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ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
BFC32403
CHAPTER 1
WATER QUALITY
Topics on Water Quality (9
hours lecture)
Municipal Uses
Agricultural Uses
Industrial Uses
Rural Uses
1.1 Introduction to Water
Quality
1.1.2 Water Resources
Snow / Rain
Surface Water
i) Watershed
ii) Lake /River /Reservoir
Groundwater
o Sub-surface water, or groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space
of soil and rocks.
o Flowing within aquifers below the water table.
Desalination
o Saline water is converted to fresh water.
1.1 Introduction to Water
Quality
1.1.3 Definition
Is the technical term that is based upon the characteristics of water in relation to
guideline values of what is suitable for human consumption and for all usual
domestic purpose.
1.1.4 Objective
} Are used to find out if the quality water is good enough for drinking
water, recreation, irrigation and aquatic life.
1.1 Introduction to Water
Quality
Two types of water pollution:
Parameter Classes
Unit
I IIA IIB III IV V
Ammoniacal
mg/L 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.9 2.7 >2.7
Nitrogen
Biochemical
mg/L 1 3 3 6 12 >12
Oxygen Demand
Chemical Oxygen
mg/L 10 25 35 50 100 >100
Demand
Dissolved Oxygen mg/L 7 5-7 5-7 5-9 5-9 -
pH - 6.5-8.5 6-9 6-9 5-9 5-9 -
Color TCU 15 150 150 - - -
Electrical
μS/cm 1000 1000 - - 6000 -
Conductivity*
Floatables - N N N - - -
Odor - N N N - - -
Salinity % 0.5 1 - - 2 -
Taste - N N N - - -
Total Dissolve
mg/L 500 1000 - - 4000 -
Solid
Total Suspended
mg/L 25 50 50 150 300 300
Solid
Normal Normal
Temperature oC - - - -
+ 2 oC + 2 oC
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -
Count/ 5000 5000
Faecel Coliform** 10 100 400 -
100ml (20000)a (20000)a
Count/
Total Coliform 100 5000 5000 50000 50000 >50000
100ml
Source: Environmental Quality Report 2010
Classification of Water Based on INWQS
Class
Parameter Unit
I II III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen mg/L <0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.9 0.9-2.7 >2.7
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
mg/L <1 1-3 3-6 6-12 >12
Chemical Oxygen Demand mg/L <10 10-25 25-50 50-100 >100
Dissolved oxygen mg/L >7 5-7 3-5 1-3 <1
pH - >7 6-7 5-6 <5 >5
Total Suspended Solid mg/L <25 25-50 50-150 150-300 >300
1. Physical 2. Chemical
parameters parameters
3. Biological
parameters
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.1 Physical Parameter
Example 1
The following test were obtained for a wastewater taken from a headwork to a WTP.
All the test were performed using sample size of 50 mL. Determine the
concentration of total solids (TS), total volatile solids (TVS), suspende solids (SS),
volatile suspended solids (VSS), total dissolved solids (TDS) and volatile dissolved
solids.
Data:
Tare mass of evaporating dish = 53.5433 g
Mass of evaporating dish + residue after evaporation at 105oC =53.5794 g
Mass of evaporating dish + residue after ignition at 550oC = 53.5625 g
Tare mass of Whatman GF/C filter after drying at 105oC = 1.5433 g
Mass of Whatman GF/C filter + residue after drying at 105oC = 1.5554 g
Mass of Whatman GF/C filter + residue after ignition at 550oC = 1.5476 g
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.1 Physical Parameter - SOLIDS
Solution:
1) Determine total solids (TS)
TS = (mass of dish + residue, g)-(mass of dish, g)
sample size, Liter
TS = ((53.5794-53.5433) g)(103 mg/g) = 722 mg/L
0.050 L
2) Determine total volatile solids (TVS)
TVS = (mass of dish + residue, g)-(mass of dish + residue after ignition, g)
sample size, Liter
TVS = ((53.5794-53.5625) g)(103 mg/g) = 338 mg/L
0.050 L
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.1 Physical Parameter - SOLIDS
WHY???
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.1 Physical Parameter - TURBIDITY
It is because…
• More suspended particles will absorb more heat from solar
radiation than water molecules will. This heat is then
transferred to the surrounding water by conduction.
• Such particles (SS – clay, silt, finely divided organic
material, plankton) can also prevent sunlight from reaching
plants below surface hence decrease the rate of
photosynthesis. So, less O2 is produced by plant
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.1 Physical Parameter - TEMPERATURE
pH Hardness
Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD)
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD)
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter - pH
pH= -log[H+]
pH=1 :
[H+]=1 x 10-1 moles/liter (acidic)
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter - pH
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – pH Acid – Base Concentrations
10-1
pH = 3 pH = 11
concentration (moles/L)
H3O+ OH-
pH = 7
10-7
H3O+ OH-
OH- H3O+
10-14
[H3O+] > [OH-] [H3O+] = [OH-] [H3O+] < [OH-]
acidic neutral basic
Timberlake, Chemistry 7th Edition, page 332
solution solution solution
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter - pH
Example 1
Calculate the concentration of hydrogen ion (H+) for a water sample with pH of 10.
pH = -log [H+]
10 = -log [H+]
Therefore, [H+]= antilog -10
= 10-10 mol/liter
Example 2
Calculate the pH value of a water sample which has hydrogen ion concentration of 1 x 10-6.4
mol/liter.
pH = -log [H+]
= -log (1 x 10-6.4)
= -[log 1 + log 10-6.4]
= -[0 + (-6.4)log 10]
= 6.4
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter - pH
Example 3
Find the hydrogen ion ( H+) concentration and the hydroxide ion (OH)
concentration in tomato juice having a pH of 4.1. Prepare answer in unit mol/L
and mg/L
pH + pOH = 14
pH = -log [H+] pOH = 14-4.1 = 9.9
4.1 = -log [H+] pOH = -log [OH-]
Therefore, 9.9 = -log [OH-]
[H+] = antilog -4.1
= 10-4.1 mol/L Therefore,
[OH-] = antilog -9.9
= 10-9.9 mol/L
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter - pH
mol/L to mg/L
• H+ == atomic weight = 1 g/mol ( refer Periodic Table)
• OH- == atomic weight = 17 g/mol (refer Periodic Table)
• mol/L (conc. ) x g/mol (atomic weight) x 1000mg/1g = mg/L
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Therefore,
Ca 2+ Mg 2+ + HCO3- CO32-
Example 1
ii) For carbonate ion (CO32-), the oxidation state of 2- is used for n since the
base CO32- can potentially accept 2H+. The molecular weight (MW) is 60.01.
Therefore,
EW of CO32- = 60.01/2 = 30 g/eq or mg/meq
iii) In CaCO3, n=2 since it would take 2H+ to replace the cation (Ca2+) to
form carbonic acid, H2CO3. The MW of CaCO3 is 100.
Therefore,
EW of CaCO3 = 100/2 = 50 g/eq or mg/meq
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Hardness
Example 2
Solution: Since;
mg/L of X = concentration of X (mg/L) (50 mg CaCO3/meq)
as CaCO3 (equivalent weight of X (mg/meq))
Use formula;
mg/L of X = concentration of X (mg/L) (50 mg CaCO3/meq)
as CaCO3 (equivalent weight of X (mg/meq))
From the water analysis below determine the total hardness of the water sample given the following
water composition; (50/(40/2))
Ca2+ = 95.2 mg/L HCO3 = 241.49 mg/L
Mg2+ = 13.44 mg/L SO42- = 53.77 mg/L
Na+ = 25.76 mg/LCl- = 67.81 mg/L
Ion mg/L EW CaCO3/ mg/L as CaCO3
as ion EW ion
Solution:
EW CaCO3 = 50 mg/meq Ca2+ 95.20 2.50 238.00
Example 1
A sample of water having a pH of 7.2 has the following concentrations
of ions:
Ca2+ 40 mg/L Mg2+ 10 mg/L
Na+ 11.8 mg/L K+ 7.0 mg/L
HCO3- 110 mg/L SO42- 67.2 mg/L
Cl- 11 mg/L
Calculate the TH, CH, NCH, Alkalinity, and construct a bar chart of the
constituents.
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Alkalinity
Solution
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Check Solution
(Cation) s = (Anion)s
175.6 = 175.6
Note: to within 10% mg/L as CaCO3
Total Hardness
= of multivalent cations
= (Ca2+) + (Mg2+)
= 99.8 + 41.2
= 141 mg/L as CaCO3
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Alkalinity
• Non-carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH = 141 - 90.1 = 50.9 mg/L as CaCO3
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Alkalinity
Bar chart
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Oxygen Demand
ThOD
(Theoretical oxygen demand )
Oxygen Demand
Measurements in form of
i) Biochemical oxygen demand
ii) Chemical oxygen demand
iii) Nitrogenous oxygen demand
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Oxygen Demand
Example 1
Compute the ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of glucose (C6H12O6)
• STEPS:
(i) write balanced equation for the reaction
(ii) Compute the grams molecular weights of the reactants
(iii) Determine ThOD
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Oxygen Demand
Example 2
If concentration of glucose is 10 mg/L what is the
theoretical oxygen demand (amount of DO required?)
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Biochemical Oxygen Demand
•
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Biochemical Oxygen Demand
L
o
Lo- Lt BOD exerted
BODt
L
L remaining
t
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Biochemical Oxygen Demand
kT = k20T-20
= 1.135 if T is between 4 - 20 oC
= 1.056 if T is between 20 - 30 oC
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(1-e-kt) = kt (1+kt/6)-3
Therefore
BODt=Lo(1-e-kt)
BODt=Lo(kt)[1+(1/6)kt]-3 .....(1)
• By rearranging terms & taking the cube root of both sides, equation (1) can be transformed to:
(t/BODt)1/3=(kLo)-1/3 + (k)2/3/6(Lo)1/3 (t) ....(2)
a
b
A =(kLo)-1/3
x=t
• Recalled , y = c + mx
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Biochemical Oxygen Demand
• Solving Lo1/3 in Eq.(3) substituting into Eq. (4) and solving for k yields:
k= 6(B/A) …(5)
• Likewise, substituting Eq. (5) into Eq.(3) and solving for Lo yields:
Lo = 1/(6A2B) …(6)
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Example 1
The following data were obtained from an experiment to determine the
BOD rate constant and ultimate BOD for an untreated wastewater:
Time (day) 2 4 6 8 10
BOD (mg/L) 125 200 220 230 237
Solution:
1. Calculate values of (t/BODt)1/3 for each day.
Time (day) 2 4 6 8 10
0.5
0.4
Slope, B= (0.348-0.224)/(10-0)
0.3
=0.0125
0.2
A= 0.224
0.1
0
2 4 6 8 10 Time (t)
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Biochemical Oxygen Demand
k = 6 (B/A) Lo = 1/ 6(A)2(B)
k = 6(B/A)
= 6(0.0125/0.224)
= 0.335 / day
Lo = 1/(6A2B)
= 266 mg/L
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• Theoretical NBOD =
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand
Nitrogen is often the limiting nutrient in ocean waters and some streams
Nitrogen can exist in numerous forms, but nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-),
ammonia (NH3) are most commonly measured
Sources are primarily from fertilizers and acid deposition
Human intervention in the nitrogen cycle
1. Additional NO and N2O in atmosphere from burning fossil fuels;
also causes acid rain
2. N2O to atmosphere from bacteria acting on fertilizers and manure
3. Destruction of forest, grasslands, and wetlands
4. Add excess nitrates to bodies of water
5. Remove nitrogen from topsoil
Nitrogen Cycle in a Terrestrial Ecosystem with Major
Harmful Human Impacts
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.2 Chemical Parameter – Phosphorus
Eutrophication
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.3 Biological Parameter
Microbial Indicator
Macro-invertebrate indicators
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.3 Biological Parameter – Microbial indicators
Pathogenic Organisms
Many organims that cause human or animal diseases colonize
the instinal tract but can live for a period of time outside the
body
Carriers (who may or may not exhibit disease symptoms) excrete
these intestinal tract organisms in very large numbers
When water is contaminated by excreta, the organisms can be
transmitted to those who contact the water
1.3 Water Quality Parameters
1.3.3 Biological Parameter – Macro-invertebrate indicators
Why we sample??
Documentation
Pens/wax crayons
Sample labels
Field notebook
For on-site testing
List of analyses to be performed on site
1.4 Water Sampling (River Monitoring)
Collection &Preservation Of Water Samples
Project deals with multimedia and/or multiple parameters use following sequence:
o Collect from least to most contaminated sampling locations
o If sediment and water is being collected, collect water first to minimize effects
from suspended bed materials
o For shallow streams, start downstream and work upstream to minimize sediment
effects due to sampling disturbances
o If sampling at different depths, collect surface samples first and then proceed
deeper
o Always collect VOCs first, followed by SVOCs (e.g. pesticides, PCBs, oil, etc.),
then total metals, dissolved metals, microbiological samples, and inorganic
nonmetals
1.4 Water Sampling (River Monitoring)
Environmental Sampling Techniques
General Guidelines of Environmental Sampling Techniques
Sample Amount
Water
Glass vs. Plastics:
o Glass may leach boron and silica, metals may stick to walls
o Glass is generally used for organics and plastic for metals, inorganics and physical
properties
o For trace organics cap and liner should be made of inert materials (teflon)
Special containers:
o e.g. BOD/DO bottles and VOC vials
1.4 Water Sampling (River Monitoring)
Environmental Sampling Techniques
General Guidelines of Environmental Sampling Techniques
1.4 Water Sampling (River Monitoring)
Environmental Sampling Techniques
General Guidelines of Environmental Sampling Techniques
1.4 Water Sampling (River Monitoring)
Environmental Sampling Techniques
General Guidelines of Environmental Sampling Techniques
PART 5
DO SAG CURVE
112
1.5 DO Sag Curve
Water purification system and DO sag curve
(From: Environmental Science: A Global Concern, 3rd ed. by W.P Cunningham and B.W. Saigo, WC
Brown Publishers, © 1995)
1.5 DO Sag Curve
Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve
1.5 DO Sag Curve
Mass Balance Approach
where Θ = 1.024
1.5 DO Sag Curve
3. Determine the Deoxygenation Rate
and
1.5 DO Sag Curve
4. DO as function of time
• Solution is
1.5 DO Sag Curve
Example
A discharges 37.0 cfs of treated sewage having an ultimate BOD of
28.0 mg/L and 1.8 mg/L DO into a river with a flow of 250 cfs and
velocity of 1.2 ft/s. Upstream of the discharge point, the river has a
BOD of 3.6 mg/L and a DO of 7.6 mg/L. Determine the critical DO and
critical distance, and
Given :
The saturation DO (DOs) = 8.5 mg/L,
kd = 0.61 day-1,
kr = 0.76 day-1.
1.5 DO Sag Curve
1. Determine Initial Conditions