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aay 049 ent, “wor Neder gmoqat 1 WOH} syuaMIa|e 4 Buyyo9[98 se owes O49 st geeqns quowojons ue FusooyD “syuaUEpE w YaEM Syasqns ayy | -- yuowI9T® exo ‘ai syeeqns oy ‘squowroje oxox yarm syoeqne oy} :s98e> T + u opus wroiqoud 949 5e0aq 04 wine Jo oyna ay9 as of st sjaeqns Jo requinu ay) yuNOD 0} Kea aemouy °(¢°2'T e[durexg 908) 398 quourayo-u ue Jo syesqns jo sequin 943 st opts puey-aq31s egy, *(quowndz~ peroyeulquiND w Aq) :ou0 poyyeut -JOOTy ‘wee G) +--+) + @) Tre woRBOTOTg ouoreuquon Arewuomerg ig mdeyy 9886 Chapter 2: Elementary Combinatorics This pattern has been traced back at least as far as the 12th century, but is called Pascal's triangle because Pascal was the first to write a treatise on it (1653). The triangle begins with the number 1 at the apex, and all other numbers are the sums of the two numbers directly above them. Since this rule is just a restatement of Pascal's identity, it is easy to show that the nth row of the triangle is given by C(n,0),C(n,1),---,C(n,n) (see the ex- excises). Thus Pascal’s triangle gives an easy method for calculating (n,1). Moreover as the following theorem shows, it also gives an easy way to expand (+2). Broposition 2-15. (Binomial Theorem) (1+2)" = (3) + (S)z-+---+ ("2% This proposition explains why C(n,r) is called a binomial coefficient. Note that we can use Pascal's triangle to expand (1+.2)* without multipli cation. For example, by looking at the third row of the triangle, we see that (4ePa14324327 42%, Broof (by mathematical induction). In the next chapter we give a combina- torial proof, but for now we give an induction argument because it makes use of Pascal’s identity and thus binds the theorem closely to Pascal’s triangle. BASIS STEP: (1 +2)° = 1. INDUCTION STEP: Induction hypothesis: (14 2)* = (b) + ()z + +--+ (Hak. To show: (1+ 2) = (431) + (HYz e+ (Nat, By the induction hypothesis, : ta a4 {(8) + (eee (el =()+()--+@)#+=[@)+Q)er-+ 4] “(0+ O)+[@+@]* tl) QoQ" By Pascal's identity and the fact that C(k,0) = C(k+1,0) = C(k,k) = C+1,k+1) = 1, this reduces to (+f!) + (MB)e 4-4 (EtatH, Q. 4s Section 2.6: A Brief Look at Combinatorial Identities 87 ‘The Binomial Theorem can be used in many ways. One important is proving combinatorial identities. For example, the identity 2” = O(n,0) + O(n, 1) +--+ O(njn), discussed in Example 2.6.2, is obtained by letting z = 1. As another example, consider the following. =O4+@+- Example 2.6.3 (a) Show that (1) + (2) + (1) ++ forn 1. (©) How many n-digit binary sequences have an even number of zeros and an even number of ones? Solution. (a) Letting z= -1 in the expansion of (1 +2)", we have (3) — (1) + (3) - (3) +--+ + (-1)"(2) = 0, from which the first equality follows immediately. The second equality follows from Proposition 2-12 (b) Clearly the answer is 1 ifm is zero and 0 ifn is odd. For even n > 0, such a sequence either has no zeros, two zeros, four zeros, and so on. There are ©(n,0) sequences with no zeros, C(n,2) sequences with two zeros (pick the places for the two zeros), and so on. Hence there are (3) + (3) + (3) ++ 2-1 such sequences. We shouldalso remark that the substitution of = by 2/y in the Binomial ‘Theorem immediately yields the following result, which is also called the Binomial Theorem. Proposition 2:16, (2 + y)" = Dfao (t)=4y""* Next, we state the following generalization of the Binomial Theorem. ‘The inductive proof is left for the exercises, and we discuss a combinatorial proof in the next chapter. Proposition 2-17 (Multinomial Theorem). (=1-+z2-+++-+m)" is the sum of all terms of the form (,,,,".,,)#i'23' **+#yp such that rytrate--trm =n Note that when m = 2, the Multinomial Theorem becomes the Bino- mil Theorem. spe88 Chapter 2: Elementary Combinatorice Example 2.6.4 ee 2 2 Gatatalt=(, Tan (5) (2 )s . (, oy ot + (, 2, ot G a 5) = 2ayzy + 2zyzy + eazy + 2 +23 + 2h. 1 Finally, we point out that with the general definition of C(n, r) for any real number n and natural number r, the Binomial Theorem is true for all real exponents (this follows from Taylor’s Theorem in calculus, see [Buck, 1965]). Notice, however, that in the case of nonnatural number exponents we have an infinite um. Proposition 2-18 (Extended Binomial Theorem). For any real z, (1-+2)* C(e,0) + O(z,1)z+ O(z,2)2? ++ Example 2.6.5 1/2) | (1/2) (1/2 (2) +(Ber (Mare For easy reference, we repeat the main identities discussed in this sec- tion, (12) 142/2-27/8+4-++, 1. © ©)= man @ = (9) © O)=C2+ (9 (4) 2" = Dio (f) © OE)= Cte (6) (1+2)" = Dh ()2* (1) (e1-teat---+2_)" is the sum of all terms of the form (,, 4"..,,) 27 rfp such that ry trgt+++ttm =n. nace @ C8") = Lino (4) {In the exercises, we consider the following identities. Section 2.6: A Brief Look at Combinatorial Identities 89 () Gh) = FC) (10) (FH) = Cher () (a1) Pr) = Lhe (8)? (12) ("}") = Chew (2) (2s) (a3) (MER) = Lio (B) (4) (14) (TE) = Dkoo ("5") Exercises 1. Use the binomial theorem to expand (z - 2)°. 2. Use Pascal’s triangle to expand (z +1). 3. Use the multinomial theorem to expand (z + y + z)°. 4, What is the coefficient of 21° in (5 - 32)? 5. 6. for sn ‘What is the coefficient of 28yz? in (z+ y+ 2+ w)*? ‘Verify that letting z = 2 and y = identity A : = jak = 3", x0) 7. (Pascal's Triangle) a Using Pascal’s Identity, C(n,r) = C(n - 1,7 - 1) +C(n - 1,7), prove by induction on n that the nth row of the triangle is given by C(n,0),C(n, 1), +11, C(n,n). 'b. Show that the sum of the numbers in the nth row is 2". ¢. Show that the numbers in a row of Pascal’s triangle increase, reach ‘a maximum in the middle, and then decrease. Show that each row is symmet d. Figure 2-9 shows a Galton board in which little balls fall from the reservoir at the top through the array of hexagonal obstacles to Show that the number of ways a particular ball can reach the rth column of the nth row is C(n,r). [HINT: Consider position F, argue that the number of ways to get to position Fis the sim of in the binomial theorem yields the90 Chapter 2: Elementary Combinatorics COLUMN COLUMN. . . (EACH ROW STARTS WITH COLUMN 0) 0 1 Figure 2-9 Section 2.6: A Brief Look at Combinatorial Identities 91 the number of ways to get to position D plus the number of ways to get to position E.] ©. Show that the probability that a ball ends up in the rth column of the nth row is O(n,+)/2". £, Explaist why the distribution of balls dropped through the Galton board looks the way it does. In the following exercises, numbers refer to the identities in Section 2.6, Prove identities (2), (5), and (0) algebraically by writing out the facto- rial expansion. . Prove identities (8), (10), and (11) by induction. 10, , 12. 13. M4, 15. 16. 17. 18, Prove the Multinomial Theorem (Proposition 2-17) by induction. Prove identities (10) and (11) by combinatorial reasoning of the type used in Examples 2.6.1 and 2.6.2. Derive identity (11) from identity (10). Derive identity (11) from the Binomial Theorem. Establish, (12), (13), and (14) by combinatorial reasoning of the type used in Examples 2.6.1 and 2.6.2, Establish (12), (13), and (14) by induction, Derive (12) from (14). How many n-digit binary sequences have an odd number of zeros and an odd number of ones? An even number of zeros and an odd number of ones? An odd number of zeros and an even number of ones? By setting z equal to the appropriate values in the binomial expansion of (1+2)" or one of its derivatives, show (a)-(c) and evaluate the sums in (4) and (e). a (f+ 9)" = Lise (faty* +b. Dhkol-1)*(3) © Deo HE 1)({) = n(n — a)2-? 4. Dieo 2*(2) © Dh kS*(f)92 Chapter 2: Elementary Combinatorics 19. Use the Binomial Theorem to show that 1" +2" +-++4+n™ is a poly- nomial of degree m-+1. (HINT: Induct on m. In the induction step, use the Binomial Theorem to show that j#2 ~ (j - 1)! = p(3) for some polynomial p of degree k +1, and sum both sides from j = 1 to =n to write the sum of the (k-+ 1)st powers jn terms of the sums of previous powers,] 2,7. Comments and References ‘Combinatorics has a long and fascinating history. Greek thinkers con- sidered the number of ways to combine axioms; ancient Chinese philosophers examined the arrangements of the mystic trigram; and the early astrologists studied the possible conjunctions of the planets. Formulas for r-sequences, permutations, and r-combinations were known to Hindu mathematicians of the twelfth century, but may have been familiar to Chinese scientists much earlier. In the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, the study of com- binatorics was intimately connected to the theory of probability. Luca Pacioli (1445-1509), Nicolo Tartaglia (1499-1557), and Girolamo Cardano (1501- 1576) were among the first to attempt a combinatorial treatment of probabil- ity. Under Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) and Augustus De Morgan (1808- 1871), combinatorics took on a life of its own. The twentieth century has seen a rapid expansion of the field, due in large part to the use of generating functions (studied in the next chapter). ‘A formal treatment of probability began with Galileo, Pascal, and Fer- mat. Early work was stimulated by the perplexing problems associated to gambling, Early treatises on probability were published by Jacques Bernoulli (1654-1705), Christian Huygens (1629-1695), and Abraham De Moivre (1667-1754). Modern probability began with the monumental works of Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855). REFERENCES Anderson, I. (1979), A First Course in Combinatorial Mathematics, Clarendon Press, London. Section 2.7: Comments and References 93 Bogart, K.P. (1983), Introductory Combinatorics, Pitman, Boston. Buck, R. (1965), Advanced Calculus, McGraw-Hill, New York. Liu, C. L. (1968), Introducton to Combinatorial Mathematics, McGraw-Hill, New York. MacMahon, P. A."(1915, 1916), Combinatory Analysis (2 Vols), Cam- bridge University Press, Cambridge. Niven, I. (1965), Mathematics of Choice, Mathematical Association of America, New York. Packel, E, (1981), The Mathematics of Games and Gambling, Math- ematical Association of America, New York. Polya, G., R. E. Tarjan and D. R. Woods (1983), Notes on Introductory Combinatorics, Birkhauser, Boston. Riordan, J. (1978), An Introduction to Combinatorial Analysis, Princeton University Press, Princeton, ‘Tucker, A. (1980), Applied Combinatorics, John Wiley and Sons, New ‘York. Whitworth, W. A. (1901), Choice and Chance, Haffner, New York.