Magoon, L.B, and W.G. Dow eds, 1998, The petroleum, ‘ystem-—from source to trap: AAPG Memoir 0 Chapter 6 = Siliciclastic Reservoir Rocks David G. Morse Houston, Tens, USA Abstract Depositional envirorunents determine the basic architecture and geometry of siliciclastic hydro- carbon reservoir rocks. In nonmarine settings, sandstone reservoirs are deposited in fluvial, eolian, and lacustrine environments, whereas in marine settings these reservoir rocks are in deltaic, shallow marine, and deep marine Facies and reservoir rock properties of giant oil and gas fields in each depositional setting ted and described. The most prolific sandstone reser- voirs are ited in marine deltaic distributary mouth bars and distributary channels in delta lobes. Stacking of delta lobes by channel avulsion and subsidence of inactive lobes due to compaction of the underlying prodelta silts and clays greatly increases the volume of reservoir sand. Tertiary deltaic sediments, underlying major modern deltas, offer likely places to find these reservoir rocks in rollover anticlines. Shallow marine sediments provide the next most prolific reservoir facies, which are deposited as barrier islands, beach, shoreface, and offshore bar sands. Great potential exists for silicclastic reservoir rocks in deep marine ans, a relatively underexplored target occurring at the base of delta slopes or in rift or wrench basins. Advanced three-imensional seismic technok and the present knowledge of seismic and stratigraphy should hel incate thee sandetone reservoirs, Norenarine teservotls offer eoslent targets br some basis, 5 as the fluvial sands of North Africa and the underexplored lacustrine-related reservoir rocks of ‘China, Because of their high quality, areal extent, and thickness, eolian sand reservoirs must always be considered, particularly in continental interior strata with paleolatitudes in the 15°-40° range north and south of the paleoequator. INTRODUCTION Siliciclastic reservoir rocks owe muchof their diversity and stratigraphic heterogeneity to the many different depositional environments in which they are deposited, These hydrocarbon reservoirs are formed in settings ranging from continental alluvial sands and gravels to deep marine fans. This chapter reviews a variety of these occurrences and highlights examples from around the world. Of the 266 giant hydrocarbon accumulations described by Halbouty (1970), 62% have siliciclastic reser- voirs. Although most of these accumulations are struc- turally trapped, 10% of the giant fields with siliciclastic reservoirs found before 1970 occur as stratigraphic traps. This was during an age when papers on modern sedi- mentary environments were just beginning to appear in theliterature (Reading, 1978) Stratigraphic traps occur where “a variation in the stratigraphy is the chief confining element in the reservoir” (Levorson, 1936, p. 524). Today, a stratigraphic trap is considered to be a container formed by any variation in the stratigraphy that is independent of structural defor- mation other than regional tilting (North, 1985). The “Present address: Environmental Quality Division, Watervliet Arsenal—PWG, Watervliet, New York, USA. m1 depositional environments described in this chapter are all capable of containing stratigraphic traps formed by facies or unconformity pinchouts, by buried paleotopo- graphy, erosional relief, or updip cementation. The successful, creative, and knowledgeable explorationist must e able to identity the style of the particular trap and find the way to locate it. The petroleum system is a series of genetically related hydrocarbon accumulations whose provenance is a pod of active source rock. Even though the genetic relation- ship is based on the similarity of hydrocarbons in the accumulations, it is often true that the reservoir rock is also the same throughout the system because the plumbing from the source to trap shares the same seal and reservoir rock. This chapter discusses single accumu- lations, but one should always remember that they are part ofa larger petroleum system. The reservoir, an essential element of the petroleum system, is the storage space within a trap (Biddle and Wielchowsky, Chapter 13, this volume), The reservoir must be able to accommodate a significant volume of fluids and be capable of transferring or exchanging fluids to obtain its hydrocarbon charge and be produced (North,222 Morse BRAIDED MEANDERING ‘GRAVEL ANO SAND THIN, HIGHLY INTERCONNECTED SAND BODIES THICK, LOCALLY ISOLATID SANO BODIES Figure6.1. Fluvial depositional models. (A) Braided river system idealized vertical section with tabular cross beds tormed by mid-channel bars and trough cross beds formed by migrating megaripples on the channel floor. (B) Block diagram of braided river. (C) Meandering river system with laterally aggrading point bars, highly sinuous channels, and thick fine- ‘grained overbank deposits (after LeBlanc, 1972). (0) Meandering river idealized vertical section with fining upward, cross- bedded point ber sands, finely laminated sands and sitts, and overbank silt and clay (after Cant, 1982). Lithology pattern: ‘solidbiack, sit and clay size; large 10 small dots, conglomerate to sandssize; patterned lines, bedding and cross-Dedded sandstone; combs, climbing ripple deposits. ‘Toble 6.1. Fluvial and Alluvial Reservoirs. Loca Thickness Depostional Fl Coat San Agee Fomratin of Pay im) Environment Hassi FMel ‘Algeria = T Hass er = ‘Alvi sands, Pinel Ss anastomosing channels Sar Lya See K Nubaneqiv = — ——-Fviahalluvial ofSarirSs Mossla eye Seo K Sari'Se 300 Stacked braided chanrels, Hess! Nesseous Agora = cam Rass 120 Blanketss Amal Lpya Sitio Gamb-Ord Amal Ss = Continental ss October Egypt = Cart-x Nuba Ss 135 Stacked tuvial channels, blanket ss Srorre Norway - 1 Lunde Ss — Braided to meandering, Statord vide, siting chanoes, alluvial plan, blanket ss Meantur River USA (Alaska) — oig Hemlock cg = — Alivia fuvi Kenai Ss Dom Jeao Braz - ux Serg Ss = lvl Carmopots Braz = Murbeca ‘Atovial fan and pine = Argentina - J Chalacoss ‘Akvial fans anc pains AL tower Cam, Carrar Ord. dois Cab. Caborverus. Tas J, ras; K,Cetaceass; Og, Cigocen. a anecne Up. uncovlomy pcr wecbock St graphic comat W'A wrench ante Vr L terat1985). Migration of petroleum from a pod of active source rock to the trap requires a conduit that may involve vertical migration, such as along fractures or faults, or lateral migration within a reservoir quality, carrier bed. The dynamics of migration are examined by England (Chapter 12, this volume), Rates of migration in sandstone carriers are in the range of 1-100 km/my., two orders of magnitude greater than for limestones. Lateral migration requires both a continuous carrier bed and seal (Demaison and Huizinga, 1991; Chapier 4, this, volume). Favorable areas for long distance migration of up to several hundred kilometers occur in foreland basins and intracratonic sags where blanket sands of transgressive, eolian, or fluvial origins are sealed by evaporites or shales. This chapter reviews siliciclasticreservoir rocks found in hundreds of giant and supergiant oil and gas fields depositional environment (Halbouty, 1970, 1980b, 1992). ‘The nonmarine reservoir rocks were deposited in fluvial, olian, and lacustrine environments, whereas the marine reservoirs were deposited in deltaic, shallow marine, and deep marine environments. The packaging of deposi- tional facies, the distribution of principal reservoir rocks in the depositional setting, the lateral continuity or archi- tecture of the facies, and important world examples are compiled here from the literature into tables by deposi- tional environment. FLUVIAL RESERVOIRS Reservoir rocks deposited as fluvial or river deposits are formed by braided, multi-channeled rivers or by singlechanneled, meandering rivers, or a combination of these “end members” (Figure 6.1). Miall (1978), Ethridge and Flores (1981), Cant (1982), and Collinson and Lewin (1983) provide comprehensive guides to fluvial deposits. Table 6.1 (continued) 6, Siliciclastic Reservoir Rocks 123 Braided rivers tend to have coarser sediment load, higher gradients, more flashy or variable flow, more easily eroded banks, and higher width-depth ratios than meandering rivers (Walker, 1979). Braided river deposits may form alluvial fans (Nilsen, 1982), cover a broad alluvial plain, or be confined to a restricted valley. Braided river deposits (Figure 6.18) are formed by aggra- dation of mid-channel bars and sinuous-crested, subaqueous megaripples producing, planar and trough cross-bedded strata; overbank silts and clay deposits are rarely preserved. River depth determines the thickness of an ideal fining-upward braided river sequence (Figure 6.1), which begins with a basal lag, followed by trough ‘cross beds, planar cross beds, and ending, with a thin bedded sandy cap. Complete sequences are commonly abbreviated by truncation from successive braid channels, resulting in highly laterally connacted sands. ‘Meandering river deposits (Figure 6.10) are formed by the lateral downstream accretion of point bars, filling in of channels cut off at the narrow neck of a meander loop with silt and clay, and the vertical accretion of fine sand and mud on the floed plain during high water. The ideal point bar vertical sequence (Figure 6.1D) consists of a basal lag, trough cross-bedded sans of set amplitude and grain size, decreasing upward to rippled, fine- grained sand, and finally laminated or bioturbated silt and clay of the flood plain. Preserved mud to sand ratios are high. Porosity and permeability of fuvial reservoirs (Table 6.1) are functions of the rock matrix, lithologic hetero- geneity, compaction, and cementation. The best primary porosity is found in channel sands. Flood plain strata are poor to nonreservoir quality sediments. Fluvial sands tend to be more mineralogically and texturally immature than other sands because they occur close to the sediment source. Alluvial fans may mark the beginning ‘of a fluvial system; with decreasing gradients, next are Reserves (BOE) Gas Recoverabio In place or Ol Trap Dopth Porosity Permeabiity (108) (x08) Produced Type (nr) %) (ma) References: 3B 17 0 A-tp 2100 = = Magioite, 1970, Hamouda, 1960-A 80 2120 0 BLA - a 2590 - - Santord, 1970; Halbouty etal, 1970 15 30 0 — Stupsl Lt 80 2648 7 500 Ciffordet al, 1980 90 25 0 Dtp = 3350 ae Balduechi & Pommier, 1970 08 32 oA; = = 13950 = = Roberts, 1970 = - o BI v = 3350 7 236 Lelek et al, 1992 o77 at Oo Blue ot as 2526 23 380 Jerse and Diesen, 1992 ost = oO wA ~ - 2560 7 20 Halbouty, 1980; Chapter 22 02 © Blup th = 690-2400 — = Ghignone & Andrade, 1980, = 12 oD - - = = Chapter 31 - o = = — 5-26 10-150 __Chapter 32Dune’ PREVAILING winds "DOWNWIND" DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS a > ZB | ne 0-100m 1 | | | 100-700m b Figure 6.2. (A) Simple dune packages of fine to medium sand are composed of translatent strata (1) formed by migrating wind rippleswith grain flow or avalanche strata (a) and/or grain fall strata (f). Interdune sands are formed largely by translatent strata (t). (B) Eolian depositional block diagram of a migrating erg system with (1) an idealized vertical facies sequence of fore-erg, central-erg, and back-erg facies divisions based on types and scale of eolian strata and the nature of intra- and, extradunal facies (after Porter, 1986). braided rivers, then meandering rivers. The fluvial system commonly ends at a lake or at the sea where it may forma delta. Fluvial reservoirs consist of clean (lack silt and clay), poorly sorted, boulder to fine-grained sand porous bodies. Thick, stacked braided stream deposits form widespread reservoirs that are more common in the ‘Table 6.2. Eolian Reservoirs giant and supergiant fluvial reservoir fields (Table 6.1) ‘These sands are thicker than meandering river deposits and typically occur in structural traps because they lack the lateral seals required for stratigraphic traps. Depending on the curvature or size of the meander loops and the thickness of the point bar sands, meandering river deposits form “shoe-string sands” that in an updip Pay Deposition Fela Location Ages Formation Thickness (r) Environment Grorigen Netherlands LPem Rottegences - ofan with fluvial ‘and Germany intradunal stata Viking United LPem Leman Ss 24a olan with sabkha and Kingdom alluvial interbeds Urucu Brazil = C haituba - olan Rangely USA, (Colorado) LPem Weber Ss ~ Eolian with fluvial interbeds Mary Ann USA, (Alabama) J Norphlet Ss 240 Eolan Ek Basin US.A. (Wyomng) Penn Tensleep Ss - ‘Transverse and oblique unes: Painter Reservoir U.S.A, (Wyoming) Ly Nugget Ss 260 Eolan 5 ower Pern Pemfvarian Perm, Perisn J, asc A ante: BL ed loo St srasgraphic WA wrench ante: Th, et aneire 6, vere tera‘meander form stratigraphic traps that can contain up to 50 million bbl of oil rexerves. Provided there is an adequate regional seal to confine migration, alluvial sands that are closely associated or interbedded with lacustrine source rocks can provide natural carrier beds for lateral drainage of expelled hydrocarbons (Demaison and Huizinga, 1991; Chapter 4, this volume) Migration of hydrocarbons in the fluvial Cretaceous Sarir Sandstone in Libya for at least 80 km was required to charge the 1.5 billion bbl (recoverable) Messla field (Clifford et al, 1980). A 40-km migration in the fluvial Muribeca Sandstone was required in the giant Carmopolis field of Argentina (Mello et al, Chapter 31, this volume). Oil recoveries in the predominantly braided reservoirs of the large or giant fields noted in Table 6.1 range from 25 to 50%. One of the most prolific areas for oil and gas fields with fluvial reservoirs occurs in North Africa where the Cretaceous Nubian Sandstone extends from Egypt to Algeria. Other foreland basins around the world have comparable deposits of fluvial sediment EOLIAN RESERVOIRS Eolian reservoirs are formed by wind-blown sand depesited along sea coasts or in vast desert areas, called sand seas or ergs (MicKee, 1979). Deposition of extremely well sorted, predominantly fine- to medium-sized sand occurs in dunes and sand sheets. Less well sorted sand and other lithologies are found in interdunal arcas. Adjecent to these eolian environments are other conti- nental environments, such as alluvial fans, streams, lakes, sabkhas, or nearshore marine environments (Ahlbrandt and Fryberger, 1982). An overall model of a complete eolian sequence is illustrated in Figure 62. The initial marginal dune deposits are overlain by central dune field or erg deposits that migrated downwind and, in turn, are capped by back-erg sands that were deposited as the sand supply was cut off and the dune fieldgrowth Individual strata in a dune or sand sheet are identifi- Table 62 (continued) 6. Siliciclastic Reservoir Rocks 125 able and unique to this environment. They are formed by grainflow (avalanching), grain fall (setling directly from the air after saltating off the crest of a dune), or by migration or translation of wind ripples on the dune surface (Hunter, 1977; Kocurek and Dott, 1981). Most conspicuous in eolian strata are large (up to 40 m thick) ccross-bed sets formed by successive deposits on the lee side of sand dunes. Sets of dune cross strata may be separated by nearly horizontal interdunal or toeset strata. The cross-bed sets and intentune strata aggrade verti cally by bed form climbing at a low angle as long asthere is safficient sand and strength of prevailing wind. Interdunes form flat areas between dunes in which sand sheets, intermittent streams, salt pans, or ponds may form. In dry interdunes, a simple, nearly horizontal erosional boundary surface is formed at the junction of the highly dipping, wind-eroded top of the underlying dune and the low-dipping toeset strata ofthe succeeding dune (Kocurek, 198)). In wet interdunes, poorly sorted sand, fine sit, clay, evaporite minerals or limestone may be deposited. Interdune bedding may be disrupted by animals,roots,or salt The clean, well-sorted sand in a dune deposit com- monly forms an excellent reservoir and regional carrier bed. The extensive blanket sands of the Pennsylvanian Tensleep Sandstone in Wyoming, for example, are thought to have carried oil up to 400 km across most of ‘Wyoming from a pod of Permian Phosphoria Formation source rock in eastern Idaho (Sheldon, 1967). Porosity and permeability are the greatest in the steeply dipping dune strata, whereas interdune strata have poor reservoir characteristics. The cross-bedded sands have up toone order of magnitude higher locally inthe horizontal direction paral tothe strice of the cross bed than in the horizontal direction in which the cross beds are dipping or in the vertical direction (Lindquist, 1988). Preserved paleotopographic or erosional relief can form stratigraphic traps in eolian formations Fryterger, 1984; Eschnerand Kocurek, 1988). Fields listed in Table 62 illustrate many of the prominent eolian reservoirs of the world. The fields generally occur in the same 15°-40° north and south Reserves (BOE) Gas, Nigraton Recoverabie Inpiace orl Trap SyBECOstanc® © Dapth—Poresty Paxmeatity (430) (10°) Produced _Typet (en) (rn) () (md) References vs = os BI v = ot = ‘Stauble & Milus, 1970; Halbouty, 1980, o os Bt v - 2850-2877 14 30-€0 Gage, 1980 - 007 =O WA v - 10-30 10-1200 Chapter 31 oo o AS u 00 - - = ‘oelmel, 1960, Fryberger, 1979 01 - s os v - - - - Manoir et al, 1988; Pense, 1988 oss 143 u 150 ~ “ = Carmalt & St John, 19869 os OSs Th v = 2918 1“ 23 Lamb, 1980126 Morse evaporation / 4 ~_& Lo Exposed wnat: ‘Shallow lake SE SS > Groundwater flow [vertical seal exaggerated) Figure 6.3. (A) Lacustrine related reservoirs include coarsening-upward deltaic fii packages (after Coleman and Prior, 1962) and fluvial and shoreface strata. (B) Shallow water playa lakes with highly flictuating shorelines produce cyclical deposits of potential reservoir sends and lake-deposited mud and clay (after Eugster and Hardie, 1975). See Figure 6:1 for explanation of UWthologie patterns. ‘Table 63. Lacustrine-Related Reservoirs Location Triciness Deposition Fits Comny Bash Agee Formaton __of Pay (m) Environment useo China| Mo ‘Guentao = Lakeshore beaches, fan detas, tuvial channels Daging China LK - = Lecustrine and tuvil Sctuanghe china ig Hetaoyban = Lacustrine/atuvial, fan deta, braided chante, dota —- tront bars Red Wash USA (Un Una Paeoc — Wasaten, = 7] [Ranesnore sands, tan Groen River otis, auvial chenne's, Bluebel-Alvront USA. (Utah) Ula PalEoc Wasatch, - sisrrbutary mouth bars Greon River Sunnyside USA (Ute) Uinta PalEoc © Wasalch, -| - ‘Green Fiver Moreni-Gura Pumania = Pho Dacian Ss =] Shatow icustine Onnite to ake shore - Hungary Easem UM Sratnok Ss 490 ___Lacustine urbiites ope ower Pal Palccane Foc, Eocene Op Okgeena lo, Monene. A ancar; Up. urcartrmtypincout 8 edbiok St seayopic:O coma UO, relover anti o gow tau: WA, wrerch arin V7 yee Lateralpaleolatitucinal belts as the many modem deserts of the world (McKee, 1979). When overlain by transgressive marine black shales, eolian sands can form both carrier beds along regional dip and reservoir rocks in structural trap, such as the Rotliegendes of the North Sea (Glennie, 1972, 1982, 1987) and the Tensleep Sandstone of Wyoming (Moore, 1984; Kocurek, 1988). Some very thick ceolian sands, such as the Jurassic Navajo and Wingate sandstones do not appear to have been regional carriers, in spite oftheir 1600-km lateral extent, because they were isolated in largely continental sequences of rocks without regional seals or source rock connections. Only in the Wyoming thrust belt where the lateral equivalent of the Navajo Sandstone, the Nugget Sandstone, lies in thrust contact with a mature source rock do hydrocarbon accu- ‘mulations occur. in summary, although eolian sands represent a small percentage of the world’s sedimentary record, where present they form important, thick reser~ voirs of clean, laterally extensive sandstone. LACUSTRINE-RELATED RESERVOIRS The reservoir strata in or adjacent to a lacustrine setting are deposited by processes that occur in a deltaic or shallow water setting and include delta mouth bars, fluvial channels, shoreface sands, offshore bars, and even. lacustrine turbidites (Fouch and Dean, 1982). Descrip- tions of these kinds of deposits are found in the other sections of this chapter. Sandy siliciclasties are concen- trated around the margins of most lakes. However, as lake levels rise and fall, the shoreline facies extend landward or prograde into the lake forming cyclic pctaees that coarsen upward igure 63), Deeper water lacustrine strata, particularly in saline lakes, contain large amounts of both silicclastic and carbonate fine-grained 6. Siliciclastic Reservoir Rocks 127 sediment and organic matter (Eugster and Surdam, 1973; Eugster and Hardie, 1975; Hardie et al, 1978). Nearly all, lakes are ephemeral features that are ultimately converted to fluvial plains as the lake basin fills with sediment (Picard and High, 1981). The lacustrine-related sandstones of the Uinta basin of Utah, and particularly of basins in China, are prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs (Table 63). These reservcirs are associated with lakes in which large amounts of lipid- rich organic matter were preserved that commonly form oll shales (surface) and generate waxy oils (subsurface). In the Uinta basin, the marginal lacustrine facies contain the principal reservoirs for hydrocarbons (Fouch and Dean, 1982; Fouch et al, Chapter 25, this volume). At Red Wash field in the eastem Uinta basin, the reservoir sandstones are formed in lacustrine delta front bars, fluvial channel, and shoreface strata that are interstrati- fied with impermeable lacustrine and overbank clay- stones. This results in poor vertical and lateral connec tivity of reservoirs and requires close well spacing to maximize oil recovery. Information on the Chinese lake deposits and the associated hydrocarbon accumulations has become more available in the past two decades (Chen et al, 1980; Liet al., 1988). Reservoirs in the Chinese deposits include turbidites, lacustrine bar, deltaic sediments (Meyerhoff and Willums, 1976), and alluvial fans (Cheng, 1981). In summary, thick lacustrine deposits are relatively rare in the stratigraphic record. They occur in continental basins that are commonly internally drained and flanked with alluvial sediments. The reservoir strata are formed by lake-marginal faces, such as deltas, bars, or channels, and turbidites. Their proximity to deeper water source facies and to interbedded shales makes them a good target for hydrocarbon exploration in large Structures. Table 63 (continued) eserves (BOE) Gas ton Facoverable Wnplace crOi Trap “See Uistance © Depth PoroslyPemesbilty (0%) (408) Produced Typem (hen) (m) oy (na Fleronses oo Oo BA V = 1190-1900 30-32 500-2000 Chen and Wana 1980 so 1007 = ~ Hatbouty, 1980 - 0 oO ROB — - - - - etal, 1988 St, Up om OG SA Vv = 1675, - - Chaptor 25 os Oc SA Vv - 3760 - - ‘chapier 25, —- 4 © Sa Vv = 0-400 - = Foadir, 1987 eT - 400-1800 — _ Paraschiv& Oteanu, 1970 ss OSA uy 700-4600 5-25 — Chapter 35228 Morse DELTAIC RESERVOIRS: Deltas occur where river-bome siliciclastic sediments meet a standing body of water and form delta plains, mouth bars, interdistributary bays, distributary channels, tidal ridges, beaches, crevasse splays, and prodelta muds (Coleman and Prior, 1982). These deposits are shaped by tidal, river, and wave forces to create a particular arrangement or architecture of reservoir sands (Figure 64), Inall deltas, the finest material is dispersed seaward and the coarsest material is deposited at the mouth of the delta. Deltas are divided into an upper delta plain, a lowerdelta plain, and a subaqueous delta plain. The upper delta plain lies upstream from any tidal influence and is dominated by migrating, braided, or meandering channel deposits, such as point bars, mid~ channel bars, and nonchannel deposits. Nonchannel deposits include levee and overbank silts and muds, ‘marsh peats, lake muds, and crevasse splays that might fill the lake with fine sand. The thickest sand bodies are the channel sands that fine upward but lack widespread continuity. In short, the upper delta plain deposits are comparable to the upstream alluvial valley. However, because of their location on the protruding bulge of a delta, they are considered to be patt of it. The lower delta plain extends from the last landward area that is affected by tides to the outermost shoreline. It contains distributary channel sands, and deposits suchas crevasse splays, Jevees, marshes, and abandoned distrib- tutary fill deposits between channels. The main reservoir facies deposited in the lower delta plain are bay-fill deposits that form between the lobes of the active channel system when distributary channels are breached during flooding, Bay-fill deposits form coarsening- upward lobes of clean sand with radially bifurcating channels (Coleman and Prior, 1982). Ina large delta such as the Mississippi, bay-fill deposits can extend for 20 km and form a reservoir quality sand body that is 5-7 m thick for its full length and width. The bay-fills are commonly com} ‘of millimeter- to centimeter-thick mud and sand laminae at their bases, becoming progres- sively more sandy upward, and finally capped by a ‘marsh deposit. Bioturbation is common, especially in the more slowly deposited muddy strata. Another reservoir facies, distributary channel sands, form the thickest sands but are not as widespread as the bay-fill deposits. These channel sands generally cut into the underlying mouth bar of the subaqueous delta plain. The subaqueous delta plain extends from the outermost shoreline seaward to the last area actively receiving fluvial sediment, where water depths may be 50-300 m. The most distal and largest area of the subaqueous delta plain receives mud and silt, forming the prodelta. The main reservoir and coarsest sands of a delta are deposited at the mouth of the river channel and form the distributary mouth bar. When river deposition HGH oestaUCTVE TIDE:NFLUERCED Sloncare | ri aan Constructive [Oaare 00. 10 uo) 160: Figure 6.4, Deltaic reservoir strata electric logs (1 and 2) and iithologic log (3) consisting of distributary mouth bar and delta plain sands (after Coleman and Prior, 1982). The ‘of these sands is highly influenced by (A) wave, (B and C) river, or () tidal forces at the shoreline (from Fisher et al, 1969). Lithology patterns: short dashes, marine silt and clay; long dashes ‘and combs, marsh or paludial deposits; small dots or white, channel, beach, or mouthbar sand.> z 6. Siliciclastic Reservoir Rocks 129 Zero throw Decreasing: Bedding plane faut Decreasing Overpressured/under- thow compacted shale mass D 1 2 0- Figure 6.5. Characteristics of growth or slump features. (A) Section perpendicular to shore illustrating rollover along a listric fault. (8) Thicker sands occur on the downthrown side. (C) idealized sand isolith map on a growth fault. (D) idealized electric {og signature comparing requiar footwall sand thickness (1) with the thickened sand on the downthrown side (2) (after Reading, 1978; Coleman and Prior, 1982). accumulates faster than waves or tidal currentscan move it laterally, the delta builds seaward forming a river- dominated lobate delta. if waves move the sand back against the beach to form prograding barrier beaches or strand plains, the delta is considered to be wave dominated. Where strong tides shift sand to produce tidal current sand ridges along numerous distributary channels, the delta is considered to be tide dominated igure 64). The distributary mouth bar of a large river, such as the Mississippi River, will form a sand body up to 40 km or more wide and up to 49-50 m thick that gradually increases in reservoir quality upward. The disial part of the distributary mouth bar forms a transition from the prodelta muds and silts to the mouth bar sands and consists of interbedded silt, mud, and fine sand. The distributary mouth bar consists of laminated, thin- bedded, cross-bedded, and massive sand of excellent reservoir potential. Rivers commonly abandon one delta, Jobe through channel avulsion and build another nearby. Within a short time, the initial mouth bar and lower delta, plain sink below sea level as the underlying prodelta muds compact. Then, a third delta lobe may form and overlap the first. Frazier (1967) outlined 16 lobes of the modern Mississippi delta, many of which overlap to some extent. Lobeswitching such as this permits a river- dominated delta to stack successive mouth bars on top of cone another to create a reservoir that can hold billions of barrels of oil, such as the Safania field in Saudi Aral (Ayers et a, 1982). ‘Prodelta instability creates additional reservoir tunities. Slumps, debris flows, and block slides are ‘common on most modem proceltas of the world (Bouma et al,, 1982; Cook et al., 1982) These mass movements bring great quantities of shallow water deposits, such as, distributary mouth bar sands, to deeper water on the shelf. Narrow gullies 50-800 m wide or chutes exceeding 8-10 km in length may extend down the surface of the <1" slope of the prodelta and terminate in lobe-shaped mounds of transported material (Coleman and Prior, 1982), Growth faults commonly form in this prodelta ‘environment. These arcuate faults decrease in dip angle downward causing bed rotation and formation of rollover anticlines through time (Figure 6.5). Movement130 Morse ‘Table 6.4, Deltaic Reservoirs Location Thickness ‘Depostional Field Counnry Bash Age Formation __of Pay (m) Envronment Burgan Kuwait = K Wasia - Deltaic and shallow shelt Safaniya Saud Arabia = uk Kati - Stacked delta plain, mouth bar, and bay fil Hibernia Canada - us Hibernia 68 Dotta plain, straight ‘channel, fluvial deta Badak Indonesia - Mio-Pio ——_Balikpapan = Stacked delta plain, channel Bekapai Indonesia - Mio-Piio —_Balixpapan = mouth bar, and delta Handil Indonesia - Mio-Pio —_-Balkpapan = front cycles with shelf ss Oseberg Norway - = Oseberg Ness — Datta lobes (2) stacked with deta plain ‘Smorbukk Norway - - Tile, te, - “Tidal influenced shoreline and Gamn and braided delta complex Beatrice United - J Bront 110 Stacked channels, Kingdom Ninian United - J Brent 110 Kingdom Statfjord UK-Noway = J Bront and 300 Delta ront, mouth Siatiod bar, and channels Cano, Colombia = Foc Mirador Ss 65-150 River-dominated delta, Lemon stacked lobes and channels Mic-Caspian cis. - UK - - Marine-deltaic Basin System W. Siberian cas. - uk - = Dattaic System Nembe Noeria - MMi - - Deltaic ss (ancestral Crook Niger Delta) Tiaduana, Venezuela — Eo Msoa $s — Fluvial-celtaic Laguoritas Venezuela _ Eoc Msoa Ss - Fluvial-deltaic Cambay-Hazad () India — ME oe HazadFm = Prograding deltaic ss System Prudhoe Bay USA.(Alaska) = Ltr Sadlerochit = Dataic, tuvial and ‘margnal marine Salt Creek usa. — uk Frontier Ss = Wave-dominated delta (Wyoming) and offshore bars Eugene usa. - Plio~ = 330 Delta front ss on ‘sland (Gull ot Preist marine shel Block 300 Mexico) 5, uper Lower, M, mir, Tass J, Jurassic K, Cetaous, Eo, Ecnene; Mio, Monene; lo, Plosne; Pst, Pesiocone ante’ Up, urzorfornty prchout Bl ted Hock St staliaphicD, dora FO, roloverantcine or gout faut: WA werch aniline. V,vertial Li lateral is contemporaneous with deposition, causing the hanging wall sands to thicken with accumulation of gravity remobilized distributary mouth bar sands. Thus, not only are trapping structures formed by listric growth. faults but the reservoir rocks are thickened as well. The biggest siliciclastic oil fields in the world are formed by stacked deltaic sands (Table 6.4). The Burgan field in Kuwait (Halbouty, 1980a) contains 66 billion bbl of recoverable oil reserves. Its neighbor, the Safaniya— Khafi field, a broad anticlinal trap in northern offshore Saudi Arabia, can produce over 32 billion bbl of oil from. stacked deltaic sandstones (Ayers et al., 1982). Because distributary mouth bar sands can extend for considerable distances offshore, they can be overlain by sealing shales and underlain by deep marine muds that are commonly a good source rock. The mouth bars can capture and direct great amounts of hydrocarbons to structural culminations like these supergiants. Modern deltas, particularly river- or tide-dominated ones such as the Mississippi (Holland et al., 1980), the Niger (Nelson, 1980), and the Mahakam (Huffington and Helmig, 1980), are commonly the site of large accumulations because thick reservoir rocks and seals are stacked adjacent to growth faults that form rollover anticlines. These traps are commonly charged with hydrocarbons by a more distal or underlying mature source rock. SHALLOW MARINE RESERVOIRS Coastal areas with potential reservoir sand that are not associated with active deltas include barrier islands, ebb and flood tidal deltas, shallow shelf sands, and offshore bars or ridges. A prograding sequence of these6, Siliciclastic Reservoir Rocks 131 Table 6.4 (continued) Feserves (BOF) Gas Tigiaton Recoverable inplace orl Trap ‘Set Distance ~—»Depth Porosity Permeabilty (108 (10%) Produced _Type? (bor) () (%) (ma) eterences 6 - Oo; uve = 300-2500 20-35 250-8000 Halbouty, 1980 223 oo; uve = 1500 20-35 250-8000 Kamen-Kay, 1970; Ayers et al, 1982 2a = Oo RO - 3720 16 500 Kutey etal, 1992, a Carmalt St. John, 1986 316 = Go RIO v - 1372 2 200 Huffington & Heli, 1980 = = = vit = +300 25-35 1000 -—-DeMatharelet al, 1980 oa = = vu = 480-2000 — - Verdier et al, 1980, 077 1420 OG BKUp 2120-2700 24 2000 Hagen and Kvalneim, 1992 = 118 «OG Bhp - sa00-4400 11 10-1000 Ehrenberg etal, 1992 oe 0 Bp LE = 1829 ~ ~ Linsley etal, 1980 12 - oO Bbup ev - 2779 2 1000 Albright t al, 1980 34 56 0 Bp ova 2585 2 250-1800 Kirk, 1980 10 = Oo WAV = 2206-2500 25 5000 MeCollough and Carver, 1992 “4 - Oo Bs yA - = - ‘Chapter 3 200002 Oo est vy = = = = Chapter 3 oss — °° RIO v - 214-2658 — - Nalson, 1980 sO o Bt v ~ 750-4850 12-28 240 ‘Chapter 29 54 = o = = = = = = Chapter 29, = 27 O | BLWHA = 2750-2020 12-22 250 Chapter 37 wg 0 BLAU Vv = 2498 20 500 Habbouty, 1960 08218 o AS u = = = = Bariow and Haun, 1970 04 - 0.6 RIO vir = 1290-2600 30 1000 Holland etal, 1980 sediments might superficially resemble that of a delta in that a coarsening-upward sequence is formed from the deep shelf up through a barrier island. However, the ‘geologic setting and depositional processes are different. ‘These coastal deposits are shaped and sourced by marine processes, such as tides and storm waves, rather than river processes. Sediment is transported by long shore and tidal currents and by oblique waves hitting the beach. Detailed description of barrier and shallow marine strata can be found in Walker (1979), Reineck and ‘Singh (1980), and McCubbin (1982). Barrier islands (Figure 6.6) form reservoir quality sand bodies 5-15 m thick that coarsen upward. They may extend along the shore for tens of kilometers before being, interrupted by tidal channel inlets. These inlets have thick sand accumulations just inside and outside the barrier called flood and ebb tidal deltas. Some barrier islands such as Galveston Island on the Texas coast have recently prograded seaward at the geologically active rate of about 1 km/1000 yr (Beard et al, 1962). Barriers ‘may become stacked when sea level fluctuates. Shelf sands may form sets of parallel, linear sand ridges up to 10 m high and tens of kilometers in length (Gwift et al, 1973). These are shaped and winnowed by ‘major storm waves. Tidal ridges 10-40 m high, 1-2 km wide, and up to 60 km long have been described from the North Sea shelf (Houbolt, 1968). Thus, wave or tidal can forma significant sand body many kilome- fers from the shoreline and in water depths of up to several tens of meters. Walker (1979) examines these facies and compares them to similar Cretaceous deposits formed along the shores of the Late Cretaceous sway in Canada and Wyoming. Major fields with reservoirs in shallow marine sand- stones are shown in Table 65. High wave or tidal energy is indicated in many of these examples. Stacked sequences such as barrier islands, channels, or bars are important in producing a large volume of reservoir rock.B PROGRADATION — ‘Se, Cay — [yt ceasm[ er i wre Figure 6.6. Shallow marine reservoirs include shoretace sands associated with bartier islands and tidal channel deltaic and ‘offshore bar sands. With fluctuating sea levels, these sands may form laterally extensive blanket sands that can become stacked (after McCubbin, 1982; Reineck and Singh, 1980). (A) Electric log of prograding shallow marine to coastal marsh ‘Sequence. (B) Cross section of a barrier istand with prograding shoreface and beach-dune facies. (C) Block dlagram of marginal to shallow marine depositional facies. Both transgressive and regressive sequences are identi- fied in these stacked sequences. Although stratigraphic traps are particularly common for offshore bars, such as, in the Cretaceous fields of northeastern Wyoming, few fields of this facies are listed on this table. Most fields in Table 6.5 were formed by either tilted blocks and uncon- formity pinchouts or by rollover anticlines. Few sedi- mentologic details have been published about the shallow marine reservoirs in the supergiant fields of eastern Europe (Halbouty, 1980b; Klemme, Chapter 3, this volume), but this should change when oil and gas, companies from outside eastern Europe become more active in developing the larger fields. DEEP MARINE RESERVOIRS Deep water (marine) reservoir rocks are deposited in subaqueous fans thatoccur in both marine and lacustrine settings and include many gravity-driven depositional processes. Deep water fans receive shallow water or shelf sediment from feeders on the slope, such as an old river canyon inherited from a lowstand of sea level. These feeders are relatively steep and downcutting and act as conduits for all reworked sediment that is deposited on the fan. Depositional mechanisms include turbidity flow, debris flow, free fall or cascade, and traction flow. The first three can occur very quickly and with enough ‘energy to transport silt up to 100 km from the base of the canyon onto a basin plain. Walker (1979) and Howell and Normark (1982) have described these processes and the deposits that are formed. The upper fan (Figure 67) contains the coarsest grained sediments, including large blocks from the shelf or that have broken loose from the canyon walls; these are grain-supported conglomerates, ‘matrix-supported debris flow conglomerates, and coarse- grained turbidites. This coarse-grained material, deposited primarily in the upper channel valley, is thick and does not extend laterally for more than a few kilo- meters. Finer suspended material may be carried to the laterally extensive levees or interchannel areas. Deposits on the mid-fan or suprafan lobe are com- posed of turbidites, channelized distributary sands, and increasingly larger deposits of interchannel, finer grained sediments The turbidites are normally graded and are likely to contain sand beds 0.25-2.5 m thick that are organized into subdivisions of the Bouma sequence (Bouma, 1962) and that extend laterally with little change in thickness, The channels shift by avulsion and ulti- mately cover much of the fan lobe and form a series of fining-upward sandstone beds with sand aggregates of up to 80 m. Sand bed thickness and relative amount of sand decreases with increasing distance outward from the head of the fan. ‘The outer fan begins where channels no longer form, yet lobe building continues by deposition of silts and lays from suspension in waning turbidity currents. Sandstone beds are thin and rare here, being transportedby only the largest turbidity flows. Because fans prograde into the basal plain as they receive more and ‘more sediment, an overall coarsening and thickening of potential reservoir strata occurs upward in the subaqueous fan sequence (Figure 6.7). With lobe switching, multiple coarsening and thickening-upward packages are likely to be stacked in the suprafan areas (Normark, 1978). Thus, reservoir quality sands are likely to form in the upper and middle fan channels and as turbidite sands deposited on the middle fan lobes. Berg (1982) and Mitchum (1988) have described the prograding sequences of fans in seismic sections. Proximal subaqueous fan deposits contain sizeable reserves of hydrocarbons. The middle and outer fan deposits, athough not reservoirs, are interbedded with very fine grained pelagic shales that are commonly rich in organic matter. These shales act as both a source for hydrocarbons and as a seal. Because of the lateral conti- nuity of middle and lower fan turbidite sandstones, these strata serve as natural carrier beds to bring hydrocarbons to the main reservoir sands in the middle and upper fan. Stratigraphic traps are common in subaqueous fans and may be detected with sequence stratigraphy. Examples include the Jurassic Brae Formation of the Miller field (McClure and Brown, 1992) and the Eocene Alba Formation of the Alba field (Mattingly and Bretthauer, 1992), both occurring in the North Sea area. The Wilm- ington field in the Los Angeles basin, with about 2.5 billion bb! of recoverable oil (Mayuga, 1970), is one of the largest subaqueous fan reservoirs. Table 6.6 identifies prominent fields with fan reservoirs in the United Kingdom, Brazil, and the United States. The fans form in rapidly subsiding basins produced by wrench faulting or rifting with deep water adjacent to a shelf. Submarine ‘canyons commonly also form at the shelf edge in associa- tion with major rivers entering the sea. Because of the instability of the prodelta slope, turbidity flows, mass flows, and slope creep sediments are often funneled to the canyons and hence to subaqueous fans building on the basal plain. The huge Green Canyon Block discov- eries in the Gulf of Mexico off the Mississippi delta are interpreted as having subaqueous fan sandstone reser- voirs (Brannon et al, 1993). CONCLUSIONS Depositional environments of silicclastic sandstone reservoirs were reviewed here to characterize the distrib- ution of reservoir facies. The main reservoir facies in nonmarine sandstones include point bar or braid bar sands in fluvial environments; dune sands in eolian settings; and shoreface, mouth bar, fluvial channel, and subaqueous fans in lacustrine settings. In deltas, the main reservoirs are distributary mouth bars and channel sands, Primary shallow marine reservoirs include barrier beach and shoreface sands and offshore bars. Petroleum production in subaqueous fansis mainly from upper and middle fan channel and proximal turbidite sands. Examples of prominent oil and gas fields with reservoirs in each type of depositional environment are given in Tables 6.1-6.6. 6. Siliciclastic Reservoir Rocks 133 The most prolific sandstone reservoirs of the world are deltaic distributary mouth bar and channel sands. Thick, laterally extensive reservoir sands can be deposited by one lobe of a delta. Because of delta lobe switching and subsidence of inactive lobes by compaction of prodelta silts and clays, multiple lobes can be vertically stacked, which can greatly increase the amount of reservoir sand. Tertiary deltaic sediments underlying present-day major deltas of the world account for significant petroleum reserves. The second most productive sandstone reservoirs are from shallow marine sediments. Stacking of reservoir facies due to fluctuations in sea level adds significantly to their reservoir volume. Subaqueous fans are a relatively underexplored reservoir type that holds great promise because of the amount of sand that is present, the potential for stacking fan lobes, and the likely proximity to deep basinal source rocks. Although nonmarine reservoirs have not produced as many giant hydrocarbon accumulations as deltaic or shallow marine sands, they do offer significant targets. Many lacustrine-related fields in China have yet to be carefully documented and published outside China. Eolian sands must always be considered because of their high quality and thick reservoirs. Fluvial sands, particu- larly in acct Abs Nove gros pte When they Gan be tied to a source rock and a regional seal. Acknowledgments Preparation of this paper was encour- ‘aged by Wallace G. Dotw of DGSI and Leslie B. Magoon of the USGS. Their subsequent reviews and that of Peter van de Kamp significantly improved its presentation. Linda Rausch helped to prepare this chapter. References Cited Ahlbrandt, T.S, and S. G. Fryberger, 1982, Bolian deposits in A, Scholle and D. Spearing, eds, Sandstone depositional environments: AAPG Memoir 31, p. 11-48. Albright, W. A, W. L Tumer,and K.. Williamson, 1980, ‘Ninian field, UK sector, North Sea, in MT. Halbouty, ed, Giant oil and gas fields of the decade: 1968-1978: AAPG Memoir 3, p.173-193, Ayers, M. G., M. Bila, R. W. Jones, L. W. Sientz, M. Tart, and ‘A.0, Wilson, 1982, Hydrocarbon habitat in main producing areas, Saudi Arabia: AAPG Bulletin, v. 65,n. 1, p.I-9. Bacoccoli, G., RG. Morales, and O. A. J. Campos, 1960, the ‘Namorado oil field: a major oil discovery in the Campas basin, Braail, it M. T. Halbouty, ed, Giant oil and gas fields of the decade: 1968-1978 AAPG Memoir 30, p. 328-338. Balducchi, A.,and G, Pommier, 1970, Cambrian cil field of Hassi Messaoud, Algeria in M. T. Halbouty, ed. Geology of giant petroleum fields AAPG Memoir 14, p. 477-488. Barlow, J. A.,and J. D. Haun, 1970, Regional stratigraphy of Frontier Formation and relation to Salt Creek field, Wyoming, in M. T. Halbouty, ed, Geology of giant petroletim fields: AAPG Memoir 1, p. 147-157,134 ‘Table 65. Shallow Marine Reservoirs Location Thickness Depositional Field County Bash Ages Formation __of Pay (m) Environment ‘Samotior Cis. W, Siberia UJLK = 600 Shallow marine shelt South Repubies CS. U.K Pale Shatiyk = Mavine shel System Trot Norway us Viking Gp - Stackedshallow shelf, Prograding shorelace. ‘Snobvit Norway - us Stoand - ‘Transgressive coastal Nordmata lener shot, coastal plain with tical channes Draugen Norway > vs Rogn - ‘Shallow marine shelt sand bars Unites Kingdom — us Piper Ss - High energy, margnal rating, shot Nigeria - UE 0c Aghada - Paraic, shorelace © Mio shelf, barrie: bars and system) channel sands Takula Cabinde - uk Vermene Ss — ‘Stackednearshore to coastal sands, foreshore, tidal channels, ofshore bars Custa— Venezuela = Eoc-Mo Lagunilas - Shallow coastal bars Tompero and fluviodettaic channels © Furiat Venezuela Maturin U Olg NarcualSs | — Shalow marie, barrier bars lagtu/Hedinia Papua New - tk Toro Ss 90 Stacked regressive Guinea barrior bars Fotescue Australia Southeast Foc Latobe 130 Transgressive coastal Group iain, upperand ower shoreface Venture Canada - uk Verture Ss 250 Shallow marine, deltaic Bel Cresk USA. (Montana) — uk Muddy Ss - Baier bar, shelf bars, S. Cuyama USA.Calt) = LMio Vaqueros = Nettie sand Tom USA. (Texas) — tg Frio 1000 _InnoF-middie shelf O'Comor toforeshore, beach 40 .upper ower Pal Palecoane Foe, Eaosne Oso, kposne: Moy, Miocene A aniicne; Up, uncancrmiy prchout Bl, ited bloc: S,stragraphic;D, domat FO, olor antciine or growin fad; WIA, wrench anticne; “Ththnust anticing ©V, veri Lt tral Berg, © H,, 1982, Seismic detection and evalustion of delta and urbidite sequences ther application otheexpl- ration for the subtle trap, ot M, T. Halbouty, ed, The delib- erate search for thesubte trap: AAPG Memoir 2p. 73. Bemard, H. A, R J. Le Blanc, and C.F. Major, 1962, Recent and Pleistocene geology of southeast Texas, in EH. Rainwater and R. P Zingula, eds, Geology of the Gulf Coast and central Texas, guidebook of excursions: Houston Geological Society, p. 175-224. Bolle, L, 1992, Troll field, Norway's giantoffshore gas field in M.T. Halbouty, ed, Giant oil and gas fields of the decade 1978-1988: AAPG Memoir 5, p. 47-4 Bouma, A. F., 1962, Sedimentology of Some Flysch Deposits, ‘A Graphic Approach to Facies interpretation: Elsevier, ‘Amsterdam, 168 p. Bouma, A. H, N.L. Berryhill, H.J. Knebel, and R. L. Brenner, 1982, The continental shelf in P. A. Scholle and D. ‘pearing eds. Sandstone depositional environments ‘AAPG Memoir 31, p. 281-328. Brannon, D.,A.Chedturn, W. }. Schneider, and M.Sheedlo, 1993, Joli fied revisited: producbility of upper slope turbidites in Green Canyon 184 (abs): AAPG 1993 Annusl Convention Program, April25-28, p. 79-80. Candido, A,andC. A. G.Cora, 1992, theMariim and Albacora giant fiekis, Campos basin, offshore Brazil. in M. T. Halbouty,ed., Giantoiland gas fields of thedecade 1978-1988: AAPGMemoir54, p. 123-135. ‘Cant, D. J. 1982, Fluvial facies models and their applications, inP. A Schole and D.Spearing,eds, Sandstone deposi- tioral environments: AAPG Memoir 31, p. 115-137. Carmalt, SW, and B. St.John, 1986, Giant oiland gas fields, ‘in. T. Halbouty, ed,, Future petroleum provinces of the world: AAPG Memoir $0, p 11-53. ‘Chen, and Wang, P., 1980, Geology of Gudao oil field and ‘surrounding areas, n M. T. Halbouty,ed,, Giant oil and gasfields of the decade: 1968-1978: AAPGMemoir 30, p. 471-486, Cheng C., 1981, Alluvial-fan coarse clastic reservoirs in Karamay, in J. F. Mason, ed, Petroleum geology in China: Tulsa, OK, PennWell Books p. 154-170. Clifford, H.J., R.Grund, and H. Musrati, 1980, Geology of a stratigraphic giant Mess ol field, Libya, in M. T.6 Siliciclastic Reservoir Rocks 135 Table 6.5 (continued) Reserves: Gas jon Ficoveratie Inplace ori © Tray) “Syle®™ stance = Depth Porosity Pemeabitly (4108) 109) Produced Type? cy i cy (re) References 1 Oo; = a Hatbouty, 1980 eo oO BA = = - = = Chapier 3 go 0.6 BLA luv = 1900-1500 25 500-10,000 Bolle, 1992; Carmalt ‘and St. John, 1986 = 46 GB uv = Pamo2si8 545200 LUnjordet and ‘Olsen, 1982 oa tt BA vy = 1600 28 700-1000 Proven, 1982 ow BLA v — 2195 26 4000 Maher, 1980 - 45 0,6 ROSE OV — 1700 15-25 1000-2000 Chapier 36. ‘Carmalt and St John, 1986 - aa o RO v — — o7r1038 as 1000 Dale et al, 1992 wo Oo | WA = — 410-5180 1217 10-1200 Ramiez and Marcano, 1982 os 450 OTA — 9862-4120 116 Preto and Valdes, 1002 os = Oo TA Uv = ase a) Matzke etal, 1992 02842 SLU ULV = — 2300-2400 20 4100-10000 Hendich etal, 1982 0 6 RO v — 4496-5800 16 10-40 Drummond, 1992; Chapter 3 oe ° s u = 480 = - McGregor and Biggs, 1970 os 0.6 BAW Vv - - - = Chapter 27 07 = OG ROA — = 137-1828 31 500-2500 Mls, 1970 Halboaty,ed,,Giant oil and gas fields of the decade: 1968-1978: AAPG Memoir 30, p. 507-524. Coleman, J.,and D. B. Prior, 1982, Deltaic environments, in P. A. Scholle and D. Spearing, eds., Sandstone depositional environments: AAPG Memoir 31, p 139-178, Collinson, J.D, and]. E. Lewin, eds, 1983, Modern and ancient fluvial systems: Intemational Association of Sed mentologists Special Publication 6, 575 p. (Cook, H. E,,M. E. Field, and J. V. Gardner, 1982, Continental slopes, in P. A. Scholle and D. eds, Sandstone depositional environments: AAPG Memoir 31, p. 329-364. Dale.C. T. J. R. Lopes, and S. Abilio, 1992, Takula oil field and the greater Takula area, Cabinda, Angola in M.T. Halbouty, ed,,Giantoil and gas fields of the decade 1978-1988: AAPG Memoir 54, p. 197-215, Demaison, G,and 8. J. Huizinga, 1991, Genetic dassfication of petroleum systems AAPG Bulletin, v.75, p. 1625-1643. DeMatharel, M,,P. Lehmann, and'T. Oki, 1980, Geology of Bekapui field, nM. T, Halbouty, ed, Giant of! and gas fields ofthe decade: 1968-1978 AAPG Memoir 30, p. 459469, Drummond, K.J,, 1992 Geology of Venture,a geopressured 35 field, offshore Nova Scotia, in M.T, Halbouty, ed, iant oil and gas fields of the decade 1978-1988: AAPG Memoir 54, p.55-71 Ehrenberg, S. N,, HM, Gjersiad, F. Hadler-Jacobson, 1992, Smorbukk field,a gas condensate faulttrap in the Halterbanken Province, offshore mid-Norway, in M.T. Halbouty, ed, Giant oil and gas fields of the decade 1978-1988: AAPG Memoir 54, p. 323-348. Eschner, T. B, and Kocurek, G. A., 1988, Origins of reef along contacts between eolian sandstones and overlying marine strata: AAPG Bulletin, v. 78, p. 902-943 Ethridge, F.G, and R. M. Flores, 1981, Recent and ancient nonmarine depesitional environments: models for mon seiM Speen Pusha ssp Fugster, H. Pand|. A. Hardie, 1975, Sedimentation in an ancient playa-lake complex The Wilkins PeakMember of the Green River Formation of Wyoming: GSA Bulletin, v. 86, p. 319-334. Eugster, H. P, and 8. C.Surdam, 1973, Depositional environ- ment of the Green River Formation of Wyoming: a pretimi- nary report GSA Bulletin, v.84, p. 115-120. Fisher, W.L, L.F. Brown, A.J. Scott, and J. H. McGowen, 1969, Delta systems in the exploration for oil and gas The University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology, 78 pp. Fouch, T.D, and W. E Dean, 1982, Lacustrine and associated clastic depositional environments, in P. A. Scholle and D. Spearing, eds. Sandstone depositional environments:B6 Morse A SEQUENCE INTERPRETATION sia | emer ret shore mo etsn——F conoweeates ; lrcweweces: | =p oa i Sean iB ios Z| | é g | ms 3 | \2 lesen 8 wal ew aia SS ~ Lower an aasn “iE = LOWER Fay Figure 6.7. Deep marine reservoirs are deposited at the base of the continental shelf or delta front slope as submarine fans. {(A) Reservoir sands are deposited on the upper fan valley and the suprafan lobes (after Normark, 1970). (8) An idealized vertical sequence through a prograding fan illustrates thickening and coarsening-upward (C-U) and thinning and fining- upward (F-U) sand bodies. Lithofacies inciude classic turbidites (C.T.), massive sands (M.S.), pebbly sands(P.S.), congiom- erates (CGL), debris flows (0.F.), and slumps (SL.) (after Waker, 1978). Table 68. Deep Marine Reservoirs Location Thickness Depositional Feta ‘Country Basin Agee Formation __of Pay (7) Envronment Aba ‘United NorthSea Eo ‘Aba Fin ° Deep see fan, chanel and Kingdom levee complex Fortes United Notnsea Pal Forties Fm 110 Mid to lower prograding Kingdom ‘submarine fan, two lobes ‘stacke, amalgamated cranes Miler United NorthSea UJ Brae Fm 60 ‘Submarine far, sandy Kinggom tobe on basin floor Mati Brazil - U Olig CarapebusSs 200 Submarine far, lobe, and chamels ‘Abacora Braz s UK-Mo ss 110 Submarine fan, lobe land chameis Namorado Braal - uk Ss = ‘Submarine fan, stacked ‘channels and lobes Marimba Braz - uk Ss - Turbidte Wilmington USA. (Calf) Loe Angoes Puente, Repetto 2600 Turtidte 0, upper J, ua K, Cotaoecus, Pal Paleocene: Eoo.Eocar: Op Oigecne: Mia Mccone; Plo, Pooene. A anicne: Up urconfomy pinout Bk ied boc: sraigaptc:D, dona RO, rover arcinecr row fut: WA. wen acne oN veal Ut ereSpearing, eds, Sandstone depositional environments: ‘AAPG Memoir 31, p. 87-114 Frazier, D. E., 1967, Recent deltaic deposits of the Mississippi River: their development and chronology: Gulf Coast Association Geological Societies, Transactions, v.17, p. 287-315. Fryberger, S. G, 1979, Eolian-fluviatile continental origin of eons stratigraphic trap for petroleum in Weber ‘Sandstone, Rangely oil field, Colorado: Mountain Geologist, v.16, 1-1, p. 1-36. Fryberger, S.G., 1984, The Permian Upper Minnelusa Formation, Wyoming, ancient example of an offshore prograding eolian sand sea with geomorphic facies, and Fystem-boundary traps for petroleum, in]. Goolsby and D. Morton, eds, The Permian and Pennsylvanian: 35th ‘Annual Field Conference, Wyoming Geological Associa- tion Guidebook, p. 241-271 Gage, M, 1980, A review of the Viking Gas field, in M.T. Halbouty,ed., Giantoiland gas fields of the decade: 1968-1978: AAPG Memoir 30, p. 39-57. Ghignone, JL, and G. D. Andrade, 1980, General geology and ‘major oil fields of Reconcavo basin, Brazil, in M. T. Halbouty, ed., Geology of giant petroleum fields: AAPG * Memoir 14, p. 337-358. Glennie, KW’, 1972, Permian Rotliegendes of northwest Europe interpreted in light of modern desert sedimenta- tion studies: APG Bulletin, v.56, . 6, p. 1088-1071 Glennie, K.W., 1982, Early Permian (Rotliegendes) paleo- winds of the North Sea: Sedimentary Geology, v.34, p. 245-265. Glennie, K. W,, 1987, Desert sedimentary environments, present and past—a summary: Sedimentary Geology, v. 50, p. 135-165. Hagen, J, and B. Kvalheim, 1992, Oseberg field, in M. T Halbouty,ed., Giant oiland gas fields of the decade 1978-1988: AAPG Memoir 54, p. 417-428. Halbouty, MT, 1970, ed,, Geology of giant petroleum fields: ‘AAPG Memoir 14,575 p. Halbouty, M. T, 1980a, Geologic significance of Landsat data for 15 giant oil and gas ields, in M. T. Halbouty,ed., Giant 6. Siliciclastic Reservoir Rocks 137 coiland gas fields of the decade: 1958-1978: AAPG Memoir 30, p.7-38, Halbouty, M.T. 1980b, ed, Giant oiand gas fields of the decade: 1968-1978: AAPG Memoir 30, 5% p. Halbouty, M.'T., 1992, ed, Giant oil and gas fields ofthe decade 1978-1988: AAPG Memoir 54,526 p. Halbouty, M.T., A. A. Meyethoff, RE. King, R. H. Dott, St, H.D, Klemme, and T. Shabad, 1970, World's giant oil and gas fields, geological factors affecting their formation and basin classification, in M. T. Halbouty, ed, Geology of giant petroleum fields: AAPG Memoir 14, p. 502: Hamouda, A, 1980, Petroleum potential—Ouargla region Triassic basin, Algeria, in M. T. Halbouty, ed, Giantoil and gas fields of the decade: 1968-1978: AAPG Memoir 3, p. 539-542 Hardie, L A.J. P. Smoot, and H. P. Eugster, 1978, Saline lakes ‘and their deposits: a sedimentological approach, in A. Mather and M. 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