resistant to aggressive. substances water and dit repent, and fire resistant. ‘Weight: 800-1200 g/m? Permeability to light: from ‘impermeable’ up to 50% permeability Life: 15-20 years; all popular colour shades: good colour fastness Workability: manufactured in rolls; widths 1-3m, usually 1.5m; length up to 2000 running metres; cut to shape to suit structure; canbe joined by stitching, welding, with Adhesives, combinations of these, ar by elamp connectors, Add-on standard systems () Standard units allow the structure to be extended indefinitely, often on all sides. They embrace most planforms: square, rectangular, triangular, cicular, polyhedra. Application: connecting passageways, rest area Pavilions, shade awnings, etc. Framed structures A supporting frame is made from wood, steel or aluminium, over which the membrane is stretched as 2 protective covering. Application: exhibition halls, storage and industrial areas, Air supported structures “The structural membrane is supported by compressed air at low pressure, and air locks prevent the rapid release of the supporting air. The system ean be combined with heating, and adcitional insulation can be provided by an inner shell fair mattress), Maximum width is 45m, with length Unlimited. Application: exhibition, storage, industrial and sport halls; also as roofing over swimming pools and Tonsioned structures. 6) The membrane is supported at selected points by means of cables and masts, and tensioned around the edges. To improve thermal insulation, the structure may be provided with additional membranes. Span can be up to more than 100m. Application: exhibition, industrial and sports halls, meeting and sports areas, phantom roofs. e ‘oid ancombly nd ow costCABLE NET STRUCTURES Cable net structures offer the possibility of covering large ‘unsupported spans with considerable ease. The German pavilion at the World Exhibition in Montreal in 1976 was constructed in this fashion (+ 2) the Olympic Stadium in Munich, 1972 » @)-@) andthe ice rink in the Olympic Park Jn Munich ~ 69 -@3. An interesting example is also provided by the design for the students club for the University and College of Technology in Dortmund » \S-2 ule, the constructional elements are steel pylons, steel cable networks, steel or wooden grids, and roo! coverings of acrylic glass or translucent, plastic reinforced sheeting. Cables are fastened into the edges of the steel network, the eaves, ete, and are laid over pinvjointed and usually ‘obliquely positioned ste! supports, and then anchored “Aerial Supports, cable supporting elements which are stayed trom beneath, divide up the load of the main supporting cable to reduce the cable cross-sections. The transfer of load of the tension cables usually takes place via cast components ~ bolt fixings, housings, cable Fixings, ete. The cable fixings can be secured by selt-locking ruts or by the use of pressure clamps, ct H S @® seasene seston 8788 Renault alae conte, @® Inet o he ‘SUSPENDED AND TENSIONED STRUCTURES The suspension or support of load-bearing structures provides a means of reducing the cross-sections of the Structural members, thus enabling delicate and filigree signs to be developed. AS a rule, this is only possible in steel and timber skeletal structures. The tensioning cables ate of steel and can usually be tensioned on campletion of the structure, The cables suppor tensile forces only. Suspended structures have the purpose of reducing the span of supporting beams or eliminating cantilevered structures. Tensioned structures, likewise, reduce the span ‘of beams and, hence, also the section modulus which has to be considered in determining their cross section 12 In Similar fashion to cable network structures, aerial supports are required on trussed structures. They have to accept buckling (compressive) stresses, Significant contributions to the architecture of Suspended structures have been made by Gunter Behnisch Norman Foster Richard Rogers.» @)- Z) and ‘Michae! Hopkins @)-(@. The Renault building in Swindon, by Norman Foster, consists of arched stee! supports, which are suspended from round, pre:stressed hollow steel masts from a point in the upper quarter ofthe gable The design enabled the ground area to be extended by approximately 67%, The suspended construction offers Connection points which make it possible to execute the construction work without interfering with other work ‘The new Fleetguard factory in Quimper, for an automobile oneern in the USA, had 10 be designed for changing requirements and operations. For this, Richard Rogers chose a suspended construction so to keep the inside ftee of any Supporting structure @)-). The same design ideas form the basis ofthe sports halls of Gunter Behnisch = 5) and the ‘Schlumbergor Research Centre in Cambridge, by Michael Hopkins = @ - @. An airport administration building (proposed design for Paderborn/Lippstadt) = and a concent hall (proposed design for the Dortmund Fair) $3 may also be built in this fashion, @ © sansSPACE FRAMES: PRINCIPLES Ideally, space frames should be constructed from equal ‘sided andlor isosceles right-angled triangles, so that regular nore polyhedrons are formed. In plane infinite networks, there tote are exactly three geometric structures; in spherical finite eiheron ten structures, there are exactly five regular polyhedron eccnton 82 hetworks, which are comprised of only one type of joint, member, and hence also, surface. Regular plane networks seen pote are triangular, square and hexagonal. erat ‘Of the five platonic bodies used, the space frame formula decrees that only those three-dimensional joint-membar space frames whose members form a closed teiangulat network ate kinematically stable, Le. the tetrahedron, the - ‘octahedron and the icosahedron, The cube requires an © Five pttonie wosien ‘additional 6, and the dodecahedron, an additional 24 members, to become stable, If a spherical. triangular network i not closed over the whole surface, the basic polygon must be prevented from moving by an appropriate ‘alternative method, The lengths of the members of a body for a space frame form @ geometric series withthe factor 2. One joint with a maximum of 18 connections at angles of 45°, 60° and 90" is sufficient for the construction of a regular framework. As With plane structures, t must be accepted thatthe members fare connected with flexible joints. shee aos Sed peas 4 poe So AXON a Ut i) Space structure a sith opt cut ute fn he @ Seace mating acs: 3) Spherical dome festuring an @ specs rae srcrre ——@ Spe ame rete© Prtin suppor SPACE FRAMES: APPLICATION ‘The MERO space frame developed by Mengeringhausen consists of joints and members.» 1). The underlying principle is that joints and members are selected from the frame systems as are appropriate for the loads which are to bbe carried. In the MERO structural elements, the Jointimember links do not act as ‘ideal pin joints’, but are able to transmit flexural moments in alton to the normal forces in the members. @) - (2. This three-dimensional format permits a free selection of a basic grid unit, then, with the factors 2 and v3 to size the lengths of the members, to develop 2 structure to provide the required load-bearing surfaces ~ (2 The unlimited flexibility is expressed in the fact that curved space frames are also possible. The Globe Arena in Stockholm 13 i, at present, the largest hemispherical building in the world. The assembly methods involve elements of prefabrication sectional installation or the slab-lift method. All the ‘components are hot galvanised for corrosion protection. As {8 consequence of the high level of static redundancy of space frames, the failure of a single member as a result of fire will not lead to the collapse of the structure. Starting from spherical joints, that allow 18 different points of attachment for tubular members, @ large variety of other joint systems between nodes and members have been developed so as to optimise the solution to load-bearing and spanning requirements» @)-¢9 © Srwctrat connections to Serer co J, = QD ® Ve sytem tee jie = @ 1 sya cop oie ® Part mein tough he ty a i don 90 @ fection moh he ae‘SPACE FRAMES: APPLICATION ‘The Krupp-Mantal® space frame was developed by E. Rater, Dortmund-Horde. The members are bolted to the forged steel sphere with bolts inside the tubes. The bolts have hexagonal recesses in their heads ond are inserted into @ Guide tube through @ hole in the tubing of the structural ember, In general, all members are hot galvanised. A ‘coloured coating may also be applied to them. On the Krupp-Montal” System, the bolts can be examined without being removed from the frame members; if required, itis ble to replace framework members without destroying rework, The Krupp-Montal® System is illustrated in 'B, with points of detail in» @)-@ he KEBA tube and joint connection has been designed for the transmission of tensile and compressive forces. It does not require bolts and can be dismantled without problems -. @)~ (3, The KEBA joint consists of the jaw fitting, the interlocking flange, the tapered wedge and the ceaging ring with locking pin. “The Seane space frame has been developed by Kaj ‘Thomsen. Bolts provide the means of connection, which are inserted in the ends of the members using a special method land ate then serewed into the threaded bores of the spherical joint fitings 42 ©. In the case ofall space frames, an unsupported span of at least 80-100m is possible. @® Space tame system @ Sppeting nea tena, Common contre joint © som na pointMULTISTOREY STRUCTURES =]—|— Wyse ‘The main choieis of n itu or profabricated manufacture inthe {orm of slab o frame construction. The selection of the materials Js according to type of construction and local conditions || I Asin all areas of buling construction, the numbor of storeys 's limited by the loaa-bearing capacity and weight of the building ‘materials. Construction consists of a vertical, space enclosing —|4)—| al supporting stucture made trom structural materials with. OF without tensive strength. Vertical an lateralstflening necessary through connected transverse wals and ceiling structure, Frame [EE sels = constuction, as anon apace encosing supporting stuclre barmite an open plantorm and choice o outer wal formation us com IContiovored or suspended consicton) A age uma of too? fox venesaoa esas @ Sreseun' levels is possible with various types of prefabrication. ‘Structural trame materials’ rentoreed concrete ~ which a pepo —roviden a chole of n stu and pralaesed, fel, altar ] tnd umber, Types 0 structure ames with main beams on hinged joints, yoy | — or gi frame unt in longtusinal andor transverse aeons Construction systems: columns and main beams (uprights and | ties determine the frame structore with rigid or articulated joints —I (connecting points of columns and beams). Fully stifened = | frames: colurms and beams with rigid joints are connected to "gl frame units. Ariculated frame units one above the other. Columns and beams are rigidly connected into rigid frame units = mi {nd arranged one above the other with articulated joints. Pure Sectional verticals san on _21uIated Frames: nodal points are designed to articulate with rack diagonal bracing. structures [struts and trusses) and. solid saphragms (intermediate walls, gable wall, stairwell walls ‘mixed systems ae possible. Rigid joins are easly achieved with TT] freer cron se cvay sees ned foints and braced by rigid building cores, Construction Framed statues with continous vr suppons. =) 2 tos beam rot on ble bacets or onceal beings. Stiton Screw ssn vrs suppers he Rest ofthe verti can poss entnd ove mare thar te Sores tha supporting tact cen singer ram fre to fame ® _ngedsopporssthtiloned butng cores, Framed sites sun rame ume») Mahan ame nt fred sith suspended es ne conte connection ruled sey ei amen Ushped fame unt wt separate ne ea crear loti deel cay lcomeariat camels l Story height temes Po. head mushroom unt heme eninatton = columim with fursied eatlevered sabe | ot] tte and coms gid coneres toeton Scud ir Convection of te cantleveed ab edge Flor suport | | Stutues cacy scep thevonical loads and anette Poet Lt coat nae pry of suport conte tow tts o sot: noo bbe cared cetocon ae wer eaey the spans ge and prove ean servi aie ao the liftslab method is possible, suitable principally for [ee eee = rectangular planforms ~ (2. © Leper ted tome CG) Lan Lane vere O rete @ Seaeetnentersen@ © Wroreing sorting for SUSPENDED FLOORS Wooden beam floors with solid timber joist or laminated bbeam supports (1) 12) in open ar closed construction Sound insulation is increased by laying adcltional 60mm thick conerete paving slabs» (2. Part or full assembled floors are laid dry, for immediate use» )~ @. Ribbed floors: space the axes of the beams as follows! '250-375-500-625-780-1000-1250mm. Heavy floors use in ‘itu conerete on shuttering » s3. They can support only when cured and add moisture to the construction Reinforced concrete siab floors span both ways: the span fatio 11.5 should not be exceeded. Thickness > 70mm feconomie to approx. 150mm. Pre-cast concrete reinforcing Shuttering, of large format finished concrete slabs of a least 40mm thickness which have integrated exposed steel reinforcing mesh, are completed with in situ concrete to form the structural slab» €2. The floor thickness is from 4100-260 mm. This method combines the special features of prefinished with those of conventional construction. ‘Maximum slab width is 220m. When the joints have been ‘smoothed, the ceiling is ready for painting finishing plaster is unnecessary, Hollow pot floors ~ also as prefabricated floor panels. Floor thickness is 190-215mm max, with supported spans of 648m, Profabricated floor panels are 1.00m wide; concrete covering layer is not requited. Pre: stressed concrete ~ hallow slab floor ~ (@, consists of set supporting pre-stressed units with longitudinal cavities, so they have a tow unit weight. They are joined together using jointing mastic. Slab width: 150 and 180mm, 1.20m wide. ‘The elements can be max, 7.35m long. Composite stee! figors » f. Trapevoidal and composite floor profiles, made of galvanised stee! strip sheot, form the basic element for shuttering and ceilings. — Ones 93‘ In | ® Neer trey a stone © Sai monn squares 2070; St @ Small moi: xenon cc ee © sateen @© Smal monic in Even 4 a | £ wo L L r r 6 lyon, wt nay 008 Q EL 4a La Orme © ST © Fitna parent tomer on ‘ne pe @ Fitna pare toments on © tame 94 FLOORING Flooring has a decisive effect on the overall impression created by rooms, the quality of accommodation and maintenance costs, Natural stone floors: Limestone, slate or sandstone slabs ‘can be laid rough hewn, in natural state, or with some oral edges cut smooth or polished ~1)- 2: The surfaces of sawn tiles, limestone (marble), sandstone andl all igneous rocks can be finished in any manner desiced, They can be laid in a bed of mortar or glued with adhesive tothe floor sub-layer, ‘Mosaic floors: Various coloured stones: (glass, ceramics ‘or natural stone) are lad in cement mortar or applied with adhesives ~ Ceramic floor tiles: Stoneware, floor, mosaic and sintered tiles are shapes of coloured clay which are sintered in the burning process, s0 that they absorb hardly any water. They are, therefore, resistant to frost, have some resistance to acids and high resistance to mechanical wear, though they are not always ol resistant. Parquet flooring is made from wood in the form of parquet strips, tiles, blocks or boards 4-2, The upper layer of the finished parquet elements consists of oak or other parquet wood, in three different styles Pine or spruce are used for floor boarding, Tongue and groove planks are made from Scandinavian pine/spruce, American red pine, pitch pine. Wood block paving end ar 12d wood) is rectangular oF round, and laid on concrete 2-2. SKK ® opm beter © setaeGeneral guidet Secondary school (with no 6th form) 9.2 0r3 classes per year 10 (12) oF 18 (18) classrooms 1 extra:large classroom (can be divided) 3 classrooms for special courses ‘each 65-70m? 5m? 40-45me Science rooms 1 or 2 for demonstrations & practicals, or each 70-75m? ‘Mor physics demonstrations & practicals 0-75m? ‘Mor chemistry and biology demonstrations & practicals, or 70-78m? Mor chemistry demonstrations & practical 70-75m? ‘or biology demonstrations & practcals 70-715m? 110r 2 preparation rooms, plus rooms for collections and materials,or each 4m? 1 preparation room for physics and chemistry {also used for collections and materials)or 30-35? 1 physics preparation room 30-35m? 1 chemistry preparation room 20m? 1 biology preparation room 30-35m2 10r2 science rooms each 30-35m? 1 r00m for photography 20-25m? Domestic science Veitenen 70-15m2 1 classtoomidining room 30-40m? rooms for provisions, materials and household appliances 30-40m? 1 washroomichanging room 15-20? Ant, crafts and textiles 1 drawing studio tarts and crafts) 1 0F 2 rooms for technical eras 1 oF 2 rooms for materials 1 washroomichanging room total of approx. 180-220m? 1 room for textile design 70-75m? 3 rooms for teaching materials ‘each 10-15m? 1 musie room 65-70m? 1 storeroom (instruments, music, stands) 15-20m? Language lab 1 room for language teaching system 20-85m2 1 room for materials and equipment 10-15m? 1 00m for library and magazines 60-65m? (or 70-75? 1 00m for pupils’ commit 15-20m? 1 recreation room (to accommodate a maximum fof haf the total no. of pupils at 1m/pupill Administration 1 staffroom {meeting room) 80-85m? 1 staff study (staff library) 100-1052 (or can be combined) 1 office for headteacher 20/25? 1 office for deputy head 20-25m2 1 office 15-20m? 100m for meeting parents, doubles as sickroom 20-25? 1 caretakers room (also for milk distribution) 20-25m? Spon Gymnasium (per 10-18 classes) ‘exercise area of 15 x 27m Sports grounds according to requirements SCHOOLS ‘Secondary schoo! (with 6th form) ‘2g. 2 classes per year 18 classrooms: 12 classrooms 65-70m2 6 classrooms (upper level) 50m? 5 classrooms: 2 supplementary classrooms 65-70m? 3 supplementary classrooms 50m? 1 extra-large classroom (history, geography) 11 room for socal sciences som? Science rooms Physics and biology 1 classroom each 55-60? 1 room each for collections and materials 30-35m? 1 100m each for preparation 30-35m? 1 100m each for demonstrations & practical 70-75m? Chemistry 1 100m for theory and practical work 80-85m? 1 100m for preparation 30-35m? 1 room for collections and materials 30-35m? 2 rooms for science groupe ‘each 30-35m? 1 room for photography 20-25m? Domestic science Vkitehon 70-75m? 1 classroomidining room 30-40m? Rooms for provisions, materials and household appliances 20-40m? 1 washroomichanging room 36-20m? Ant 1 drawing studio 80-85m? 2 rooms for crafts 60-65m? 2 rooms for materials each 20-25m? 4 washroomichanging room 46-20m? 100m for textile design 70-75m2 1 musie room, 65-T0m? 1 storeroom 15-20? Language lab 1 100m for language teaching system 80-85m? 1 room for materials and equipment 10-15m? 3 rooms for teaching materials each 10-15? 1 room for schoo! library 70-75m? 1 room for pupils’ committee 15-20m? 1 recreation room to accommodate @ maximum of half the total no. of pupils at 1mpupi Administration 1 staffroom {meeting room) 80-852 1 staff study (staff ibrery) 100-105? {or can be combined) 1 office for headteacher 20-252 1 office for deputy head 20-25? 1 office 15-20m? 1 room for meeting parents (doubles as sickroom) 20-25? 1 caretakers room (also for milk distribution) 20-25? Sport Gymnasium (per 10-18 classes or part of) 1 exercise area of 15 x 27m Sports ground according to requirements 307