Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FYBMS Environmental Management Notes. Chapter 1: Basics of Environment
FYBMS Environmental Management Notes. Chapter 1: Basics of Environment
The dictionary meaning of the term environment is ‘surroundings’ - the region surrounding or
circumstances in which anything exists, everything external to the organisms. Environment
therefore, refers to the sum of total conditions that surround man at a given point in space
and time.
The term environment was introduced in Ecology by biologist Jacob Van Uerkul (1864-1944)
to denote these aspects of the world surroundings, with reference to organisms. The field of
environment involves an understanding of the scientific principles, economic influences and
political actions attending these aspects.
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT
The environmental can be divided into physical biological and cultural environment. On the
basis of the structure the environment may be divided into fundamental types –
The Abiotic or Physical environment consisting of air, water and soil/sediment.
The Biotic or Biological environment consisting of flora, fauna and micro-organism
A. Biotic Components:
The Abiotic components comprise the inorganic substances (carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen,
sulphur, phosphorus, etc), and come mainly from the lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere.
Lithosphere :
The oceanic and the continental crust and the rigid upper portion of the mantle of the earth
constitute the lithosphere. The economically useful elements (minerals ,metals, rock, fossil
fuels), essential for man are basically from the lithosphere. The lithosphere occupies 30% of
the total Earth’s surface. Land formations like the mountains plateau and plain supply habitat
for plants and animals. The type of the economy depends upon the topography of the area.
Plains are suitable for agriculture and industrial activity.
Atmosphere :
The multi-layered gaseous envelope surrounding the planet earth is atmosphere. The
atmosphere is a significant component of the natural environment. All the necessary gasses
(oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon-dioxide, and water vapour), sources for the sustenance
of all the life forms in the biosphere are components of atmosphere. The atmosphere filters
the incoming ultra-violet (UV) radiation and protects the earth’s surface from abnormal
features such as cancer / mutation in organisms.
Hydrosphere:
This is the sphere of water consisting of surface, ground and ocean water. Seventy-one % of
the Earth’s surface is in water. Glaciers and ice caps cover additional areas. Water plays an
immense role in the sustainable environment balance of the earth. Water is essential for the
industry, transportation, power generation, food production and processing, and the
manufacturing sectors of the modern world. Morever, 70% of the body of the organism is
constituted by water. The balance of water is maintained through circulation of water in the
biosphere is maintained through circulation of water among the atmosphere, lithosphere and
hydrosphere by characteristic path ways. The circulation along the characteristic pathways is
known as the hydrological cycle.
B Biotic Component
Biotic or living components of the environment consist of flora (plant), fauna (animal), and
micro-organisms. The biotic components are the drivers of the energy flow and the material
cycles in the biosphere. On the basis of the relationship among nutrients, the biota can be
divided into two groups – Autotrophic or self-nourishing components (e.g. all green plants)
and heterotrophic components (e.g. all animals).
Autotrophic components:
Green plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria constitute the biotic Autotrophic component
of the ecosystems are able to fix light energy and manufacture food from simple inorganic
substances like water and carbon dioxide by photosynthesis. This group of organisms is also
known as producers.
Heterotrophic Components:
Fungi, non-photosynthetic bacteria and other organisms and animals are the components of
heterotrophic. Consumers are organism like herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores in the
order of occurrence in the food chain. Herbivores feed on plants, carnivores feed on animal
and omnivores feed on both plants and animals. Herbivores are also called as primary
consumers and carnivores and omnivores are known as secondary and tertiary consumers,
respectively. Decomposers are also known as sapotrophs and consist mainly bacteria and
fungi. They break down complex compounds of the dead organisms, absorb some of the
decomposed or breakdown products and release inorganic nutrients into the environment,
thus making them available again to the autotrophs.
NITROGEN FIXATION
First step in the N Cycle ---is the conversion of nitrogen gas (N2) into NH3 or organic
nitrogen. Three processes are responsible for the most of the nitrogen fixation in the
biosphere:
Atmospheric fixation by lighting
Industrial fixation by humans
Biological fixation by certain microbes, alone or in a symbiotic relationship with plants.
AMMONIFICATION
This is the biochemical process whereby nitrogen is released from nitrogen containing
organic compounds. Soil bacteria decompose organic nitrogen forms in soil to the
ammonium form. This process is referred to as ammonification.
NITRIFICATION
Nitrification is the conversion of NH4 to NO3. This aerobic reaction is carried out by
Autotrophic bacteria.
DENITRIFICATION
This involves conversion ofNO3 to N2 gas in the presence of low oxygen levels.
CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystems are classified as
1. Natural ecosystem
2. Artificial (man-engineered) ecosystem
NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS
It operates by themselves under natural condition without any major interference by man. On
the basis of habitat, natural ecosystem are further divided as terrestrial, as forest grassland,
desert, etc.and aquatic. Aquatic ecosystem are further distinguished as Freshwater that may
be lotic (running water as a spring, stream, river) or lentic (standing water as a lake, pond,
pool, puddle, ditch, swamp etc.) and marine, such deep as bodies as an ocean and shallow
ones as a sea, estuary etc.
Ecosystems
Terrestrial Aquatic
Marine Freshwater
Lotic Lentic
Ecological balance is the state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organism. The
ecological balance of an area can be evaluated assessing the consumptions of energy and
raw material, generation of emission, waste and the cost.
There are areas of eco-imbalance all over the world and this need to be addressed in a
manner that mitigates the imbalances.
3) Environmental pollution
Inefficient or backdated technologies are creating havoc with the pollutants leading to
pollution loads in the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. therefore,
normal functioning of the atmosphere is disrupted significantly, and causing global
environmental problems like the green house effect, ozone holes, acid rains, global
warming, climate change etc.
5) Population explosion
Population growth is the mother of all environment degradation. Over-populated areas are
generally have the problem of deforestation, destruction of biodiversity, lack of resources,
regeneration, etc. consequently, changes in the landscape. Ecological states and
environmental pollution takes place and at any cost ethics for business come into play.
Therefore, the ecological balance is again disrupted.
NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
The urgent need to protect the environment ,in order to maintain the quality of life, has now
been identified globally. Environmental protection starts by creating awareness among
people that it becomes a part of their style . the important features of the subject are:
a) It is very important for each individual for self-fulfillment and social development. It
helps in the maintenance of life and health, in self- preservation, and in the
preservation of the human race.
b) It helps to understand different food chains and the ecological balance in nature.
c) It helps to understand and appreciates how the environment is used for making a
living and for promoting a material culture
d) It helps in appreciating and enjoying nature and society.
e) It is concerned with the changing the environment in a systematic manner for the
immediate as well as future welfare of mankind.
f) It directs attention toward problems of population explosion, exhaustion of natural
resources and pollution of the environment, and throws light on the methods of
solution.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of environmental education are to help social groups and individual to
acquire:
a) Awareness : acquire an awareness of the environment as a whole and it is allied
problems and sensitivity
b) Knowledge :gain a variety of experiences and acquire a basic understanding of the
environment and its associated problems .
c) Attitude : acquire a set of values and feeling of concern for the environment and the
motivation for active participation in the environmental improvement and protection.
d) Skill : acquire skill to identify and solve the environmental problems.
e) Evaluation ability: develop the ability to evaluate environmental measures and
education programme in terms of ecological, economic, social, and aesthetic factors.
f) Participation: to provide an opportunity to be actively involved at all levels of working
towards the solution of environmental problems.
-------------------------------------------------
Chapter 2
Definition.
“Conservation is the ‘wise management’ of the biosphere (lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere) for the benefit of all life, including human beings, in such a way that the natural
ecosystems are maintained as well as utilized in a planned manner. This would yield
sustainable benefit to the present generation and also maintain its potential to meet the
needs and aspirations of the future generations.”
On the other hand, man has created his own ecosystem. Since man is the only animal who
has understood the nature, he has always interfered and changed it as per as his needs and
desire. In the process, he has destroyed the natural ecosystems. Indiscriminate and non-
judicious exploitation of nature and natural resources in an unplanned manner by man has
disturbed the nature’s balance. This is creating a condition of ecological crisis all over the
world. If this is not stopped with immediate effect, the present ecological crisis will lead to the
point of no return resulting in total disintegration of the nature. The consequences will be
disastrous and devastating not only for man but for the entire life on earth.
Our late Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi while launching the World Conservation Strategy
in India on 6 March 1980 emphasized our ancient tradition of care, conservation and worship
of trees and animals. In her, own words “the interest in conservation is not sentimental one
but the rediscovery of a truth well-known to our sages. The Indian tradition teaches us that
all forms of life, human, animal and plants are so closely linked that disturbance in one gives
rise to imbalance in the others.”
Aims of conservation.
1. To maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems.
2. To preserve biological diversity, and
3. To insure a continuous yield of useful plants, animals and materials by establishing a
balanced cycle of harvest and renewal.
a. Renewable resources.
The resources that can be regenerated artificially or naturally (such as from the biomass of
living organisms) are called renewable resources. E.g. crops, forests and other vegetations,
wild and domestic animals, microorganisms, water, land (soil), etc.
A. Land (soil).
It is a renewable natural resource. Soil is the complex mixture of physical, chemical and
biological components. It is an important abiotic factor of ecosystem as it provides water,
nutrients and anchorage to plants (producers). The presence and nature of vegetation in any
area largely depend on the quality of soil and the various edaphic factors.
Degradation of soil.
Misuse or improper use of soil results in degradation of soil. Such soil becomes unsuitable
for plant growth.
Degradation of soil causes loss of vegetation and this, in turn, adversely affects climate and
the environment. Hence, conservation and proper management of soil is very important and
essential.
B. Water.
Water is a vitally important renewable natural resource. All organisms need water for
survival. Rivers, lakes, ponds, and ground water are the reservoirs of fresh water while
oceans are the huge reservoirs of marine water. Rainwater is the natural source for the
renewal/replenishment of the water in these reservoirs.
Draught and floods are the two main natural factors responsible for the loss of natural water
resources directly or indirectly. In addition, non-judicious use and undue wastage by man
also contribute towards the loss of available water. In addition, pollution of water renders it
unsuitable for consumption as well as for existence of aquatic flora and fauna.
Reduction in soil water or non-availability of water directly affects vegetation growth and
disturbs the environment as a whole.
Water can be conserved by holding the rainwater in catchments areas by constructing dams
and then regulating the water supply through canals. Similarly, growing vegetation cover
helps to retain soil water.
C. Forests.
Forests are the vast renewable natural resources. Forests are of immense biological and
ecological significance. For example;
(i) They are the source of forest products like fuel, timber, lumber, food, medicinal plants,
fodder, etc.
(ii) They provide ideal habitat for wild life.
(iii) They provide vegetation cover to the soil and thus check surface evaporation, increase
water-retaining capacity of soil and prevent floods and soil erosion by soil binding.
(iv) They help in recycling of moisture in the nature and regulate rainfall.
Indiscriminate deforestation reduces rainfall, groundwater level and makes the land barren.
This alters the climate of the region. In addition, it disturbs and destroys the wild life.
Hence, conservation of forest is essential. There should be proper balance between harvest
of forest and its resources on the one hand and the afforestation on the other.
D. Wildlife.
In a broader sense, the term wildlife covers any or all organisms which are non-cultivated
(e.g. wild plants) and non-domesticated (e.g. wild animals). It also includes microorganisms
and all other lesser-known human beings.
One important and essential characteristic feature of the wildlife is that they are very well
adapted to their natural environmental conditions. Hence, they grow and survive in their
natural habitat without the care of human beings.
Existence of wildlife at all levels of the food chains in any ecosystem is essential for
maintaining the ecological balance of that ecosystem. In addition, it must be saved and
preserved to maintain the diversity of life. However, wildlife is often threatened with
elimination from the region or extinction from the earth.
Thus, to save the wildlife and preserve the diversity of life on earth, it is essential to take
definite steps towards conservation of wildlife.
E. Food.
Terrestrial agriculture is the main source of food for human beings. However, the total land
in the world under cultivation is not enough to provide adequate supply of food for the ever-
increasing human population. Hence, this creates a condition of food crisis resulting in
starvation, malnutrition, etc.
To deal with this crisis, modern agricultural practices are used. This involves industrialization
of agriculture and to supplement the agricultural products, the aquaculture (fish farming)
and mariculture (aquaculture in oceans) are proving to be of immense value. In fact,
oceans have an unlimited potential as source of protein-rich food and raw material, if
judiciously used.
F. Minerals.
These are one of the non-renewable natural resources. Organisms need various minerals
for normal metabolism and healthy growth. Besides this, huge quantities of minerals are
constantly being used in industries and for technological and cultural purposes.
The two main sources of minerals are:
(i) The earth’s crust and the parent rocks for terrestrial minerals and
(ii) The oceans for the marine minerals.
In addition, there are number of biomass-based renewable energy systems. These include
energy sources such as
(i) Fire wood
(ii) Petro plants (i.e. potential plant species, which can be the source of liquid
hydrocarbons to be used as a substitute for liquid fuels.
(iii) Biogas
(iv) Electric energy, etc.
ECOLOGICAL CRISIS
Environment is “the sum total of all conditions and influences that affect the development of
life of organisms,” while ecology is “the overall study of the interactions and interrelationships
of organisms and their environment.”
All natural ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and are very delicately balanced.
The over use, misuse, and abuse of natural resources by the modern man during the last
couple of centuries have grossly disturbed the balance of most natural ecosystems of the
world. Therefore, for the first time in his cultural history, man is faced with the most serious
ecological problem i.e. the ecological crisis.
The condition of ecological crisis is reached because of the degradation of the ecosystems.
This is the outcome of the over exploitation of natural resources by man. This was inevitable
in view of the population explosion, technological advancement, industrialization, profit
oriented capitalism, unplanned urbanization, modern agricultural practices, deforestation,
etc. the cumulative effect of all these activities of man, especially during 19th and 20th
centuries, is the induction of undesirable changes in the environment (soil, water, air)
making it less suitable for organisms. This is called environmental pollution, which
ultimately is responsible for the present ecological crisis.
Some of the human activities responsible for changing environment and consequent
ecological crisis are discussed here.
1. Deforestation over the years for clearing the land for agriculture has
destroyed flora and fauna of large number of ecosystems all over the world.
2. Intense cultivation without proper soil management leads to soil erosion,
depletion of soil nutrients and desertification.
3. Irrigation without proper drainage leads to water logging, salination and
degradation of the quality of soil.
4. Indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and crop protectants, especially of
the non-biodegradable types, results in their accumulation in harmful
concentrations in soil, water, etc. They also accumulate in bodies of
organisms causing various health problems.
Industrialization:
Industries provide all the essential as well as luxurious modern amenities. Their role in
improving life styles and standards of human societies cannot be denied. Industries have
become indispensable component of the modern age. However, industries have adversely
affected and changed the environment e.g.
1. Land for setting up industries is acquired either by deforestation or by converting
agricultural land.
2. Industries consume huge quantities of raw materials and energy. This results in over
exploitation of natural resources and disturbs natural cycles and balance of nature.
3. The various poisonous gases, smoke, etc. released from industries pollute soil and
water. Thus, industries are growth of industries is the main cause of unplanned
urbanization leading to unequal distribution of human population. In addition, greater
the population, greater is the pollution of the given environment.
Thus, while industries have become an essential component of modern life, they are also
the main factor of degradation of environment and ecosystems. Hence, industries may be
described as the “necessary evils” of the modern age.
Technological growth.
Technology is closely linked with or is inseparable from science. The two are complementary
to each other. The scientific knowledge is used to develop a technology and then the
technology used for the advancement of science and benefit of mankind.
The advancement in biotechnology during the past few decades has immensely helped in
the field of cell and molecular biology, genetic engineering, medicines, medical application,
etc. This has resulted in increasing longevity of life and reducing in death rate.
Consequently, the global human population continued to increase at alarming rate resulting
in the present population explosion. This is especially true for our own country. With the
population growth, all kinds of ecological problems also came up leading towards the
ecological crisis.
Pollution.
“Pollution refers to any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristic of our environment (air, water, soil) that may or will adversely affect human or
other species and life-supporting systems of our biosphere directly or indirectly.”
A substance or factor whose presence can damage the usefulness of a resource is called
the pollutant.
Large quantities of various gaseous, liquid and solid waste generated by industry and other
human activities act as pollutants. These are grouped into two main categories:
1. Biodegradable pollutants e.g. human and animal wastes, agro based residues and
fertilizers, etc. However, these can be harmful if their input exceeds the decomposing
capacity of the ecosystem.
2. Non-biodegradable pollutants e.g. heavy metals, D.D.T, pesticides, etc. These enter
the food chains and they may be magnified to dangerous levels in higher tropic organisms.
The pollution caused by these pollutants may be classified as air pollution, water pollution
and soil pollution.
The ecological imbalance is created due to the environmental pollution. This adversely
affects soil, water, air as well as climatic conditions like temperature, rainfall, etc.
Effect on Land.
Land pollution is the by-product of rapid and unplanned industrial progress and over
population. The land is polluted with the dumping of solid wastes generated in the household
and industrial units. The common soil pollutants are
• Domestic wastes (e.g. kitchen garbage, household rubbish, bottles, tin cans, plastic
materials, rags, waste paper, sewage, etc.)
• Industrial wastes (e.g. slag, fly-ash, lime sludge, metal scarps, plastics, chemical
effluents, etc.)
• Pollutants washed down from the atmosphere
• Pesticides and other biocides
• Synthetic fertilizers
• Agricultural chemicals.
Effect on water.
A vitally important factor like water is also polluted because of various human activities. The
main sources of water pollution are
2. Domestic sewage
3. Industrial effluents
4. Chemicals (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, etc; the surface runoffs from
agricultural fields)
5. Mineral oils, etc.
Effect on air.
The industries, automobiles, forest fires and domestic combustion are the major sources of
air pollution.
The air pollutants discharged from industries and power houses include gases like SO2, CO,
CO2, H2S, NO, NO2, etc. and traces of ethylene, acetylene and propylene. Smoke, smog,
PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrate) is also the air pollutants from industries.
The air pollutants released from automobile exhausts include carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxide and hydrocarbons. The PCB’s are released into atmosphere when synthetic rubber
tyres rub against road.
Consequences.
As a consequence of above mentioned and some other factors, over the last few centuries
many animal and plant species have become extinct and many more are facing the danger
of extinction (endangered species). Once a species becomes extinct, it is permanently lost
from the world and cannot be retrieved e.g., Cheetah from India and Dodo bird from
Mauritius has become extinct.
Whatever has happened in the past, now it is our responsibility to prevent the numerous
endangered species from becoming extinct. Man alone can do this and help to preserve the
diversity of life on earth.
Blooms.
Sometimes, the pollution of water by compounds of nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, etc
favours growth of certain algae and causes there over population. This is described as algal
bloom. This sudden increase in the population of a particular species in water affects the
aquatic ecosystem directly as well as indirectly.
Bioaccumulation.
Normally, plants and animals have the ability to get rid of some poisons out of their systems.
However, certain toxic chemicals like pesticides, insecticides, methyl mercury, heavy metals
such as mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, etc. tend to accumulate and remain fro
longer periods in the body of organisms. This is called bioaccumulation. Once
bioaccumulated at any level of the food chain, their concentration goes on progressively
increasing as they pass from organism to organism along the food chain. This is called
biomagnifications. Thus, these chemicals tend to accumulate in quantities far higher than
their concentration in the surrounding medium. The toxic methyl mercury present in pollute
water can accumulate in fishes in concentration 1000 times greater than its concentration in
the water. Consumption of such fish caused ‘Minamata disease’ in Japan in 1952. Similarly,
bioaccumulation of cadmium in liver, kidneys and pancreas caused a human disease called
‘Itai-Itai’ in Japan. It is a bone disease and leads to cancer of liver and lungs.
The bioaccumulation of poisonous substances is found to be very high in India. This
is especially true of pesticide chemicals. This is due to the consumption of crop and
vegetables treated with insecticides, contaminated water and drinks, etc.
The fallouts of nuclear fission and various radioactive substances also enter and
accumulate in organisms. These are passed on human through the food chains. This is
harmful and causes various health hazards e.g. genetic misbalance, tumors, Leukemia, etc.
Chapter 3
Conservation
Def : Simply put, Conservation means ‘Wise Management’ of our resources so that they
remain and can be utilized for a greater amount of time.
Immediately after the Earth Summit (1992) India has taken several steps in the direction of
conservation of environment and development in harmony with environment. The National
Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development is a step in
that direction. It envisages the need for laying down the guidelines that will help to weave
environmental considerations into the fabric of national life and development process. It is an
expression of commitment for reorienting policies and action in unison with environmental
perspective.
heritage and the traditional conservation ethos in harmony with the environmental
Preservation
Preservation is the best form of Conservation, consisting of preventive measures and action
designed to forestall and prevent the processes that lead to alterations in the environment.
Sustainable Development
The Government has undertaken certain important steps to prevent damage to the
environment, these are:
Afforestation
National Afforestation and Eco-development Board has been set up to promote
afforestation. During 1993, it is claimed that two million hectares of land was brought under
afforestation.
The Eco Task Force has been constituted to work in environmentally degraded areas. This
scheme has been specially conceived to use the services of ex-servicemen. The
Government is also hoping that once global funds become available to implement Agenda
21, new afforestation schemes can be initiated.
Water Cess
The increase in the cess of those industries, which consume excess water for discharge of
those effluents, which are in access of standards, has been stipulated.
Vehicle Exhaust
Automobiles are responsible for the greatest air and noise pollution in big cities. Now lead
free petrol is used in vehicles plying in big cities. The manufactures of automobiles have
been told to stop manufacturing two stroke engines. The compulsory pollution check on
vehicles has seen introduced in Delhi and other big cities. The public buses would soon run
on CNG, which is eco-friendly.
Thermal Plants.
Our thermal power plants are great sources of pollution. They produce fly ash and other
particulate materials in the surrounding areas. We have been talking of making bricks out of
fly ash for almost a decade but not much success has been achieved. Most plants have
been asked to install treatment plants but only some have adopted system for collection of
dry fly ash for its utilization.
Project Tiger
Under the Wild Life Protection Act hunting of all wild species other than vermin and those
damaging the habitat of wild animals has been prohibited and a Central Zoo Authority has
been created.
A review of Project Tiger was launched in 1972. It revealed that in 1972, there were about
268 tigers in reserves. In mid-eighties number rose to 1121 in 17 reserves and in 1993 the
number was 1327 tigers in 79 reserves.
According to a review of the “Project Tiger 1993”, what has happened is that on account of
shortage of prey and harsh environment conditions the tiger would disappear and unless
suitable measures are taken urgently it might disappear forever from the Sundarban, which
is an ideal habitat for the tigers. Disappearance of the tiger would disturb the delicate
ecosystem. Excessive felling of trees along the banks of the rivers has resulted in the
shortage of food for the tigers.
Public Policy
Present system of decision making in many countries tends to separate economic, social
and environmental factors at policy level and planning. This has great implications for
sustainable development. Environmental policies have to be placed at the center of
economic and political decision making if sustainable development is to be achieved. The
responsibility for developing a sound public policy for environment protection and resource
conservation lies with the Government.
The methods by which a public policy is formulated are:
(a) Through legislation;
(b) Through ordinance issued by the President of India;
(c) Through the decisions handed down by the Supreme Court or High Courts.
In our country a significant step was undertaken when the courts as a fundamental right of
citizens permitted environmental litigation. Also, the concept of Public Interest Litigation (PIL)
was introduced for the first time in the Supreme Court judgment against a municipality. The
judgment recognized PIL as a constitutional obligation of the Courts. As a result the courts
have been admitting large number of environmental cases. Some of the judges hearing such
cases have given landmark judgments and have been called as ‘green judges’. Also, some
of the lawyers have been called as Environmental activists. The first landmark judgment of
the Supreme Court was delivered in 1985 when on the basis of a PIL, the Court directed the
U.P Government to stop limestone quarrying in the sub-Himalayan hills of Dehradoon
district.
GLOBAL WARMING
Methane (CH4)
• About 20% of greenhouse effect is due to methane.
• Arises from
(i) rice paddies; (ii) wetlands; (iii) cattle;
(iv) burning of wood; (v) landfills
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
• Responsible for about 15% of the greenhouse effect.
• Thousand times more effective (heat absorbing) than CO2
• Reach the atmosphere from
(i) refrigeration;
(ii) air conditioning industry;
(iii) foam packing industries.
OZONE DEPLETION
Ozone depletion is another global problem. Ozone layer in the stratosphere forms a shield
for earth against harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) from outer space. Depletion of ozone
results in the formation of holes in its shield. UV-B arising from sun would reach the earth if
there are ozone holes.
Harmful effects
The sun emits light rays of varying wavelengths. These rays have varying effects on earth’s
surface, on its living beings, on its ecosystem. The shorter the wavelength of rays, more
damage these can do to plants and animals. Ultra violet (UV) rays are of short wave length.
Ozone layer/shield as mentioned above acts as a barrier to UV; without this shield, the
ecological balance of earth would change, and life would be paralysed. Though most of the
plants and animals have some kind of protective mechanism from UV, a longer exposure to
these rays result in their penetration to lower layer of body. This leads to skin cancer and
damage to eyes in human beings. In plants, the process of photosynthesis - the process by
which plant manufacture their food – is affected.
The issue
The first of recent conventions on environmental issues was the convention on ozone layer
protection. Vienna convention as it is called, was held in Vienna in 1985. This was followed
by Montreal Protocol. (1987) on substances that deplete ozone layer. It was signed by 24
countries and by 1988 signatories rose to 35. In 1990 delegates from 75 countries and by 75
countries met in London to sign an accord that strengthened the provision on Montreal
Treaty.
Ozone hole
Ozone hole was first discovered by British Antarctic Survey in 1983 over Antarctica. It was
found that levels of ozone were dropping very fast, though a small percentage was being
replenished during fall season. But, by 1987 ozone had dropped by 50 percent. It was also
found that ozone levels were dropping in other parts of the world too. Alarmed over such
declining levels of ozone, United Nation Environment Programme (UNEP) called a meeting
of few developed nations to consider the issue of ozone depletion vis-à-vis CFCs and
phasing out use of ozone depleting compounds. Initially USA resisted but later agreed to
50% reduction in the use of these compounds. This formed the basis of Montreal Protocol
(1987) on substances that deplete the ozone layer.
TYPES OF WASTES
Solid wastes arise from:
(i) Domestic Source – garbage.
(ii) Sewage sludge.
(iii) Agricultural source – agricultural residues.
(iv) Construction sites – debris and unused material.
(v) Power stations – fly ash.
(vi) Mining and quarrying.
(vii) Industry – both hazardous and non- hazardous wastes arise from industrial sources.
Hazardous wastes are those wastes which are toxic and pose threat to humans as well
as to environment. Examples of these wastes are pesticides, asbestos, polish, paints,
stain removers, fluorescent lights, certain types of oils, solvents, etc.
Non hazardous industrial wastes are substances like metal and glass pieces, plastic,
rubber and sludge from waste treatment plants.
(viii) Radio-active wastes from nuclear installations. So far as the radio-active wastes
are concerned, there are international conventions relating to their disposal.
Legally no country can dump these in the sea. These have to be disposed off or
rendered harmless through established procedures.
Excepting certain industrialized countries, in other countries the wastes, garbage
or rubbish is handled by agencies/municipal corporations. These are dumped or
buried and no body cares what happens to these wastes. Mostly these wastes
are burnt, though this practice is now discouraged in big cities. Dumping wastes
whether hazardous in this manner results in:
(i) health risk to humans
(ii) environmental damage in the form of damage to soil, water and air
because of leaching by which chemical and other harmful materials
percolate into soil and ground water. Also as these wastes decompose,
there is foul smell as well as production of methane gas.
Hazardous Waste Management requires not only national but international efforts and
cooperation because transboundry shipment of these wastes has now come under scrutiny
and is covered under Besel Convention. The UN General Assembly in a resolution dated
Dec. 22, 1984 requested regional commissions to prevent the illegal traffic of hazardous
wastes.
Human Resource Development efforts should be intensified to train the people in various
organizations to reorient current waste management practices to include waste reuse and
recycling.
Landfills: As mentioned above, earlier almost all the wastes were dumped at so called
landfills and burnt releasing smoke and foul smell. These landfills are source of soil and
water pollution. This dumping of waste is not environment friendly.
What is Reusing?
The reuse of product means using same product over and over in its original form. Glass
bottles or Cola bottles instead of cans are used again and again. Why not use glass material
for beverages instead of cans or cardboard cartons. Similarly it is a good practice to carry
lunch in steel boxes instead of containers of plastic material which is not biodegradable and
reusable.
Composting
Municipal solid wastes, garbage from kitchens, food processing industry and degradable
wastes from slaughterhouse can be composted in composting plants and sold as fertilizer.
Household garbage can be composted at backyard o serve as useful nutrient material for
vegetation.
Desertification :
Desertification is a widespread environmental problem that directly affects over 100
countries. It occurs when productive land in arid, semi-arid and/or sub-humid dryland regions
is degraded by human activities and by climate variations like drought. Drylands cover
around one third of the worlds land surface and are inhabited by more than one sixth of the
worlds population. Global climate changes accelerates the process of desertification as
higher temperatures increase evaporation or if there is decrease in rainfall.
Human activity is the primary cause of desertification. There are four basic activities tat are
responsible for desertification:
Over cultivation: today the agricultural practices are more commercial than ever. There are a
lot of higher levels of technological inputs, which most of the time do more damage than
normal. Farmers feel the necessity to get more output for more gains. The use of improper
methods and ever increasing demand for food has compounded the problem. The net result
is a gradual decline in the productivity of once fertile soil and which after some time is
abandoned by farmers and termed as useless. Once abandoned natural forces quickly take
over and the process of soil degradation sets in.
Deforestation: When man requires land for agriculture the first thing he does is clear forest
land, this leads to reduction in rainfall and also soil erosion of the top soil. This ends in the
soil becoming useless after some years and the whole process is restarted.
Improper irrigation: the thirst to produce more and sell more agricultural produce has pushed
farmers to use improper irrigation methods. These methods are not monitored properly and
most of the time end up increasing the salinity of the soil rendering it useless.
Over grazing: This is another activity that has degraded land severely in certain areas. It has
led to degradation of soil. About one third of the worlds ranges are severely degraded by
over grazing, making this the largest cause for soil degradation. The first sign of improper
range management is elimination of the most palatable grasses. As over grazing
progresses, hungry animals strip the ground bare and their hooves pound the soil, hastening
erosion.
Consequences:
Global food security will be unattainable if desertification is not stopped and reversed, as to
provide for the worlds growing population and providing for adequate diets for all the worlds
food production must increase by three times.
Desertification reduces biological diversity, increases social strife and strains the resources
of the country.
Chapter 4
INTRODUCTION
Business and industry including Multinational Corporation (MNCs) play a crucial role in
economic and social development of a country. All economic activities either affect or are
affected by natural environment resources-extraction, processing, manufacture, transport,
consumption and final disposal of the product are related to environment protection.
Moreover economic activities affect the natural resources for future generations too. Study of
the economic system therefore is crucial in so far as quantity and quality of natural
resources is concerned. There are two important aspects of economic and environment
linkage:
(a) Promotion of sustainable development;
(b) Implications on globalised economies.
Some of the resources are not renewable and those, which are renewable do not get
renewed at the same pace at they are consumed. We have also sent that the production
processes result in producing not only the desired product but also the waste. How are the
wastes going to be managed?
It has therefore become imperative that resource conservation and environmental protection
must become a part of overall management and Environmental Management System be
adopted as a strategy for meeting the expectation of the society as well as sustainable
growth. Not only must this but EMS take cognizance of nature, not infinitum but nature
infinitum. The nature has been providing sustenance and protection to living creatures
considering the fact that the world is now moving towards innovations and technology, which
often denies legitimacy of environmental themes. To bring these under the ambit of the
environmental consideration, the structure of the organizations will need to be changed to
understand the ecological reality.
In summary, it is fair to say that we have only begun to adopt EMS in a responsible way both
in national and global perspectives, it is our hope that our relationships with nature and its
nature would be perceived at every level, especially political and corporate, with a sense of
urgency and acute sensitivity.
Till 1970’s the slogan was ‘limit to growth’ which means environmental management to ‘aim
at resource conservation at local, community or national level’ during 1980’s and 1990’s the
situation changed. The environmental issues became global; through they originate at local
or national level. Added to this, is the belief that new technology, free trade and product
innovation, environmental protection and regeneration of ecosystem are possible. According
to this school of thought environmental and resource management is a problem of efficiency
in energy used, substitutions of non-renewable or recycling technologies. In this way, more
could be produced but the question is that the more production is achieved without increase
in raw materials or resource based. If the resource based raw materials is finite can be
increased production.
Environmental aspects
It means organization’s activities, services and products which interact with the environment
e.g. packaging is an aspect and the waste produced in the process of packaging is an
impact.
Environmental impacts
A change in environment, wholly or partially resulting from an organizations activities,
services or products (aspect) is referred to as Environmental Impact. Usually impacts are
harmful; sometimes impacts can be beneficial as for example conservation programmes
protect wild life.
Those responsible for EMS, must be able to identify both existing as well as potential
impacts. For identifying impacts, following environmental aspects must be known.
1. Emissions.
2. Effluent discharge.
3. Consumption of reuse of material.
4. Noise.
Environmental policy
It is a written statement that defines organizations mission, attitude and framework of actions
towards environment. An environmental policy includes vision and core values of the
organizations, compliance with legal and other requirements and commitment to
environmental protection through actions like:
1. Prevention of pollution at source.
2. Reductions of waste.
3. Design and operational management.
4. Minimum use of energy.
5. Bringing awareness to employees.
The report of audit has to be conveyed to the management. If an audit for ISO14001
certification is carried out, it would provide the proof of following objectives:
1. Evidence of conformity of EMS.
2. Evidence of fulfilling legal/regulatory requirements.
3. Provide opportunities for further improvement of EMS.
Environmental Policy
A sound environmental policy reflects the commitment of management in matters relating to
environmental issues. The policy has to be written as a document to be available to the
concerned employees as well as external parties.
The policy is formulated by the top management who are signatories of the policy document.
Environmental Policy should:
1. Be realistic taking into considerations the constraints and resources of the company
aw well as the extent of impact that the organization has on the environment. While
discussing the impacts, the document should embody life-cycle analysis, resource
conservation, waste reduction and product design. In fact, the concept of sustainable
development should be a part of the document. Rhetoric’s would not serve any
purpose in the process of documenting the policy.
2. Be documented and available to all the employees and the eternal parties-
stakeholders and public.
3. Be clear about commitment for continued improvement of EMS.
4. Be in conformity with the laws and rules and regulations. In other words, it must
make a statement in regard of the compliance.
5. Lay down a framework of environmental objectives.
The objectives take into consideration the vision, mission, and the core values of the
organizations. The objectives are in fact indicators of performance. The indicators then
become measurable. Examples of indicators are quality of
a. Raw material used.
b. Emissions.
c. Other wastes.
d. Energy.
e. Recycling of waste.
The EMS Auditor would be taking into consideration the objectives and all the above listed
requirements while conducting the audit.
Planning:
Planning of EMS for audit requires that the system should be in form of written plan or
manual giving details of work and procedures. When the work involves handling of
hazardous materials or any other procedure involving safety measures, it has to be carefully
written as plan document. Planning for EMS is an important function of an organization in
the sense that it takes into consideration a proper schedule, resources, targets, successes
as well as likely failures, contingencies and alternatives to mitigate the crisis if it occurs. The
plan includes environmental aspects and impacts, thought there may be overlap in policy
and planning in this regard.
Planning takes into considerations, the processes, resources, responsibilities, skills,
authority and coordination.
Implementation:
The next element of EMS specifications, ISO 14001 is its implementation. An organization
should have support and capabilities for achieving objectives and targets set out in policy
and plan. The process of implementation implies management skills. Implementation of ISO
14001 means:
1. Management of human, financial and natural resources.
2. Motivation for action.
3. Responsibilities.
4. Documentation
5. Communication with the organization.
6. Operation control.
7. Preparedness of emergency.
8. Records and management of information’s.
Successful implementation of EMS would need commitment of all the employees. EMS, in
fact encompasses many other areas of management, particularly organizational change in
one area that is key to successful implementation of EMS. It is important that the traditional
management culture is changed to environmental organization culture which means
discarding old practices and beliefs and learning new ones. Education and training provide
the members of organization with requisite environmental skills and knowledge.
Environmental awareness of the staff in general and environmental training for those
involved in EMS brings benefits to the organization and helps in implementation of EMS. Of
course for this to happen, commitment has to begin at the highest level of management. The
top management has also to ensure that sufficient resources are provided for
implementation of EMS.
Review:
An organization that has initiated the process of formulating Policy, Planning,
Implementation and Monitoring of EMS has to adopt the last step namely, the Review of the
system. At this Review stage, the organization has to think in terms of continual
improvement of environmental performances. Review is very important because it
undertakes an in-depth analysis of all the issues of environmental concern. Reviews must go
beyond the stage of compliance. It must pay full attention to implementation of objectives set
out by the organization. If the objectives have not been achieved or not achievable, these
must be changed or modified. Issues to be discussed in this process of review are:
1. Suitability of environmental policy.
2. Recommendation of audit report.
3. New regulations.
4. Interest of stakeholders.
5. Public awareness and pressures.
The review findings must be documented especially its recommendations in regard to safety
measures, preventive measures and impacts on public health and living conditions.
Accidents and incidents may occur suddenly. They result from failures of equipments,
human errors or flaws in EMS itself. These have to be identified and compliances be
restored. Human errors are most significant because it is something that can be corrected
on the basis of deep analysis as to why a particular person makes a particular mistake.
Anyways, it is the management which is blamed if the machine fails or processes become
haphazard or when people make mistake. The responsible management reviews the EMS in
the light of what is stated in the last sentence.
THE INDIAN SCENE
In India today many companies have been certified for ISO 14001. Japan has maximum
number of companies certified for ISO 14001 compared to any other country in the world.
GLOBALIZATION
India opened up its economy in early 1990’s. Globalized not only deals with movement of
elements like physical capital, (machinery and equipment) technology and labour but also
financial capital (foreign direct investment).
There is more international trade today band this trend is rising. One major impact of global
economy is on environment and resources. The international trade alters the volume of
production and consumption. As it is known, the consumption patterns of western countries
are imitated by the developing countries (e.g. fast foods) and if this trend continues, its
impacts on resources would be significant. Another trend is that poor countries are cash
starved. They would tend to sell natural resources to earn foreign exchange.
The issue that need immediate attention is whether liberalized trade leads to damage to
environment. As mentioned above, global trade and environmental issues were kept
separate and even in the initial rounds of talks and negotiations of Uruguay Round of
General Agreement on Tariffs Trade(GATT) there was no attempt to resolve the issue of
environment and trade. (Uruguay round led to setting cup of WTO in 1995 to administer the
agreements on International Trade). However, the final Uruguay round did take into account
the environmental issues and ensued that WTO takes up these issues on priority basis.
Soft Technlogy
Application of Soft Technology: It has now been realized worldwide that in the process of
productivity and profit, tremendous damage is caused to the environment, if the technology
procedures employed consumes large quantities of natural resources and leave behind a
mass of pollutants.
Businesses affect the environment in at least two ways, every working day they consume
energy and other resources and create waste that must be disposed off.
The truth is that no matter how environmentally responsible they may be few industrial
factories will ever be truly good to the environment. The most one can hope for is that
industrial units do the least damage in the pursuit of productivity and profits.
One way to reduce environmental damage is by using soft technology. Soft technology
means that technological procedure which is not harsh on the environment. Soft technology
disturbs the eco-system to the least extent. It uses the minimum amount of natural
resources. It gives time to nature to correct and replenish itself. It produces a low degree of
pollutants. It takes steps to process the waste products, so they are converted to harmless
products before they are discharged into the eco-system.
Soft technology has certain drawbacks as far as the company is concerned, soft technology
is less efficient, it gives lower yield (productivity) and hence lower profits. It is also much
more expensive as more steps are required to be set up to safe guard the environment or to
treat waste. It is increasingly felt that only technology that is suited and adapted to Indian
conditions will succeed and be profitable. It has been experienced that foreign technologies
made available to developing nations are those, which have become obsolete in their
country of origin and are high-energy consumers or not environment friendly. There may be
practical difficulties in the employment of soft technology. For example the substitute
component may not be readily available at all times and as per specifications.
Every company is saddled with pressures from government, environmentalists customers
and others to change its products and processes to more eco-friendly types. In the coming
years the distinction between a ‘green and un green’ company may become a critical factor
in the way a stake holder views the company. Ultimately the eco-friendly or green company
alone will be able to remain competitive in the coming age.
INTRODUCTION:
Man’s awareness of resource depletion and degrading environment/ecosystem began after
world war 2. But nothing tangible was done to control damage afflicted to environment. This
attitude however changed in sixties.
The Government in 1960’s especially in developed countries were undergoing a social
change; later such change also started in developing countries. The social change, raised
aspirations and hopes of people for improvement in quality of human life, which in turn
opened up numerous issues relating to development, sustainable development, economic
growth and consumerism. And all the issues are linked to environment. Soon people
recognized that environment was deteriorated and the natural resources were depleting due
to developmental activities. Literature appeared that aimed at educating not only the people
but also more so the policy makers and the politicians about the matters of environmental
concerns. Protecting of environment and conservation of natural resources came to be
realized at national and international levels and a concern for ecology become a watchword.
As the concerns for environmental problems increased, the governments institutionalized the
national and local levels and new through legislation and regulations. New laws were
enacted at national and local levels and new agencies established to make sure the
compliance of laws especially by business and industry.
In the early decades industry, trade and business resisted efforts aimed at environmental
protection and resource conservation because money spent on such efforts would diminish
profit. However, the attitude is changing, not because of legal action only but also due to
realization that cutting down on raw material waste etc. could be a financial gain.
It also became clear; in due course that environmental problems are not only local or national but must be viewed in international
perspective. As for example, problems like ozone depletion or Global warming cannot be tackled at national level. Leader’s politician’s and
people in general, therefore, started looking up organizations like UN for environmental issues of global concerns.
Introduction
UN Convened a United Nation Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at
Rio-De-Janeiro in 1992. It is called Earth Summit; an 800- page document called Agenda 21
was issued at this conference. It contains comprehensive blue prints for the government and
every thing from population strategy, management of hazardous waste, recycling energy
conservation, renewable energy, and business strategy to role of women in the environment.
While the guidelines and the principles proclaimed at Rio conference are not legally binded,
they carry a strong moral force to ensure their adoption. The underline idea of Agenda 21 is
that humanity has reached a point where present policies on development and economic
growth have not been able to tackle the problems of poverty, hunger and loving conditions.
They continue to cause continuing resource depletion and deterioration of ecosystem on
which life on this planet depends. If human beings have been provided with decent living
conditions specially in developing countries, the management of eco system at local,
national and global levels have to be undertaken on priority basis.
Rio Declaration
INDIA’S EFFORT
INTRODUCTION
India did recognize and visualize the significance of environmental protection and resource
conservation before the first International meet on Environmental. The Stockholm
Conference on Human Environment was convened by UN in 1972 whereas India’s Fourth
Plan (1969-74) document clearly lays down the following:
“Planning for harmonious development recognizes the unity of nature and man. Such
planning is possible only on the basis of a comprehensive appraisal of environmental issues.
There are instances in which timely, specialized advice on environmental aspects could
have helped in project design and in averting subsequent adverse effect on the
environmental leading to loss of invested resources. It is necessary, therefore, to introduce
the environmental aspect into our planning and development”.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION
Within five years of the Stockholm Conference, India amended its Constitution (The 42nd
Constitutional amendment 1976) to include “Environmental Protection” as a constitutional
obligation. Article 48A lays down:
“The State shall endeavor to protect and improve the environmental and to safeguard the
forest and wildlife of the country”.
Article 51A relates to fundamental duty. This article runs:
“It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environmental
including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures”.
Seventh Plan
The seventh plan lays down well-defined strategy for environment protection. This strategy is
the result of realization that environment and natural resources represent the most
fundamental building blocks for national development and social well-being. The strategies
that are laid down in the Seventh Plan, to achieve substantial development in harmony with
environment are:
Eight Plan
Eighth Year Plan further strengthened the Environmental policies. In the Eighth Plan
allocation of funds for the protection of environment were increased and a state-wise
allocation was formulated.
The Government of India set up a cell to ensure effective implementation of anti-pollution
measures and measures for the protection of environment. India embarked in a big way in
the direction of protection of environment in launching new programmes. Noteworthy are the
projects for cleaning rivers of which biggest project relate to cleaning of Ganga and Jamuna.
India has also embarked on the project of afforestation. India became signatory to Earth
Summit 1992.
* Chapters 3 and 4 also have the case studies on Narmada bachao
andolan, silent valley, chipko movement etc.- to be elaborated and
studied from the class notes
Dear students, some of you from the Sion (W) college had requested me to provide
some more points on the topic “Man as a Resource Producer and Resource
Consumer” as I had not given these points in the class so, I am forwarding the same
( the Sion (E) students are welcome to use any points which might not have been
covered in class ) – this is part of the third chapter.
Man’s role in Resource Utilisation.
Man is known for his skill, ability and intelligence. Man has been, from time
immemorial, using his attributes to make his existence a more satisfying one. Today
man is not only able to produce and sell many different goods, but if he so chooses
he is also able to produce many resources. Therefore man is known as a resource
producer, distributor and consumer.
Man as a Resource Producer.
Man is the most intelligent of species, with the most creative mind known. He has
used his skill and intelligence to improve the techniques of production of natural
resources i.e. he is able to extract and many times place back what is taken from the
environment. Using planning and appropriate technology he is able to allocate
resources as he wants and fulfil the needs of the society. Also, he is able to reshape
the available natural resources to suit the current needs i.e. Man has the ability to
modify the physical environment as he chooses and when he chooses. Therefore man
is called as a Producer of resources.
Man as a Resource Consumer.
During ancient times i.e. during the development of human civilisations, man
produced and consumed the available resources in proportion to his very basic
needs. But as he flourished and developed his needs also grew, till today’s era, which
sees a high standard of living. In this age man has to produce more to meet the
demands of society. The standard of living and man’s ever-increasing demand has led
to a large consumption of resources. Using better technology and science man is
forever developing newer and better products for the consumption of society.
Therefore man is called as a Consumer of resources.
Chapter 5
Watershed management
The necessity of conserving water and soil resources is universally recognized. While there are seven
to eight months without water in a year when it is too dry, there is a period of four to five months
during the monsoon, when everything is wet and drainage channels become overflowing fast moving
rivers. The construction of small and cheap earthen dams to check the overflow of rainwater helps to
use this vast water potential that can be used during the long hot and dry months. This simple idea is
both water and soil conservation-effective and ecologically sound; was practiced by the people of
India in the past, what we today know as the “watershed technology”.
Amongst all the natural resources, water, with its availability, quality and cost-effective distribution
have become serious problem, to both city- dwellers and people living in the rural areas. The scarcity
availability of water is becoming a severe constraint in improving human food, health security.
Water conflicts are likely to grow at local, regional and national levels. Conservation sustainable and
the equitable use of water must receive high priority. This needs science-based knowledge of
‘Hydrological cycle’ and the technical knowledge of ‘Watershed management’.
What is a watershed?
A watershed is defined as any spatial area from which rain or irrigation water is collected and
drained through a common point. It is synonymous with a drainage basin or catchment area. There
is no definite size for a watershed as it may vary from a few hectares to several hundred hectares.
Size of watersheds depends upon the topography. Based on the size watersheds maybe classified as
Micro, Mini or Macro. Given the general topography of the Peninsular India and farm size
distribution patterns, the joint property of a group of 5 to 10 farmers usually adds up to a landscape
unit, which suffices for creating a watershed. In natural landscape, such units generally co-exist in a
serial continuum. Each watershed unit is a well-defined topographically delineated area with a distinct
boundary. Each landscape watershed may constitute simple or complex agro-ecologies. It may be
made up of an upland ecology or a combination of upland, lowland ecologies or in some cases, a
toposequential complex of ecologies representing upland lowland and coastal ecosystem.
Each ecosystem in such complex watershed has its distinct function and land use capacity. The upland
part of the watershed generally represents dry land rain fed agro- ecology and acts as a catchment
flow regular area for water to the lowlands. The lowlands, mainly used for the production of paddy or
other high water requiring crops, are a net consumer of water while the coastal ecosystem functions as
the main water resource system.
In this way watershed framework provides the necessary inter-ecological linkages and is a
logical unit for the integration of the sustainable use of land and water.
It helps augment soil and groundwater resources. It is also benefited by the biological, social and
economic inputs, which if properly managed, lead to diversified high agricultural production, control
of environment degradation and provide a mechanism for recharging underground water aquifers.
Watershed management in this way, thus ensure water adequacy to crops and reduce the risks
Land Management
Land has always been the preliminary requisite of economic development. With the
changes inland use over time land has become more of a prime and crucial resource.
Understanding of the basic fact that just 27% of the total earth surface has land, has
made it necessary to understand the importance and limitation of land as a resource.
It was therefore essential to manage the land in a more effective manner.
The efficiency of Land management is a preliminary to sustainable development
because sound land management is crucial to enhance land productivity. Land
administration improvement is consistent with land and economic reforms. The use of
computer technologies offers new prospects.
Land management: a major factor of economic development. The efficiency of Land
Administration a preliminary to sustainable development because sound land
management is crucial to enhance land productivity;
Urban Land Management and Governance : Why are cities involved in the process
of economic growth?
1. Cities are historically associated with economic expansion.
2. The acceleration of the urbanization process is unprecented.
3. Urban management and governance are key elements in urban development.
4. The urban employment issue directly affects the economic growth.
5. The urban policy objective is to contribute to the economic development.
Urban Land management and Governance are key elements in urban
development
Rapid urban population growth places an unprecedented logistical and financial
burden on municipal authorities, especially when the urban growth is recent.
City governments can do a lot to assist industry and commerce (including tourism) by
good planning and physical development. Infact they are confronted with increasing
difficulties in the management of land, infrastructure and services:
1. They face a widespread lack of competence in the administrative bodies in charge of town
management.
2. They lack the resources to provide infrastructure and basic social services necessary to
promote employment, health and economic growth.
Agricultural Management
With the ever increasing developments in the field of technology man has achieved unlimited
advances to make his life more comfortable. The next result of these developments was an over all
increase in the standard of living, and life expectancy. The death rates gradually began to fall but man
forgot about the control of birth rates. This imbalance led to the problem of ever increasing
population. It is estimated that today there are about a billion people being added to the human
population every 12-13 years which requires an increase in the annual food grain production to 250
mn tones once in every 10 years.
Till date there has been no acute shortage of food grains in real sense this was possible due to the
four basic factors which are as follows;
1. Rapid advances in the technology particularly the breeding of varieties and high yielding
seeds.
2. Improvised organization of production and distribution systems of seeds, fertilizers,
irrigation etc.
3. Public policies in land reforms, infrastructure development.
4. Efforts of the people towards accepting the new technologies.
The developments in the field of agriculture also added a new dimension to traditional
agriculture and that was commercial outlook which aimed at maximum output from the farms with
the use of most advanced technologies. The traditional farm products were replaced in many parts
with industrial and cash corps. This gave rise to new agricultural society with profit as the main
motive. This was achieved with the technology, services and government policies, This was later
known as the GREEN REVOLUTION.
This era started in 1968 and gave a tremendous boost to the agricultural production. Initially the fruits
were very tasty but as the time passed the technology began to show its colors. The miracles of the
60’s and 70’s now are becoming nightmares of today.
The over use of fertilizers for increasing production, use of pesticides, weedicides etc. for crop
protection. Over irrigation, destruction of natural gene banks etc. gave rise to serious problems. This
raised many questions about the validity of the advances in agriculture.
This exploitative agriculture did offer greater possibilities but intensive cultivation without
proper soil conservation techniques led to destruction of soil fertility and structure which will
lead to formation of deserts.
Irrigation without proper drainage will lead to water logging resulting in soil getting alkaline
and saline rendering them useless for farming.
Extensive use of pesticides and fertilizers fungicides bring about changes in
natural food chains which lead to cancer and other disease.
Unscientific tapping of ground water will deplete the underground water which will paw away
for desertification.
Replacement of local species with high yielding varieties in large area will result in spread of
diseases capable of wiping out the entire crop.
Thus we can see that without proper understanding of the consequences of the changes brought about
it has raised new issues and problems. This required a different approach not only to solve the existing
problems but also to solve the problems in future. This is the where Agriculture Management
techniques came into picture….
In the subsequent years 1970 excessive use of fertilizers and chemical pesticides has caused soil
degradation, ground water pollution and spread of pesticide resistant pests. This led to warnings of the
is no option except to produce more food from less per capita land. In other words impending food
crisis in the in coming millennium. Since land is shrinking resource for agriculture there it becomes
necessary to produce more with the help of high yields per unit of land. It will be therefore necessary
to see how science can be used to rake the productivity without ecological harm. It will be necessary
for the emerging progress to be referred as evergreen revolution as the emphasis will be on the
productivity which is sustainable overtime and is rooted in the principles of ecology, economics, and
social issues.
Fortunately in the recent past the revolution in the field of technology gave us three major
weapons which will help us to increase our agricultural productivity keeping in view the
environmental concerns.
These three weapons are,
1. The genetic engineering.
2. The information and communication revolution.
3. The ecotechnology revolution.
1. The genetic engineering will help us in the understanding the genetic bases of
living organisms which when used in a careful and rational manner will help to understand and
develop newer processes to increase the productivity.
2. The developments in the fields of information and communication will enable us to access the vast
store house of information assimilated from the different parts of the world. This information will
be very useful for planning and minimizing the damages in agriculture as well as help to increase
the productivity as the technical information relating to weather forecasts, agronomics choice of
farming methods, fertilizers in proper proportions etc. will also be available.
3. Ecotechnology promotes the best of traditional knowledge and technology with leading
technologies like the biotechnology, space (Remote sensing), new materials etc.
If these three weapons are used in combination with the improvements of management and
governance, has a great potential for the integrated management of natural resources and
ecosystems so as to get the best out of them.
The Agricultural Management will now have to look into the problem with an integrated approach
keeping a holistic view. Today what is known as precision Agriculture will be the only solution if
there is need to increase the food grain production without seriously damaging or the destroying the
natural resources required for agriculture. Precision requires an
The Hill areas of the country fall broadly in to the following two categories:
1. Areas which are coextensive with the boundaries of the state or Union Territory, namely Jammu &
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh
and Mizoram.
2. Areas which form part of a state which are termed as ‘Designated Hill Areas’ Viz;
a) Two hill districts of Assam-north cacher and kabri angling.
b) Eight districts of UP- Dheradhun, Pauri Garhwal, Tehri Garehwal, chamoli, Uttar kashi,
Nainital, Almora, and Pithoragarg.
c) Major parts of Darjeeling District of West Bengal.
d) Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu
e) 163 talukas of Western Ghats areas comprising of Maharashtra (62 talukas). Karnataka (40
talukas). Kerela (29 talukas), Tamil nadu (29 talukas), and goa (3).
The basic objective of the HAMP has been socio economic development of the hills and the people
living there in harmony with ecological development. The programmes implemented under the NPDP
have, therefore, aimed at promoting the basic life support systems with sustainale use of the natural
resources of the areas covered by the programme.
The approach and the strategy of the HAMP has evolved over time. The programmes implemented
during the 5th Plan period were mainly beneficiary oriented. While the emphasis shifted to eco
development in the 6th Plan, the general tenor of the HAMP remained substantially the same as that of
the normal state plan following the same sectoral approach. The 7th Plan laid particular emphasis on
the development of ecology and environment as summed up in three phases, namely, eco restoration,
eco preservation and eco development. It aimed at evolving plans and programmes to take care of the
socio economic growth, development of infrastructure and promotion of the ecology of the areas
covered by HAMP.
The Special Central Assistance which is given for hill areas is 90% grant than 10%loan this is in
addition to the Normal state Plan and is not meant to replace activities under the State’s normal plan.
Hence, States receiving funds under HAMP are expected to prepare sub plans for designated hill areas
indicating flows from both normal State Plan and the Special Central Assistance. This is to ensure that
the schemes are properly dovetailed and integrated with State Plan Schemes.