Ceramic Tiles Commercial and Technical C

MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND TECHNICAL CLASSIFICATIONS
In the past, ceramic tiles were made by manual processes based on working clay
and water, and controlling the fire. These processes included:
• selecting, crushing, and mixing natural clays,

• preparation, with water, of (clay) pastes for forming or moulding the body in
the plastic state,
• forming operation using primitive wood moulds that provided the green piece
with its dimensions,
• natural drying to remove most of the water that had been supplied in body
preparation,
• a first firing that provided the product with mechanical strength, its definitive
geometry, and surface colour; in some cases, these ceramic tiles were used as
covering materials, without any further treatment,
• application of engobes and glazes onto the fired product to mask the colour of
the ceramic body, give the fair face a different colour, or make a porous
product impermeable,
• application of decorations and other surface treatments, either directly onto
the ceramic body or biscuit, or onto the engobes or glazes,
• a further firing process in which the ceramic tile was fired again to provide all
its parts with their final state, maturing all elements applied onto the surface
of the body or biscuit.
Those traditional tiles were customarily installed with lime mortars, which
provided good adhesion and were slightly deformable, allowing the ceramic tiling to
adapt to thermal changes or small movements that occurred in the substrate or in the
installed tiles. When not exposed to the action of water, wall and floor tilings installed
with lime mortar have resisted the passage of the time until the present day, sometimes
in a very good state of conservation.
Since the mid 19th century, a series of changes have taken place in tile
processing, which have laid the groundwork for current ceramic technology and for the
ceramic families that today’s ceramic industry markets.
Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 1

Manufactoring Process and Technical Classifications
THE CURRENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
The foregoing point has very briefly described the ceramic tile processing steps
up to the mid 20th century. These steps include three essential stages for the fabrication
of ceramic tile with given characteristics: raw materials selection and treatment, the
forming process, and firing. These three stages have undergone numerous innovations
and upgradings, which have led to current ceramic technology, in terms of the processes
illustrated in Chart 1.
The chart shows the three large blocks corresponding to the stages mentioned,
while each block includes a number of alternatives in the major current ceramic tile
manufacturing techniques:
• raw materials preparation by a dry or wet procedure,

• forming or moulding in the plastic state (extrusion) or forming in a semi-dry
state (pressing),
• single-firing or double-firing (biscuit and subsequent applications)
Diagram of the ceramic tile manufacturing process

Chart 1

Raw materials treatments
Once the clays and other raw materials, as well

as the additives needed in the final composition of the
ceramic body, have been selected, the first
manufacturing process stage consists of comminuting
these constituents, obtaining a homogeneous mixture,
and preparing the composition for the subsequent
forming or moulding process. Today, there are basically
two approaches: Clay quarry
• preparation by the dry method, in which the clays and other compositional
constituents are mixed and comminuted by mechanical means without the use
of water, and
• preparation by the wet method, in which the clays and other compositional
constituents are mixed with water for grinding or milling in rotating mills or
ball mills. The resulting suspension then needs to go through a thermal
process in order to remove water again and be converted into a semi-dry raw
material.
Figures 1 and 2 schematically illustrate these processes.
Raw materials processing. Dry comminution.

Figure 1
Raw materials processing. Wet comminution.

Figure 2

Current ceramic tile manufacture tends mainly to use the wet raw materials
preparation route, particularly before forming by pressing. As already noted, the clays
and other materials are milled in water in rotating mills (Figure 3), mixed and stored in
large tanks, and then pumped (Figure 4) to a spray dryer (Figures 5 and 6), which
evaporates the water and produces a raw material in the form of hollow spherical
granules with a controlled moisture content (between 5 and 7%). This is the ideal raw
material for subsequent forming by pressing.
Array of Alsing mills

Figure 3
Pumping station in a spray-dried powder

plant
Figure 4
Schematic illustration of a spray dryer General view of a spray dryer

Figure 6 Figure 5

Forming or moulding
The following fundamental stage in the ceramic tile manufacturing process is

forming or moulding. Most current products are made by semi-dry pressing (raw
materials with a moisture content between 5 and 7%) or by extrusion (raw materials of
clayey consistency with a moisture content between 14 and 20%). The slip casting
process is innate to the manufacture of sanitary ware, tableware, and ceramic products
of complex geometry; in the case of ceramic tiles, it is only used in making border trims
and other decorative elements, and consists of filling plaster moulds with an aqueous
dispersion of raw materials (liquid clay).
Semi-dry pressing (B)
The raw materials, in the form of small hollow spheres with a moisture content
of 5–7% or in the form of solid grains with a controlled particle-size distribution, are
subjected to mechanical pressing, which provides the ceramic tile with its definitive
shape by application of a uniform pressure between 250 and 500 kg/cm2. The
optimisation of this mechanical process has led to the manufacture of steadily thinner
tiles with greater uniformity in regard to material density per unit volume, in addition to
high green mechanical strength. That uniformity of the pressed raw material also allows
the body to dry uniformly and avoids the defects that originate in differing behaviour of
the material during the drying and subsequent firing processes.
This high green strength has also allowed optimisation of tile surface treatments,
without the piece first needing to be fired. In any event, semi-dry pressing has not only
enabled advances in the single-fire manufacturing process but also a considerable
increase in tile size without decreasing the quality and characteristics of the end product.
Mould with four outputs

Pressing dies
Figure 8
Figure 7
The use of moulds (dies) with engraved punches has also enabled relief to be
incorporated with great levels of accuracy.
The first mechanical presses were entirely manual; a spindle movement and
pressing force transmission system was later incorporated, using hydraulic or electric
energy. This was followed by the introduction of an automated clay feeder system for
the press moulds, and optimisation of the pressing variables (essentially, pressing

pressure and uniformity of the operation). Semi-dry pressing takes place either in
friction presses or hydraulic presses.
Mechanical friction press Hydraulic press

Figure 9 Figure 10
The manufacture of porcelain tile has led to the implementation of a new

generation of high-performance presses, whose most important innovation has involved
the diversified, stepped feed of different raw materials, achieving decoration effects in
the ceramic substrate or body.
The heading of this section contains a ‘B’: this is the letter that the product
standard uses to designate all tiles that are formed or moulded by a pressing process
using slightly moistened powdered clay.
Extrusion (A)
After raw materials preparation, usually by the dry method, a plastic clay mass is
obtained by homogeneous mixing in water. In this case, the resulting clay has a
moisture content of 14–20%, the body being pressed in a cylinder, through a die that
provides the tile with its final geometry.
The facility used to press the clay forward, including the mould or die and the
cutter that cuts individual pieces of the same size from the exiting column of clay, is
known as an extruder or auger (Figures 11 and 12). The resulting individual tile is
termed an extruded tile.

Figure 11
Figure 12
Extruders for plastic forming (clay)
This process is typical in the manufacture of ceramic brick and, to a lesser

extent, in that of certain types of roofing tiles and, of course, ceramic tile. The ceramic
tiles resulting from the extrusion process have grooves in the back, since they leave the
extruder in pairs and then need to be mechanically separated, either in the
manufacturing process itself or prior to tile installation (these tiles are also known as
Spaltplatten or split tile).
The characteristics of this forming process differ from those of semi-dry

pressing, and the resulting product therefore also differs from that made by pressing.
All tiles made by extrusion are designated by the letter ‘A’ in the product
standard.
Other forming processes (C)
Ceramic tiles may be shaped by other methods than the foregoing two methods.
One such method is the traditional process, using manual or mechanical pressing of the
clay, while another less frequent method is slip casting, in order to obtain pieces of
complex geometry.
The slip casting process consists of pouring a liquid clay composition (aqueous
dispersion of clay and other raw materials) into a plaster mould, so that it is deposited
on the walls of the mould up to a certain thickness (vacuum casting), or it is deposited
between two plaster moulds. The plaster absorbs the water of the deposited layer until
an appropriate consistency is obtained.

Drying
As it has already been remarked, all

forming processes need to incorporate water in
order to be able to take advantage of the clay’s
plasticity. That water, independently of whether a
surface treatment is applied to the green piece,
must be removed before the firing process.
Formerly, all ceramic objects were dried in

a natural process, in a more or less controlled way.
Since the mid 19th century, with the introduction
of mechanical forming processes and ensuing
production growth, different industrial drying
processes for ceramic pieces have been tried,
recently including the reuse of hot air generated in Fast vertical tray dryer
the firing kilns. Figure 13
Current ceramic tile production has implemented drying equipment that

combines great productivity and uniformity in the operation devoted to water removal
from the ceramic body. Drying production is matched to the green ceramic feed into the
dryer and to the following manufacturing operations. Drying uniformity, which is
absolutely essential to avoid tile breakage and deformation, is achieved by appropriate
management of the hot air flow and physical separation of the tiles for uniform water
removal through the ceramic tile cross-section and surface.
A further advantage is also obtained when tiles leave the dryer at an appropriate
temperature for the subsequent engobe, glaze, and decoration applications onto the
green piece, because this encourages rapid evaporation of the surface water that is added
in these applications, though it is necessary to subject the ceramic tiles to
complementary dryings before they undergo single firing.
Regularity and uniformity are vital in the drying operation, as well as in forming
and firing, to keep end product dimensions constant, while also avoiding various defects
stemming from both non-uniform drying and excess water in the green piece
immediately before firing.

Glazing and decoration
In the past, engobes (clayey coatings) and

glazes were applied onto the ceramic body that had
previously been fired (biscuit), which was usually
porous (allowing absorption of the water added by
those applications), either before or after the
decorations. These applications were entirely
manual and only in the case of serial (repetitive)
decorations were auxiliary items used to reproduce
designs consistently (templates for outlining the
graphics and stencils to fill in surfaces with a
given contour). Hence the term painter section
given to the tile factory department that performs
the glazing operations and decoration applications
on part of the production. View of a glazing line
Figure 14
Though the decoration process with
stencils led to great growth in productivity, it was
transfer printing that enabled full serial decoration.
The implementation of the screen printing

technique in ceramic tile decoration in the 1960s,
first manually and later using printing heads
(Figure 16), allowed the decorating process to be
mechanised.
In turn, the incorporation of equipment for

automated engobe and glaze application (waterfall, Disc application (engobes and glazes)
Figure 15
spraying, airbrushing, etc.) brought an end to the
manual application of these coatings on the
ceramic tile body (Figure 15).
In any event, the most important innovation

was the concatenation in a glazing line or on a
conveyor belt of all the treatments applied to the
ceramic tile, either in a green or fired state (Figure
14). That glazing line allowed automatic feed of
the tile substrate, whether as a biscuit fired in a
double-fire manufacturing process or as a green
body exiting the continuous dryers (in the single-
fire manufacturing process). Screen printing head (mechanical screen
printing)
Engobe and glaze applications as well as Figure 16
decorating techniques have evolved towards systems that provide great productivity,
consistency in the parameters that control application uniformity, and a notable increase
in decorative possibilities in terms of graphic complexity and wealth of colours. The
implementation of the roller printing technique has notably enriched the diversity of the
decorations obtained in industrial processing before firing (Figures 17 and 18).

Roller array for printing decoration
Figure 18
Roller for printing decoration
Figure 17
Though the use of mechanical screen printing has decreased compared with pad
printing, at least in reproducing mineral effects, to be noted is the appearance of
emerging techniques that represent, if they consolidate themselves, an advance in
surface treatment possibilities (surmounting the constraints of other techniques). Thus,
the following techniques are currently being implemented:
• Ink jet printing using fluids containing pigments and glazes with small
particle sizes (from nanometres to tenths of a millimetre)
• Physical vapour deposition, used in obtaining metallised coatings and mirror
effects
Facsimile reproduction of mural decoration in the

Baron of Vallvert Palace (Valencia, 18th century)
using the ink jet technique.
FRITTA (Alfa de Oro Award, Cevisama 2007)

Water jet cutting
The application of this technique from the stone industry to the cutting of all
types of ceramic tiles and especially of porcelain tile has allowed recovery of
collections of the past, and custom reproduction of any design.
The mounting of complex compositions on polyethylene or glass fibre mesh

enables rapid, problem-free installation.
SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON THE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Extruded tiles (A)
► Plastic forming and a harsher drying process (14-20% evaporation) lead to greater dimensional non-
uniformities
► To obtain a given mechanical strength, the extruded needs to be thicker than the pressed tile
► The extrusion process limits possible surface treatments on the green product (regarding embossing,
decorations, etc.)
► It is an appropriate process for the production of rustic tiles or for applications in which formal
aspects play a secondary role
Pressed tiles (B)
► The improvements and innovations in the semi-dry pressing process (clay powder with 5–7%
moisture content) have allowed obtainment of large sizes, reduced thickness, and greater dimensional
consistency, in addition to the incorporation of sophisticated surface treatment processes in the
forming stage: embossing, mineral effects, glaze applications, etc.
► The drying and firing of tiles in a deck (dryers and single-deck kilns) have also contributed to the
technical quality of these tiles and to greater dimensional uniformity
► The complete concatenation of the manufacturing processes has enabled quality control in real time
► By combining surface treatment techniques in the glazing line and on the finished product (low-
temperature decoration), current ceramic tile has no textural, chromatic, or decorative limitations
► The water jet cutting technology and pre-mounting on mesh have allowed re-emergence of the more
complex language of plane partitions, dating back to the Mediterranean tradition of Greek mosaics,
Coptic art, and Hispano-Muslim wall claddings
► Technological maturity has enabled recovery of ceramic tiling systems, with their functional and/or
decorative trims
Tiles obtained by other forming processes (C)
► These are only referenced in the standards in terms of their apparent porosity
► The tile production involved responds to three specific demands:
■ Terracotta or fired clay tiles fabricated by the traditional clay pressing process
■ Trims for swimming pools (scum troughs and borders), whose geometry does not allow them
to be formed by extrusion or pressing
■ Pieces of complex geometry for decorative purposes
In all cases, though it is not envisaged in standard EN 14411, the manufacturer should supply information
on the main characteristics of these tiles

A first classification based on the manufacturing process
The description of the manufacturing process allows a first simple classification

of ceramic tiles to be derived, in terms of one or more process stages.
In terms of raw materials
Red-body ceramic tiles: tiles made from clays that, as a result of the firing
process, acquire a colour that ranges from straw yellow to intense red or brown,
depending on their iron oxide content and, to a lesser extent, their manganese
oxide content.
White-body ceramic tiles: tiles made from clays that contain no colouring
oxides in their composition and, therefore, acquire a white or greyish-white
colour as a result of firing.
More or less porous ceramic tiles, depending primarily on the carbonate

content in the clay composition and, in the second place, on the forming and
firing processes. Vitrifiable clays, with a very low carbonate content, allow the
ceramic body to be fired at temperatures above 1100ºC, this being essential for
the manufacture of products with very low or no porosity (stoneware in general,
and porcelain tile in particular).
In terms of forming method
Extruded tiles (A): tiles obtained by a forming or moulding procedure in which

a plastic paste (body), usually a clay-based composition, is pressed through a die
by means of an endless screw on a shaft that turns inside a steel cylinder or by
obliquely mounted blades. The assembly comprising the endless screw and die
is known as an extruder or auger.
Ceramic tiles formed by extrusion are termed extruded tiles. These types of tiles
include the extruded double tiles (namely, tiles that exit the extruder in the form
of a double column and that, after they have been cut, dried, and fired, are
separated by a light blow, thus yielding two individual tiles).
A variant of the extrusion process may be considered post-extrusion lamination,

sometimes with a pressing station. This yields tiles that may be quite large
(200x900 mm) and very thin (4-5 mm). The Keraion® series by the German
company Buchtal are fabricated by the lamination process, and the Barbieri &
Tarozzi patent also uses this process.

Pressed tiles (B): tiles made using the forming method based on a clay
composition in powder or granular form, with a specific grain-size distribution
and low moisture content (below 7%). Mechanical pressing of this moisture-
containing powder gives rise to the pressed compact. This forming process is
known as dry or semi-dry pressing.
Vibrocompaction (semi-dry or high-pressure pressing) may also be considered a

pressing variant for the production of very thin, large tiles [2700x900x3 mm].
This process has been patented by System under the trade name Laminam®.
Tiles obtained by other forming or moulding methods (C), which include

those already mentioned obtained by plastic forming of the clay, either manually
or mechanically, this being, respectively, the usual way of making terracotta
tiles more or less artisanally or of fabricating them industrially with a rustic
appearance. The plastic pressing method is also applied to volumetric borders
and cappings.
The slip casting technique has been brought back again for very complex
geometries. As already noted, the technique consists of pouring an aqueous
dispersion of clays into plaster moulds. In the European standard, this aqueous
dispersion of clays is referred to as a slurry.
In terms of firing
Single-fired tile: this refers to the ceramic tile manufacturing process that
consists of just one single firing process, though the tile may subsequently be
subjected to other thermal processes for low-temperature firing of decorations
(below 900ºC).
Double-fired tile: this refers to the ceramic tile manufacturing process in which
the ceramic body is fired first, thus yielding the biscuit, followed by a second
firing for the glaze(s) and decorations.
Third-fire tile: this refers to tiles that receive decorative applications and other
surface treatments, which are subjected to one or more additional firings below
the peak firing temperature of the base tile.
In terms of glaze application
Glazed tile (GL): this refers to ceramic tiles whose fair face is coated by one or
more glazes.
Unglazed tile (UGL): this refers to ceramic tiles whose fair face is not coated,
either wholly or in part, by any glaze. This tile family includes terracotta tile,
unglazed rustic stoneware, and porcelain tile.

In terms of mechanical treatments on the finished product
Polished tiles: in these tiles the fair face has been subjected to a complex
abrasion process with a set of grinding tools containing differently sized grain in
order to obtain a mirror-gloss surface. This treatment is applied to the ceramic
body (porcelain tile) and to the glaze of certain types of glazed tiles.
Rectified tiles: when the dimensions of the tiles exiting the kiln are small, the
tiles may be machined by mechanical cutting and edge-bevelling to a precise
size, with variations below ± 0.5 mm in length and width.
Tiles that are produced by abrasive water jet cutting in order to obtain complex
shapes for borders or mosaics, which are then pre-mounted on mesh.
In terms of intended use
The manufacturing process itself indirectly delimits the use of a ceramic tile,
since a given thickness, size, and characteristics of the ceramic body will make it
suitable for a particular application, a distinction being made between those tiles that,
owing to their mechanical strength, may be used for a treadable space and those that, in
contrast (low mechanical strength and thinness), can only be used in a non-trafficked
surface.
In addition, depending on their shape, ceramic tiles may be classified as special

pieces or trims when they are to be used as junctions, in order correctly to join an
abutting construction element, or to separate/delimit spaces for functional or decorative
purposes. As a result, ceramic tiles may be classified in terms of intended use as:
Ceramic cladding or wall tiling: ceramic tiles that clad a wall or facing. In
general, this is the name that should be given to ceramic tiles that are intended
for a location in which they will not be walked on. In Spain, these are known as
azulejos (earthenware tile or wall tile).
Ceramic flooring: group of ceramic tiles that cover floors and that are also
going to be walked on.
Special tiles: ceramic tiles that, owing to their geometry or decoration, have a
specific function in a wall tiling or flooring.
This section includes:
• Tiles that serve as junctions for changes of plane (coves and angles)
• Pieces that make up a swimming pool scum trough system and nosings
• Pieces that make up a stair system, especially treads with nosing, and cheeks
• Pieces that serve to separate or decorate (listels, borders, cappings).

TYPOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MANUFACTURING PROCESS
→ In terms of raw materials Coloured body or substrate: red body
White body or substrate: white body
→ In terms of raw materials, plus forming Tiles of very high porosity (group III)
method and firing process Tiles of high porosity (group IIb)
Tiles of intermediate porosity (group IIa)
Tiles of low porosity (group Ib)
Tiles of very low porosity (group Ia) (E ≤ 0.5%)
→ In terms of the forming or moulding Extruded tiles (A)
technique Pressed tiles (B)
Tiles formed by processes other than extrusion and
pressing (C)
→ In terms of the presence of glaze on the tile Glazed tile (GL)
fair face Unglazed tile (UGL)
→ In terms of the number of firings that the tile Single-fired tile (one single firing)
undergoes Double-fired tile (two firings)
→ In terms of additional treatments after firing Third-fire tile (low-temperature decorative treatments,
one or more firings)
Rectified tiles, when the ceramic body is subjected to
cutting and bevelling
Tiles obtained by water jet cutting to achieve formats
with complex contours
Polished tiles (mechanical polishing of the porcelain
tile body or mechanical polishing of the glaze in glazed
tiles)
→ In terms of tile mechanical strength or Cladding or wall tiling: non-treadable tiles
geometry, in direct relation with intended tile Flooring: treadable tiles
use Trims: tiles with a specific function
Chart 2
Note
■ There is no direct link between fired tile body colour and tile quality or performance
■ White-body tiles are not better than red-body tiles
■ Single-fired tiles are not of better quality than those made by several firing processes

On the other hand, since the dawn of Silicate Chemistry, Materials Science, and
Ceramic Technology, most ceramic product classification have used the following two
(readily identifiable and quantifiable) technical parameters to categorise all ceramic
products generally, and tiles in particular:
• Colour of the fired ceramic body, also known as the biscuit: white or near-
white, and coloured.
• Fired body water absorption capacity, broken down into large groups that
match large families of traditional ceramics, from very absorbent products to
porcelain.
The following chart reproduces this traditional technical classification in regard

to ceramic tiles.
FIRST CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF CERAMIC TILES

Fired body Porosity Glaze Technical/trade name
colour
Fired clay tile
No (UGL) Terracotta tile
Other local names
High/Very high
Earthenware tile or wall tile
Yes (GL) Majolica tile
Majolica
Rustic stoneware
No (UGL) Industrial stoneware
Coloured Clinker
Intermediate/Low
Glazed stoneware tile
Yes (GL) Single-fired stoneware
Stoneware flooring
Porcelain tile
No (UGL)
Clinker
Very low
Glazed porcelain tile
Yes (GL) Glazed stoneware tiles
Clinker
No (UGL)
High/Very high
White-body wall tile
Yes (GL)
Earthenware tile
No (UGL)
White
Intermediate/Low Earthenware tile
Yes (GL) White stoneware
White-body stoneware flooring
No (UGL) White porcelain tile
Very low
Yes (GL) Porcelain mosaic
Chart 3

The foregoing classification displays a direct link between trade categories and
the technical classification. The following chart reproduces the previous one with
inverted columns, and lists the product codes according to European standard EN 14411
in the last column.
LINKS BETWEEN THE COMMERCIAL AND TECHNICAL CLASSIFICATIONS
Water
Product group
Trade name Technical family Surface absorption
EN 14411
(E) %
TERRACOTTA TILE OR FIRED Coloured, very Unglazed
E >10% AIII
CLAY TILE porous biscuit UGL
Coloured or white,
EARTHENWARE TILE OR Glazed
very porous E >10% BIII
WALL TILE GL
biscuit
Glazed and
Low porosity and AIb, AIIa-1, AIIa-2,
RUSTIC unglazed E < 5%
coloured BIIa, BIb
GL and UGL
GLAZED
STONEWARE Low porosity, Glazed
SINGLE-FIRED E < 5% BIb, BIIa
coloured or white GL
FLOORING
Glazed and
Low porosity and
CLINKER unglazed E < 3% AIb, BIb
coloured
GL and UGL
Unglazed
TECHNICAL E < 0.5% BIa, AIa
PORCELAIN Very low porosity, UGL
TILE coloured or white
Glazed
GLAZED E < 0.5% BIa, AIa
GL

By way of final summary, a table follows that relates the commercial families to
main tile characteristics, as an advance of the documentation that may be accessed
under the head ‘physico-chemical characteristics’.
PREFERENTIAL
COMMERCIAL
PRODUCT GROUP NOTEWORTHY CHARACTERISTICS
FAMILY
EN 14411
• Lacks dimensional precision
TERRACOTTA • Does not withstand frost/thaw cycles
TILE OR FIRED AIII UGL • Is stainable and needs protective treatments
CLAY TILE • Requires regular maintenance
• Mechanical strength depends on thickness
• Dimensionally precise, though it is recommended to
control tolerances in large sizes (from 30x30 cm)
• Has low mechanical strength owing to thinness. Only
EARTHENWARE
appropriate for cladding facings or walls
TILE OR WALL BIII GL
• Does not withstand frost/thaw cycles
TILE
• Chemical and stain resistance depends on the nature of
the glazes and surface finish
• Impermeable fair face, which requires no maintenance
• Lacks dimensional uniformity, especially in tile
AIb UGL marketed as natural
RUSTIC AIIa-1 UGL • Does not withstand frost/thaw cycles
STONEWARE AIb GL • Has high mechanical strength
AIIa-1 GL • Stainability depends on surface texture and whether
glaze is present
• Dimensionally precise in the marketed sizes (12x24 cm,
AIb UGL 20x20 cm)
BIb UGL
CLINKER TILE • Has high mechanical strength and chemical resistance
AIb GL
• Some types withstand frost/thaw cycles
BIb GL
• Has variable stainability
• Lacks dimensional precision. Should be marketed with a
STONEWARE calibre code
BIb GL
TILE • Does not withstand frost/thaw cycles, except for some
BIb products
GLAZED • Withstands impairment of appearance (mechanical
STONEWARE BIIa GL and/or chemical aggressions) depending on type of glaze
FLOORING • Has low stainability
GLAZED • Has high mechanical strength

PORCELAIN BIa GL • Withstands frost/thaw cycles
TILE • Remaining characteristics like those of stoneware tiles
• Has high mechanical strength and chemical resistance
• Withstands frost/thaw cycles
PORCELAIN
BIa UGL • Lacks dimensional precision. Needs a calibre code or
TILE
rectification
• Has variable stainability in polished finishes

Ceramic systems
Within the trade offer for the different tile families, it is necessary to consider
ceramic tiling systems, these being sets of ceramic pieces that serve comprehensively to
tile a construction element without the need to cut any materials, or that have a
functional and/or aesthetic purpose.
Stairs
Set of ceramic pieces that serve to clad stair steps and join these to adjacent
construction elements. The product offer also sometimes includes ceramic banisters and
balusters.
Set of tile items for stair tiling
STAIRS
Name Definition
Tread Ceramic tile with special edge termination (lip), the part adjacent to that lip usually
being profiled, to constitute a stair tread
Tread corner Ceramic tile with special termination (lip) at two adjacent edges, to constitute the
tread outside border
Riser Ceramic tile, usually glazed and decorated, as long as the tread, whose width
corresponds to standard step height
Nosing or edge Piece containing a longitudinal anti-slip profile, for the outer part of the step,
complemented with a flat tile of the same width, to complete the step cladding
Cheek Piece of irregular geometry, adapted to the step cross-section, which serves as stair
skirting. The model and its mirror image are manufactured, in order to be able to
clad the left and/or right skirting of a stair
Handrail or banister Piece with a concave or rectangular cross-section to clad the top of a stair railing,
which is usually of masonry

Tiling of swimming pool basins and scum troughs
Set of tile items that allow changes of plane in swimming pool basin tilings,
including underwater stairs, in addition to scum trough systems.
Ceramic systems for junctions at abutments and changes of plane in tilings in water environments
SWIMMING POOLS
Designation Definition
Nosing Ceramic piece that serves to clad the edge of a conventional swimming pool
without a scum trough, which may have a more or less complex cross-section,
usually with anti-slip profile and end moulding. Nosing types include the Finnish
system, Zurich system, and Portuguese system, a flat joining part being
incorporated with the inner tiling of the swimming pool. The Wiesbaden A and B
system nosings include a small scum trough, in addition to a piece with a water-
drainage hole
Nosing corner Complementary trim to the nosing for swimming pool corners, without the need to
cut any pieces
Cove or concave Piece with a concave cross-section (quarter circle) for joining abutting facings
shape
Cove angle Piece complementary to the cove to be fitted in three-sided pieces
Channel Ceramic piece with a more or less complex geometry for leading the water along
the edges of a swimming pool. It includes a piece with a centre hole
Scum trough U-shaped piece with a more or less complex geometry, depending on the different
finishing systems, which serves as a scum channel.
Scum trough angle Piece complementing the scum trough, for the channelling in the corners

Skirtings
System or set of pieces which, on the one hand, allow changes of plane in a
ceramic tiling and, on the other, serve decoratively to delimit surfaces (listels, cappings,
borders, etc.).

SKIRTINGS
Name Definition
Round-edge tile Ceramic tile with a rounded edge (semicircular termination of the fair edge), for
corner junctions
Double round-edge Ceramic tile with two adjacent rounded edges (semicircular termination of two
tile adjacent edges), for corner junctions
Bevelled Ceramic tile with bevelled fair edges (angle ≤ 45º in relation to the tile surface), for
earthenware tile or decorative purposes
wall tile
Capping Ceramic piece that is usually three-dimensional or embossed, used to delimit parts
of a tile dado or wainscot. The length corresponds to the skirting base tile
Capping angles (in- Pieces complementary to the capping, with the same cross-section, for joins with
or out-angles) other facings without the need to cut any pieces. They may be concave or convex
Dividers or strips Very narrow pieces, of the same length as the base tile that constitutes the tile dado
or wainscot, which serves to delimit parts of the tile dado or wainscot. Also termed
listel or fillet. The term listelo is inappropriate, since it is an Italian word.
Divider angles Pieces complementing dividers or strips, of the same cross-section, for junctions
with other facings without the need to cut any pieces. They may be concave or
convex
Beads Pieces with a cylindrical geometry (quarter cylinder), which serve as junctions
with other facings without the need to use mitres or to cut any pieces. They are
used both horizontally and vertically. Also called coves
Bead angles Pieces complementing beads, of the same cross-section, for joining three-sided
pieces and corners. They may be concave or convex
Skirting Ceramic piece, of the same length as the base piece, sometimes in a square format,
with formed edge profile, as the bottom part of the skirting and junction with the
flooring. By extension, this term should be used for all pieces that constitute the
skirting of a flooring, usually with a rectangular cross-section and same length as
the floor tile
Skirting with top Special piece for skirting with a bevel termination
bevel
J-shaped skirting Ceramic piece with a J-shaped cross-section, which serves as a junction with the
flooring
Coves Term equivalent to bead, and associated most frequently with the concave pieces
that serve as junctions with other facings
Cove angles Trims complementing the cove, with a triangular shape, for joining three-sided
pieces

Other trims
There are further specific ceramic trims and special pieces for construction
finishes. These products may be broken down on the basis of functionality or
personality in the Art of cladding surfaces. Functional products include window sills
and systems for ledges and benchtops. Personality-focused products include inserts or
olambrilla, trencadís (tile fragments), and mosaics (tiles smaller than 10x10 cm).
OTHER TRIMS
Name Definition
Systems for Group of tiles designed to prevent liquids from spilling or penetrating into bench
kitchen benches or corners. Applied especially in laboratory benches and now also recovered for use
ledges and in the most qualified tiling offer for kitchens. They include tiles with raised
laboratory edges, corners with raised edges, tiles with a J-shaped edge, tiles with centre
benches profile and opening for plumbing facilities, junction pieces, and angle trims.
Sills Ceramic pieces designed with the classic inverted ‘M’ at the edge to facilitate
water evacuation and keep water from running down the facade
Sill with raised Particular window sill with raised lip on the side opposite the outer edge to
edge protect the junction with the carpentry and keep water from seeping in through
the joint
Mosaic Small-sized ceramic tile, usually 5x5 cm or smaller, though some call mosaic any
ceramic tile with a total surface area below 100 cm2. Mosaic is supplied as face
or back pre-mounted panels, customarily measuring 40x40 cm
Trencadís The term refers to inlaid or embedded ceramic tile fragments (hence of irregular
geometry), juxtaposed to provide a ceramic tiling with contrasting colours. At
present, they are also marketed pre-mounted according to particular decorative
programmes and are used both in wall tiling borders and flooring borders
Mitre 45º cut made on the bottom or rear edge of a ceramic tile to allow the fair faces
of two adjacent tiles to touch at their outer edges, avoiding a bevel angle. By
extension, the term mitre refers to the tile that has this inner bevel edge
Insert Small-sized tile, dimensionally coordinated with the base tile of a flooring. It
usually has a colour that contrasts with or has different decorative effects from
the flooring, for insertion in the flooring
Olambrilla Piece equivalent to the insert and traditional Spanish name for tile measuring
5x5 cm or smaller, glazed, decorated, or embossed, inserted in a terracotta tile or
fired clay tile flooring


Ceramic Tiles Commercial and Technical C

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ceramic Tiles Commercial and Technical C

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND TECHNICAL CLASSIFICATIONS

• selecting, crushing, and mixing natural clays,

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 1

• raw materials preparation by a dry or wet procedure,

Diagram of the ceramic tile manufacturing process

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 2

Once the clays and other raw materials, as well

Figures 1 and 2 schematically illustrate these processes.

Raw materials processing. Dry comminution.

Raw materials processing. Wet comminution.

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 3

Array of Alsing mills

Pumping station in a spray-dried powder

Schematic illustration of a spray dryer General view of a spray dryer

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 4

The following fundamental stage in the ceramic tile manufacturing process is

Semi-dry pressing (B)

Mould with four outputs

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 5

Mechanical friction press Hydraulic press

The manufacture of porcelain tile has led to the implementation of a new

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 6

This process is typical in the manufacture of ceramic brick and, to a lesser

The characteristics of this forming process differ from those of semi-dry

Other forming processes (C)

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 7

As it has already been remarked, all

Formerly, all ceramic objects were dried in

Current ceramic tile production has implemented drying equipment that

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 8

In the past, engobes (clayey coatings) and

The implementation of the screen printing

In turn, the incorporation of equipment for

In any event, the most important innovation

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 9

Facsimile reproduction of mural decoration in the

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 10

The mounting of complex compositions on polyethylene or glass fibre mesh

SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON THE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 11

The description of the manufacturing process allows a first simple classification

In terms of raw materials

More or less porous ceramic tiles, depending primarily on the carbonate

In terms of forming method

Extruded tiles (A): tiles obtained by a forming or moulding procedure in which

A variant of the extrusion process may be considered post-extrusion lamination,

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 12

Vibrocompaction (semi-dry or high-pressure pressing) may also be considered a

Tiles obtained by other forming or moulding methods (C), which include

In terms of glaze application

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 13

In terms of intended use

In addition, depending on their shape, ceramic tiles may be classified as special

This section includes:

• Pieces that serve to separate or decorate (listels, borders, cappings).

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 14

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 15

The following chart reproduces this traditional technical classification in regard

FIRST CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF CERAMIC TILES

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 16

LINKS BETWEEN THE COMMERCIAL AND TECHNICAL CLASSIFICATIONS

Ceramic tiles · Commercial and technical classifications 17

GLAZED • Has high mechanical strength