CITB ~ CONSTRUCTION Industry Training Board A Construction Industry Training Board PublicationCONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY TRAINING BOARD A GUIDE TO PRACTICAL SCAFFOLDING The construction and use of basic access scaffolds Second Edition Revised 1987 All chmensions st contorm to the standard dimenstons spec e Con ion) Regulations, 1981 Cade of Pract 1984 and BS 5973 ind Working Scatfolds. © Construction Industry Training Board CE 509FOREWORD Scaffolding is one of the highest risk occupations in this country: accidents associated with scaffolds are currently around 10 deaths and 2,000 injuries each year, There is an urgent need for a practical guide, not only for scaffolders but also for project managers, site agents, foremen, young engineers, home users and others if accidents, which can have such appalling consequences, are to be minimised The Construction Industry Training Board has responded to this need with “Practical Scaffolding’, Since the inception of the Building and Civil Engineering Industry Scaffolder Record Scheme on 1st January 1979, 22,000 scaffolders have been registered to December, 1984; this has done much to improve the standard of training within the industry. With its experience of scaffolding training the Board is well qualified to have produced this publication As readers will quickly see, the extensive use of drawings makes the book easy to read and understand. The requirements of the Construction Regulations are simply explained and the book covers the basic scaffolding structures in common use. It also includes chapters on the safe handling of scaffolding materials and efficient working practice | welcome this book and believe it will contribute greatly to the safety of all those concerned with scaffolding — scaffolders who are responsible for erection and dismantling, the users of completed scaffolds and, of course, the general public. | commend ‘Practical Scaffolding’ to you Fares Minden GP HENDERSON Chasman Seattoldiig Corimuttes Congtructton Industry Training Board January 1988CONTENTS Page PART 1 - Basic Scaffolding Common Scaffolding Terms 1 Basic Scaffold Requirements 5 Materials 13 Scaffold Foundations 19 Ties 25 Working Platforms 34 Ladders 41 Manual Lifting and Handling 48 Rapes, Knots and Hitches 61 Raising and Lowering Materials 65 Organisation and Working Methods a" Obstacles and Hazards 76 Protective Fans 83 PART 2 - Basic Scaffold Structures Independent Tied Scaffold 2 Basic Putlog Seaffald 97 Access Birdcage Scatfolds 108 Tower Scattalds 113 System Scatfolds 121 Glossary of Terms 129 Index 137 Acknowledgement The Construction Industry Training Board wishes to express its appreciation and thanks for the valuable contribution made by members of the National Association of Scaffolding Contractors in preparing this book for publicationPART ONE BASIC SCAFFOLDINGCOMMON SCAFFOLDING TERMS Scatfolders in different regional areas of the British Isles have evolved over the years their own terminology, their own particular names for the various types of scaffoldand scaffold fittings in cammon use. This chapter explains in simple terms the common names ofthe basic components, where they are placedin the structureandthe job they do. At the end of this book you will find a full glossary of the terminology used in the industry. Standards. Standards (also known as uprights) are the vertical tubes which carry the entire load to the ground. Each standard should havea baseplateplaced underneathto Prevent the end of the tube from sinking into the ground by spreading the load The Base Plate ts made from steel and has a central shank to locate the tube. Sometimes the base plate is nailed or pinned to a sofe board to stop lateral movement, particularly if no foot te or kicker life is employed The Sole Board is necessary a5 a means of spreading the weight over a greater areca than the baseplate, normally on soft ground. J tain | ansart eZ, Ledgers are the horizontal tubes which connect and support the standarls and act as Supports for transoms, Thevertical spaces between ledgersaregovernedby theuse for which the scaffold is intended. ~ Sole boards Main Transoms are placed horizontally at right-angles across the ledgers, adjacent to each pair of standards; or connected directly to each pair of standards. They hold both rows of standards in position and also act ag scaffold board supports Intermediate Transoms are placedacross theledgers between themaintransomgand actas scaffold board supports, sometimes referred to-as ‘board bearers’Cross or Ledger Braces are essential to the rigidity of the structure and are placed diagonally across the ledgers, adjacent toalternatepairsof standards Crassbracesare normally fitted directly anto the standards Ledger braces are fitted to ledgers, JE. Bog-leg or 2igzaq Cross Braces Alternative Ledger-braving fixed with swivel couplers method to standards Facade or Sway Brace, This is a tube to the face of the scaffold to stop the scaffold swaying. It should be run from the base to the full height of the scaffold aan angle af about 45° and be fixed at the base and at every lift level either to the standards or the ends of the transoms. One such brace must be fitted every 30m along the face of the scaffold brenda of Tray 4 | I LiScaffold Couplers. There is a wide variety of couplers available and their use and maintenance depends upon the type of fitting and its application, All fittings should be ightly ailedand kept free from rust. The descriptionand use af these itemsiscaveredin apter headed ‘Materials’, Three examples are shawn below. the cl Swivel Coupler Right-Angle Coupler Putlog Coupler Internal Joint Pins {or Split Joint Pins}, also called spigats, are used to connect tubes nd-to end, Thé spigot is inserted into the ends of the tubes and the centre bolt tigmtened, causing the wwopartso ‘o. expand and grip the inside of the tubes. This fitting should norbe usedin pasitions where it will be subjectto bending ortenswn. Jes, are also used ta connect tubes end-16-end qual to any tube. It has.a safe working Sleeve Couplers, generally called sl This fitting has a resistance to bending, at lea tension of 315Kg (700Ibs}Standard $ pacing (or bay length). The distance between standards, measured along the face of the scaffold. Foot-Tie or Kicker Lift, The ledgers and transoms that are fixed near ta the battom of standards, approximately 180mm (6ins| from the ground. Lift Heightor Ledger Spacing, Thedis: the scaffold nce between ledgers, measuredup the face of Base Lift or First Lift. Tie first lift above ground fevel. ather than the foot tie ork lift Scaffold Width. The distance bere known as the board width n standards measured atthe shortest point, also Additional terminology will be introduced throughout the book and willbe explained as necessary Bay length Scaffolding Base lift or first lift / Foot Tie ar Kicker lift Note. Bracing has been Lift height or omitted for clarity Ledger spacingBASIC SCAFFOLD REQUIREMENTS The primary reason for erecting a scaffold is to support a working platform. Most construction work involves working atheightswhichcannoteasilyor safely bereached from the groundor part of the building. By law, anemployer must pravide asafe working platformanda safe and convenient means of access Scatfolds may only he erected, altered or dismantled under the supervision of competent and experienced scaffolders. Scaffolds erected or altered by thase who have no knowledge or experience of the loads or stresses involved may be unsafe, Scaffolds must be rigid, built of Sound materials on good foundations and be well secured to the building or structure. In public places, scaffolds must be welllit or have warning lights fitted at the base Warning notices must be displayed on incomplete scaffolds and precautions taken to ensure that no unauthorised persons, (particularly children and other members of the public), ean gain access to the scaffold at any time. SCAFFOLD INCOMPLETE DO NOT USE Ladder blocked aff In this introduction to scaffolding requirements only brief mention will be made of the various critical aspects of scaffolds. Each subject is dealt with in greater detail under separate chapter headings, but summarised belaw for the convenience of the casual reader, MATERIALS Materials used to builda seaffold must be in geod condition. Steel items should befree from rust; fittings should be well serviced and free from excessive oil or grease which may cause the fitting to slip, Boards should be clean and in good condition, the ends bound or natl-plated, and not split or warpedand twisted. Scaffold boards shauld notbe paintedor treated inany way to conceal defects.Other materials, ropes, gin wheels, ladders, ete. must all be in sound, serviceable condition, All seaffalding materials must be inspected by an experienced and competent person, hefore use, and unsound and unserviceable materials should be clearly marked and removed from the site FOUNDATIONS Every scaffold structure must be ‘well founded’ The foundation must be capable of rrying the imposed load for the entire life of the scaffold. On hard surfaces, such as steel or concrete of sufficient strength and thickness, standards maybe placeddirectly on the surface. On other surfaces, base plates and sole boards must be used to spread the load The ground beneath the sole heard must be level and properly compacted. Intermediate transom Standards THE SCAFFOLD FRAME The framework of ascaffoldis built rom metal tubesof varying lengths, joined together with a variety of ouplers or clips (commonly ealled fittings). The actual design and shape of the structure will depend on the type and intended purpose of the scaffold and the load it might be expected to bear. Thisehapteris concernedonlywiththefeaturesot the structural framework common to most scaffolds.Standards Standards aré thé vertial element of the scaffold framework and as such carry the weight of the structure and its load, Standards mustbe vertical, or lean slightly inwards towards the building The spacing of standards is determined by the intended use ofthe seatfold, thedistance between standards being reduced as the expected load increases. Table 1 (page 12) abstracted fram 8S 5973 gives details of the maximum day length (standard spacing) for different types of scaffold; the most common being 2.1m (7ft) for a general purpose scaffold. This is reduced to 2m (6ft 6ins) For a heavy duty scaffold and 10 1.8m {6ft) for masonry and stone work. The width of the working platform, arid thus the distance between frontand back rows of standards isalsadetermmedby the purpose for which the scaffold isintended, Thisis usually expressed in terms of “the number of boards wide” for example a four board scaffold would usually require @ width spacing of 870mm [38ins) from centre tocentre of each standard. Thig measurement would only vary to accommodate dif ferent types of couplers Jaunts in standards should be staggered, that is, joints should not gocur al the same level in adjacent standards. Joints can be made with spigots. butif thay are likely to be Subject to axial tension they sould be strengthened with lapped tubes, er sleeve couplers should be used, depending on the load — L L [All joints should be staggered and kept as close to the nade pointas practicableLedgers Ledgers are the main horzontal tubes and provide lateral support to thestructure They must be level, and fixed to the inside af standards with right angle, load-bearing couplers Ledgers should be joined with sleeve couplers [but internal expanding spigots may be used ¢f the joint is within 300mm of a standard), and should be as close to the node points (the point at which the ledger is ficed to the standard) as possible. They should never be more than one third of the bay width froma standard. All joints must be staggered The bottom ledgers (kicker lift of foot Vie should be set approximately 180mm (6ins} above ground level, except where thisis impossible for reasons of access Thekicker lift or foot tie is normally used only on heavy duty or lang term scaffolds, orwherethereisa possibility that standards could be displaced through impact at low level The vertical distance (lift height, ledger to ledger} should be 2m (6ft Bins)and the base lit never mare than 2,7m {9th Kicker Lift andards. Ledgers Transams Putlogs and Transoms Main transoms are fixed, either directiy across to every pair of standards, using right angle couplers. or laid across and fixed to ledgers with putlog couplers. In this case, transoms should be fixed as close as possible. butnever more than 300mm (1 2ins}from each pair of standards, Main transoms hold the two rows of standards in position and are an integral partof the structure. They must not be removed unless expert advice is, sought 8— Tranéoms should never be laid more than 1.5m {5ft) apart when used as supports for 38mm (11ins) seatfold boards or 2.6m (8ft Gins) for [0mm (Zins) hoards, The /ength of the putlog or transoms will be determined by the widt/iof the proposed platform, which in turn will be decided by the use far which it is imtended Main Transoms, Intermediate Transoms Intermediate Transoms If the lift 1s to be boarded over as. a working platform. ingermediate transoms will be required to support the boards. These are fixed across ledgers with putlog couplers. normally in the centre of each bay, although additional intermediate ransoms may be required to Support short boards. They may safely be removed and used elsewhere in the structure when the platform is no longer required Ties Toensure that the scaffold framewerk cannot move away from, or towards the building it must be stabilized, This is normally achieved by securing the scaffold framework to the building with positive two-way ties. Ties are discussed in detail under the relevant chapter heading Ties must not be removed, except by an experienced and competent scaffolder, who must ensure thatthe stability of the seaffold isnot jeopardised. If removed for accessor any other purgose, alternative ties must first be fixed to maintain the stability of the scaffold Ties must be checked at regular intervals, and re-checked again before dismantling Braces All scaffald Structures must be braced in both directions. Facade (or sway braces} shouldbe ttedalong the outer face of thescaffold, framthe base to the full heightof the structure. [nthe case of large structures a brace must be fixed every 30m {1 OOft) orless alang the face and can be continuaus or placed across each bay in a zig-zag (dog-leg) fashion. Joints in facade braces must be made with sleeve couplers. If joint pins (spigots| are used each jaint must bé spliced with a lapped tubeLedgers Ledgers are the main horizentaltubes and provide lateral support tothestructure. They must be level, and fixed to the inside of standards with night angle, load-bearing couplers, Ledgers should be joined with sleeve couplers (but internalexpanding spigots may be sed if the joint is within 300mm of a standard): and should be as close ta the node points (Lhe point at which the ledger is fixed to the standard) as possible. Theyshould never be more than one third of the bay width froma standard. All joints must be staggered The bottom ledgers fKicker lrft or foot tie) should be set approximately 150mm (6ins} abowe ground level, except where thisis impossible forreasonsof access. Thekickerlift or foot tie is normally used only on heavy duty or long term scaffolds, or where there possibility that standards could be displaced through impact at low level The vertical distanee (lift height, ledger to ledger) should be 2m (6ft 6ins} and the base hift newer more than 2.7m (Of) Kicker \ Lift Standards Transoms, Putlogs and Transoms Main transoms are fixed, either direstiy across to every pair of standards, wsing right angle couplers, or laid across and fixed to ledgers with putlog couplers. In this case, transoms shouldbe fixed as closeas posstble, butnevermore than 300mm (1Zins}from each pair of standards. Main transoms hold the two rows of standards in position and are an integral part of the structure, They must not be removed unless expertadvice 1s sought 8Transoms should never be laid more than 1.5m (Sft) apart when used as supports for 38mm (1 ins} seat fold boards or 2,6 (Bit Gins) for 50mm (2ins) boards, The length of the putlog or transoms will be determined by the width of the proposed platform, which in turn will be decided by the use for which iis intended. Main Transoms * interme \ate Transoms Intermediate Transoms if the lift is to be boarded aver as a working platform, intermediate transams vall be required to Support the beards. These are fixed across ledgers with putlog couplers, narmally in the centre of each bay, although additional intermediate transoms may be required to support short boards. They may safely be removed and used elsewhere in the structure when the platform is no longer required Ties Toensure that the scaffold frameworkcannot move away from, or towards the building it must be stabilized, This is normally achieved by securing the scaffold framework to the building with positive two-way ties. Ties are dis ussed in detail under the relevant apter heading. Ties must not be remaved, except by an experianced and competent scaffolder, who must engure thatthe stability of the scaffold isnatjeopardised. Ifremovedior access or any other purpose, alternative ties must first be fixed to maintain the stability of the ratfold Ties must he checked at regular intervals, and re-checked again before dismantling Braces All scaffold structures must be braced in both directions Facade (or sway braces} should be fitted slong the outer face of the scaffold, [romthebase to the full heightof the structure In the case of large structures a brace must be fixed every 30m {1 OOH) orless along the face and can be continuous or placed across each bay in a zig-zag (dag-leg) fashion. Joints in facade braces must be made with sleeve couplers. If joint pins (spigots) are used each joint must be spliced with a lapped tubeBraces must be connected at every lift to standards with swivel couplers, ortotheends of transoms with right angle couplers, in which case the transom itself must he fixed with rightangle couplers All braces form an integral part of the scaffold structure and must not be removed without expert advice, Ledger Bracing . I Continuous Facade or Sway Braces Dig leg Bracing WORKING PLATFORM AS previously indicated, the primary purpose of a scaffold is to support a working platform The law requires that such platforms stiould be su/table forthe type of work, provide security for the operative, and be so constructed as to ensure the safety of others — people passing below or near the scaffold I the platform more than 2m (6tt Gins] above the ground, it must beclosehoardedand befitted with guardrails and toeboards including stop ends) Hf materials are stacked on the platform above the height of the toebuard, a suitable barrier (such aga brick guard) must be erected 10 prevent the materials {rom falling off The width of heworking platform and the uses forwhich they aredesignedaredetailed inthe tables which are included as an appendix to this chapter (see page 12) “ working platform must be provided with sate and proper means of access. This is usually some form of ladder, which must be properly secured and extend above the level of the platform by a minimum of five rungs (1.05m, 3it 6ins} unless. other adequate hand: holds are provided. Landing areas must be fitted with guard rails and toeboards and should be kept clear. (See chapters. on laddars and working platforms) 10Qversail approx 600mm Puncher asa Hanchold Standards spaced to support load: 4 ta7 angle +— Atypical working platform LOADS ON SCAFFOLDS Care must be taken to see that any load does not exceed the permissible limits (see appendix to this chapter, Table 1 for details of distributed loads), Materials should be distributed as evenly as possible with heavy items, bricks, etc., stacked near to standards INSPECTION Every scaffold should be inspected by an experienced and competent person, at ieast ‘once every Seven days; afer any substantial modification or alteratians and after exposure to adverse weather conditions. A recard of the inspection must be kept on Form 91 Part ¥, Section & These reports must be kepton site wherever possible, or at the office of the employer "1Table 1. Access and working scaffolds of tube and couplers iy eet laitorm asinun aba ian umber ot plotters sedyechne Bay sing 2 leat #8 Vesotking platlorm 3 bots a? 150 Ziworkinglattorms “wards! 28 200 2 working stators = 21 200 Tabor git ty 21 lace, Beekinc 2:80 3 20 asus Manonty'wiore concrete 900 Trilling itaclorins — Blu birily 18 Table 2. Widths of access scaffold platforms Table 3. Maximum span of scaffold boards Purpose owes Fo ravacun —48Gmm pg aattorne 6aimm SB poaras vgher slater wes? 12 Nominal Mi Migomuie a a8 15 50 150 50 20 50 200 a3 528 50 Reproduced from B.S, 5973:1981 with approval of British Standards InstitutionMATERIALS Scaffolding materials consist primarily of tubes, boards and fittings: Additional sams Such as ropes, gin wheels and ladders are covered in individual chapters concerning these teins: The care and maintenance of tubes, boards and fittings 1s of prune Mportance as it alfects both safety and profitabiliay Alll scaffolding materials must be inspected before use by anexperienced ard compe- ent seaffolder, and unserviceable items-discarded These should! be clearly marked and removed from the site ta prevent their accidental use by others SCAFFOLD TUBES Tubes should be manufactured and tested in accordance with 88 1139 Part 1 ‘Specification for tubes for use in scaffolding Three main types'of tube are in common use throughout the Un fed Kingdom © Black sted! tubes © Galvanised ste! tubes © Aluminium alloy tubes Soli! black steel and galvanised steel tubes possess the same properties. « galvanised tubes are more resistant to corrosion. These common properties are © outside diameter, 48. 3mm * pominal wall thickness 4.0mm © weight, 4 37Kg/ m2 9Ib/iny Aluminium tube has the same outside camet muel and Ughter. tt is more flexible than steel and is not as sirang. Fer this reason aluminium tube shauld not be used in the same structure as steel tube. The common Properties of aluminiuen tube are as fatlows as steel, but is slightly th © outside diameter, 483mm © nominal wall thickness. 4.4mm © weight, 167Kg/m (1 12ib- ft) Aluminiuin tube is tempered using heat during manufacture Any further heat applied tothe tube may weaken it Repair of Tubes Cortoded tubes shouldbe cleaned witha wire brushandtheextentof damagaassecsed bya competent and experienced examiner. Bent steel tubes may besiraightenedusing @ rolling machine, but bent aluminium iube should be thrown out Repairing scaffold subes is a skilled job and should only be undertaken by specialistsInspection The ability of a Scaffold to carry its load is largely dependent on the strength and condition of the tubes used in its construction. Consequently, tubes must bechecked ta ensure they are: @ Straight @ Free fram cracks. splits, bad dents and excessive corrosion © Cutsquare and clean at each end Common faults on. be an Tube Storage Mushroom headed Tube Scaffold 1ubes are generally supplied in lengths of 6 3m (2111) Ftubes are available from stock, for example, transoms of 15m (S5tt) and 1 8m (6ft} length Wherever possible tubes should be sorted according 10 length and stered in racks with theirends flush. Thismakes tteasier todentify and select tubesof the length required 14SCAFFOLD BOARDS Nearly all scaffald boards are manutactured from sawn and seasoned timber. Boards should comply with BS 2482 "Specification for Timber Scaffold Boards’ This identifies the types of wood which may be used inthe manufacture of scaffold boards and recommends a method of testing to assess their bending strength Timber boards come in three thicknesses, 38mm (1):ins}, 50mm (2ins) and 63mm (2)ins).and are normally 225mm (Sins) wide and 3.90m(1 tt} long. Shorterboards are when necessary. The most common board is 224mm -* 38mm (9ins * 1'/,iNs) Steel decking and laminated boards A.number of firms market stagings which are made of steel or aluminium orlaminated boards, These come in a variety of widths. Safe'spans are quoted in the manufacturer's literature and timber items should comply with BS 1129. ‘Timber ladders, steps, trestles and lightweight staging for industrial use’, Theseareoften used inconjunction with proprietary systems of scaffolding. Portable aluminium ladders, steps, trestles and lightweight stagings are covered by BS 2637 Identification of boards Each board shouldbe identified by having the follawing information clearly marked on it © The British Standard number (BS 2482) The identification mark of the supplier @ The'letter Mor V denoting machine of visually graded © The word ‘support’, followed by the maximum span in metres over which the board has to be supported followed by the abbreviation ‘max eg BS2482 AB Co. M support 1.5 max. This is normatly given on the: hoc protection Alternatively. aspecial ic may be branded an the beard rons or nail plates which provide board end entification plate may be used, or this information Many boards in use do not comply with BS 2482 These should be supported every 1.2m {marked on board) Pee e ed Inspection and maintenance Scaffold boards shouldbe cleanedand the hoopironsor nail plates: uredorreplaced. Split boards may be cut downor repaired using nail plates depending on the degree of damage. Nout outs, burns, ofl stains or projecting nails should be present Boards should not be painted or treated in anyway that mayconceal detects, but canbe fire proofed using an approved material. 15Common faults Warped Split worn d Hoop Iron Storage Scaffold boards should be stacked no more than 20 high, bonded together with sh timber battens, and placed on level timbers, off the ground for protection from su water. Boards should be protected from weather and havea free circulation of aur. 18SCAFFOLD COUPLERS Sametimas calledscatfold ‘fittings’, these are designed and tested toBritish Standards ecilications, Because of the diversity af design, many fittings achieve higher SWL (safe working loacis) than those laid down by the British Standard and it would be impossible and improper to quote the different company fittings and values. Al and values quoted in this manual are thase specified by the British Standard Right-Angle Couplers, also called Doubles are always used 10 connect ledgers to andards They are designed and tested te achieve a right-angle connection with a id of 635 Kg (14001b) minimum safe working h Putlog Couplers, (also called Clips and Singles! are used te connect transems to ledgers: they are only suitable for light duty use (sometimes referred tg as nan load bearing), They must be capable of passing the slip test as specified by the British Standards Swivel Couplers, are used to conneot tubes at any angle through 360 degrees. normally used to connect braces to standards and occasionally to make parallel joints Swivel couplers should never be used as reght-angle couplersIn addition to the normal putlog clip, there is aiso another type of clip which has aSate Working Load of 500kg (or 5.0kN}. These may be used as brace couplers when connecting braces to ledgers Standare Le 5 Ledger used as a Brace Couple: used as a l Putiog Coupler Inspection and maintenance Scaffold fittings must be inspected by an experienced and competent scaffolderbefore use. Any broken or damaged fittings should be discarded, as should any with rusty or damaged threads Scaffold fittings should be sorted by type, andkeptclean anddry imsteangsacks, lightly ailed to prevent rust Care should be taken to see that each sack contains only the li which can be handled with eas ited quantity of fittings ~ usually no more than 30 fittings to a sack MANAGEMENT OF MATERIALS Materials must be delivered ta site when required and removed and stored when the job is finished, Ensuring that the correct amounts and types of materials arrive atthe right place and the right time needs careful planning andorganisation. This isnormaily provided by the scaffolding depot where these materials are stored. The management ‘of depots is not within the scope of this book, but is referred tain the Chapter on the Organisation and Werking Methods. 18SCAFFOLD FOUNDATIONS Any structure, whether it be’a house or a multi-storey black of flats, must have a foundation capable of carrying the load safely for its entire Ife. This also applies to scaffolds. The Construction (Warking Places) Regulations 1986, Regulation 13 (2), requires thal base plates, and on softground, sole boardsm ust beused todistributethe load over a wider area, This regulation 1s expanded and explained in BS 5973, Sections 11:1 ta 11:7 which should be read in conjunction with this section FOUNDATIONS In general the foundations for a scaffold should be adequate to carry and spread the load imposed, both locally at each standard, and ta carry the whole weight of the scaffold ILS the responsibility of the main contractor to ensure that the foundations are of adequate strength to suppart the scaffold, but in practice this 1s done in consultation with the scaffolding sub-contractor However. this does not relieve other employersof theirduty 10 ensure that scaffolds used by their employees are safe Tie foundation for a scaffold must be maintained in an adequate conditian during the life of the seaffold Base plates Hard surfaces - such as steel and concrete, where there is a sufficient hardness and thickness te prevent the scaffold tube penetrating into the surface. the uprights of a scaffold may be placed directly on the Surface, although it 1s recommended that base plates should always be used Surfaces of intermediate hardness — such as pavements, hard asphalt, timber ane flooring: where there is a possibility of the standards deforming the surface, base plates oF metal packing plates should be used at the bottom of each standard Sole plates On soil, ash, hoggin. gravel, soft asphaltand any typeof flooringor paving whichwould be penetrated by a standard with a baseplate beneath it, ar if there isdoubt about the surface, there should bea further spreading of the load by. sole:plaite of umber or other suilable material When a sale plate is used, the sole platé beneath any one standard should be at least 1,000cm:, with no dimension less than 220mm minimum. I the sole plate isof timber, Mt should not be less than 35mm thick. Qn sites where the ground is seft or hasbeen disturbed, the whole plate area should nat be less than 1, 70cm? when individual sie plates are used le g. under hoist towers), and not less than 3,400cem? when combined under two standards In this case, if the sole plate 1s of timber, it maybe necessary for this to be more than 35mm thick. Heavy duty scaffolds and poor ground will require stronger foundations 19These are minimum requirements; in practice they can be interpreted as follows: © onfirm ground - 500mm lang x 225mm x 35mm (1ftBing « Sins < 174ins) © onsoftground- 765mm long x 228mm x 35mm, (2h Bins x Gins » 1¥,ins) © under? standards 1.55m long x 225mm x 3mm. [Sft * is * Thins) Soil compaction The soll or ground beneath the sole plate should be well compacted and free from irregularities which would make the sole plate unstable or peorly bedded On slopes exceeding 1. 10a check may have tobe made onthe foundations teensurethe stability of the scaffatd. TH Daca TERCTS | ff \ es) a Thermal Block Bad practice i It ss clear that each standard is incorrectly founded (based) Unfortunately these are common faults, found on many construction sites and can cause scaffolds to collapse, resulting in injury er death 1 The board has not been properly ‘bedded’. Itis loclong andhas beanstruckby a forklift or dumper truck, which has knacked it eff-centre. 2 Again, board too long: no baseplate 3&4 This was correct, until Somebody dug the trench! As it is, the edge of the trench could crumble or the boards bend and possibly break. 5&6 Quitesimply these are not sole boards, The thermal block (5}will crackand(6) is near to useless 20This diagram shows how the scaffold foundations illustrated on the previous page shauld be corrected, Note that eross braces have been added ta transfer loading from the base of those standards near the trench BASIC RULES 1 ‘The ground must be capable of supporting the scaffold. 2 The sole boards must be capable of spreading the weight of the structure without distortion 3. Two standards per sale board are better than ane. 4 Sole boards placed at right-angles to the building should not project tao far beyond the face of the scaffold 5 Sole boards should not be undermined, 2Heavy Duty Foundations illustrated below is a typical arrangment for a multi-storey independent scaffold. Railway sleepers have been set intoa shallow bed of concrete with baseplaies pinned to tha slecpers. The standards have been further supported with ledgers and main jransums at the base of the scaffald. All the connections have been made with right angle couplers directly to the siandards for additional rigidity and strength Nailed to Sole Board —~ Set in Concrete” Note! Braces and Intermediate Transams have beer left out for clarity Betore heavy duty foundations are laid consideration should be given toany proposed ‘adaptions that may be required during the life of the scaffold as this may effect the pasition of thesele boards. For instance, it maybe necessary to add double standardsat the base of the scaffold. Inthis case sole boardsshould beplaced parallel tothebuilding and be lang enough to accommodate the extra standards. Bridging maybe necessary for vehicular access Sole boards should be placed at rightangles to the building atthe appropriate places to accommodate this 22Pavement Scaffold Foundations The next illustration sentifies some of the problems facing a Stal folder when trying to base our’ on a pavement. Apart from the normal problems of basing out, it may be necessary 10 remove the baselift braces for public access. Cansideration should be given to the need for additional ties near the base The illustration highlights some of thedifficulties which can beavoided with faresigit If thepavementsurface is tarmag, every standard should have a sole hoard Sometimes paverment lights may have been covered with tarmac and il iS important tacheck this Pavement slabs are normatly adequate to take the weight of access scaffolds. a Emergency | Fire Hyarant Public Tripping | OP Inspection Cover Cover Light duty access scaffolds can be founded on pavements, without sole boards, provided the pavement is capable of supporting the scaffold, 12. paving slabs ar a minimus of 102mm (4") concrete 23Foundations on sloping ground This shows 2 good example of a well founded base, an sloping ground. The standar are supported bya tie ledger which 1sconnected 10 the ends of the transoms wath right angle couplers Baseplates are positioned inthecentre of the solebeards, wh ich imturn have been laid in well cut ‘steps’ in the bank Tie Ledger, a gion We NOTE Braces have been omated for Glarety The following illustration shows typical examples of inadequate and unsafe stoping foundations f As oniyirastiay on “3 etige of Standara rece Minor subsidence or erosion renders foun gation useless Slopes steeper than 1:10 should be checked for stability by a qualified engineer. 24TIES Stability It is essential that every scaffold should be securely tied to the building structure throughout its entire length and height to prevent movement of the scaffold GENERAL RULES Ties usually pass through the facade of the building and should bo secured to the scaffold structure with load-bearing right angle couplers, as close toa node point (the Junction of standard and ledger) as possible. At least half of the ties should be Dositive ’, two-way ties, thatistheyshould prevent movementbath towards and away from the building. and not depend on friction (as in the case of a reveatie) or meraly festrict Movement in ane direction only [Lis important to ensure thatthe building isstrongendugh tosustain the loadwhichwill be transferred toi via the tie. Parapets or decorative architectural features, balustrades, railings, ete , are seldom strongenough forthis purposeand should notbe relied upon The he tube should always be horizontal or slope slightly downwards away from the building, and preferably be attached to both standards, orto both ledgers ata point nar more than 300mm (1 2ins) from a braced standard Where wore or banded tes are used they should be turned round a node pont ar otherwise be prevented from slipping alongaledger or uprigit byfixing safety couplers either side of the point of attachment, and butt transoms. should be used in addition. NUMBER AND POSITION OF TIES fold ites Shauld be fixed every 32m, of the face area and be evenly spaced, both horizontally and vertically, atleast every 8.5m (27/1), For independent scaffolds where Lies will noz be removed, the spacing may be increased to ane tie every 40m”, evenly spaced as above. For scaffolds greater than 50m high, the number and position af ties willbe one of the design factors to be decided bya scaffold design engineer. and as such is outside the scope af this book Sheeted Scatfolds Scalfolds fied with sheeting, tarpaulins, etc, will be subjected to extra stress due to wind forces and will require mare ties. in: seswhere ties may de temporarilyremoved they should be spaced at not less than one tie every 25m? Where there is nopossibility of the te being removed, this may be increased to'one in every 32m: In exposed locations or in places where high winds arc likely, andwherethe scaffoldis more than 25m high, special calculations must be made to assass if closer spacing is required. This should be undertaken by a scaflold design engineer and is outside the scape of this Book 25A common-sense approach ‘A. common-sense approach to the position and spacing of ties is mare amportant than strict adherence to the Code of Practice. For example, those working on sheeted seaffolds are unlikely to be carrying awind-speedgauge, or take the trouble tocalculate thy precise area of the scaffold face. The numbers indicated above shouldbe regarded asthe minimum necessary 1 ensure the stability of the scaffold. The basic rules of thumb worth remembering are eSpace ties every other lift and every 6m {20K} along the face of the scaffold @ Tes shouldbe fixed with load bearing couplers, as close to the node point as possible, @ Avoid the use of reveal ties where possible, At least half of the tee on a scaffold must be “positive” fe Take full advantage of any structural features of the burlding eg, pillars, columns, lintels, rebates, etc, to provide additional strength and stability to the te. 8 Make sure that the building 1s strong enough to Support the tie, andthe load imposed on it by the scaffold. © Donat remove atie for any reason until the overall stabilityof thescaffoldhas been contirmed. TYPES OF TIE Through Ties ough tes rely ona tube (the lie tubelpassing through any convenentopeningin the bulding, such as a window or door opening) coupled to an inside tube spanning the wall opening. This inside tube should preferably be placed vertically, resting on ihe forge that iteannotslip, but may be placed horizontally. {possible the tie tube should reat onasillor otherconvenient ledge for the same reasonsbut maybe placedunder the lintel, the basie prineiple being toderiveasmuch support andsecurity from the building as possible. Through ties must be positive, LWo-way ties, preventing movement bott towards and away from the building. Where it not possible tofix a bridfe tube (the outer horizontal tube spanning the wall opening) the adjacent transoms should butt against the outer surface of the wall Gna purtlog scatfold, where the putloas are required to support boards, a bridle tube is frequently placed near the wall across adjacent putlogs either side of a wall opening. Tinie arrangement can serve as a through tie, by extending a putlog inwards and connecting it toa hariontal (or vertical) tube inside the wall. In this case, load bearing, Haht angle couplers should be used tosecuretthe tie tube, whichshould pass below the ledger for two reasons: The right angle, load bearing couplers used are bulkier than simple putlog couplers andwould prevent scaffold boards from laying flat. Inany every sie botter f thetubes are not usedas direct supnort for a working platformastheweight ‘and vibration of the platform imposes extra unnecessary stress on the te tube: 26“Timber packing EAE Gree bees a THROUGHTIE Throagh ie'ehoiidho pier sauna’ fe to. the leo esceal eed 1d wath night angle eoun ers Box Ties These ties take advantage of the physical characteristi¢s of a building andconsistatan assembly of tubes and couplers fixed around convenient columnsand other features of the building, being wedged where necessary to resist both the inward and outward pull of the scaffold and to provide additianal lateral stability Box ties should be set preferably at lift level and be secured to both inside andoutside ledgers an standards uniess this s likely to obstruct free access through thescaffolk, in which case they may be fixed to a single inside standard, A load bearing coupler should be used BOX TIE a7Lip Ties Where it is notpossible to use box ties, lipties maybe used instead. These consistafanL shaped arangement of tubes and couplers to hook behind a convement part of the duilding As such theyonly restrainanautwardmovementalthe scaffold andshouldbe reinforeed by an adjacent butting transom or similar arrangement to restrict inward movement, Lip tiescontribute little or nothing to the latera| stability of the seaffoldanda sway transom or additional bracing may be required alts ovurin Column L ‘ ‘ Double tip Box tie Column tiewith Butt Transom out Screw or Anchor Ties In some cases it is possible to “build in” scaffald ties inta the fabric of the building during its construction, A variety of screwed plates, sockets and nurs are avatlable for satting inte concrete during pouring for Subsequent use as the anchor for a tie Anchor Sockets and fing bolts are also available for fixing into: lroles drilled into hardened concrete or brickwork, Whendrilling inte brick, however, caremust be taken todrill intothe bodyal the brick. notnear the edge, nar into the mortar between bricksas this 1s unlikely to produce a Secure fixing 28{tis important to ensure that the facade material forms an integral part of the building structure and is not merely cladding with little or ng inherent strengith,asin the caseot lumber framed housing or system-buill structures, Ring bolts, te rings. etc., which rely on an expanding wedge tesecuretheanchorintoa pre-driled hale should not be overtightened, Where appropriate the spacial tool Supplied by the manufacturer should be usedtofixthe anchor, and the ring boltor other ixing inserted and tightened by hand. Drilled in tes should be tested before use They will be prevented fram becoming unscrewed by the tube or band passing through the ring Raves! Alva kip shoul bie a1taoned 10 reve! ‘alba within 150mm of en opposite to ‘he seul in. tether threleor 2onea Fight anale coupiers REVEALTIE Reveal Ties itis not always possible to provide'a positive tie such asa box tie, ar drill the face ofa balding far screw or anchor ties. In these circumstances, a reveal tie may sometimes. be used ‘A reveal tie relies on a tube (the reveal: ubelbeing wedged tightly between twoopposite faces in the building structure, such as tre opposing sides of a window apening ar the underside of a lintel and the sill The most common dewice is a threaded bar and nut(calleda ‘reveal screw Bin'pwhich can be adjusted, expanding the reveal tube assembly into the opening. gripping itwith: considerable force. It:s frequently necessary to use some form of packinaatendsof the reveal tube to prevent damage to the building surface. A 75mm (Zin) square piece of plywood, 10mm thick is usually adequate for this purpose - excessive packing should he avoided as it may shrink and reduce the grip, causing the raveal tube to become logse, The tie tube should be fixed to the reveal tube with a right angle coupler. as near.as possible to the end apposite the reveal pin and in ali cases within 150mm (Ging) of the face of the opening It should also be fixed to the scaffold in two places with right angle ouplers, as far through ties. Every opportunity shouldbe takentotake advantage of the architectural features of the building to provide additional security and stability. 29Reveal ties rely entirely on friction and should be checked at ieast once every seven days for tightness. It is inadvisable to use them on putlog scaffolds. Ideally, reveal ties should not be used fer more than half of the total number of ties in a scaffold. Where this cannot be avoided, and where theyare unlikely to be removed for temporary access or any other purpose they should be spaced at least one avery 22m? In other circumstances or where itis not possible to pravide any through or anchor tes, the scaffold should be specially designed, RAKERS Where it is impracticatale to provide normal ies, the stability of a scaffold can be achieved by the use of rakers. A single, unjointed raking tube, not more than 6m in length may be coupled at the top to the ledyer al the second !ift,extendingan angle not greater than 75° to the horzontal(4:1), The foot of the raking tube must be well founded andalways be tied back to the mainscaffold. This arrangementcan beused inplaceol a single tie NOT Raking Tube. properly founded approx angle 4107 Baseplare f | ‘ : DETAIL v WA. ALTERNATIVE ON =—1 HARD GROUND” baseplate 30irst Working Lift When a working lift isrequired at 1.35m (4ft 6ins) as ina putlog scaffold, or at 2m (6tt Gins) height in the case of an independent scaffold and no firm part of the building has asyet been constructedto attach a tie, the scaffald maybe temporarily stabilised by use of rakers. When only two ties are required as in the case of a small house scaffold [without returns), rakers should be located, one either end Rakers may also be used during the dismantling af a scaffold if it is impracticable to stabilise the structure in any other way CRITICAL TIES — These Ties have replaced the Brace P- They cannot be removed F- Critical Tre do NOT remove Pe Normal Tie Ina general sense, all ties are essent to the stability of a scaffold As slated at the beginning ofthis chapter, thecriteria governing the number and position of tes (BS 5973) distinguishes between scaffolds where a ue is likely to be removed and scaffolds with non movable ties —and between sheeted and non-sheeted scaffolds. However it is worth emphasising that where it may become necessary to remove ties for access or any other purpose, it is essential that the scaffold should be erecied from the outset with a greater number of ties than would otherwise be required A critical tie is a tie which has been placed in a scaffold {a} Where ledger to ledger braces have been removed [b) Where @ protective fan is erected (c} Where a cantilevered ladder Stage, loading or landing stage iserected {d) In the centre of a bridged scaffold The illustration opposite shows some examples. The scaffold was ariginally erected with normal ties at pornts A,B,C The cantilevered ladder access must include a critical ve. Where the diagonal braces have been remaved, on the fourth, sixth, and seventh levels additional ties must be added at points EF However because braces are removed from two consecutive lifts {lifts umber 6,7}the normal te atpoint C wall also be a critical tie Remember, ordinary ties can be repositioned; Critical ties must not be removed. a4REMOVING AND REPLACINGTIES When building a scaffold it sas well to keep in mind (and make provision for}the likely heed for access which may involve removing and replacing ties The finishing trades, plasterers, decorators, glaziers, etc., will certainly need to gain access to parts of the building obstructedby tes. There will bea similarrequirementfor maintenance staff, although in this latter case it will notbeas predictable. In all cases it ig essential to establish working procedures which are understood by all, toavoid the danger posed by tradesmen taking matters into their own hands and removing and replacing ties without supervision. Scaffold ties should only be removed and replaced unser the supervision of an experienced and competent seaifalder who will beaware of thedangersand capable of making alternative arrangements to safeguard the stability of the structure Many serious accidents have been caused by unauthorised removal or incorrect replacement of ties - accidents which could have been avoided by adequate supervision and the Introduction of safe working practices. 32SCAFFOLD TIES - Checklist 10 Can the scaffold move away or toward the building? Areal the ties fixed with load bearing couplers? All tigs should be fixed with right angle couplers — unless tes are placedatadiHerentangle-whentheyrmay be fixed with swivel couplers: Are all ties correctly positioned? The best ues are connected to two standards, preferably braced ifthe ues.are connected to ledgers the connection is best made within 300mm of the standards, Are there a sufficient number of ties? Jn the absence of expert advice tiss should be fixed on alternate lifts to the full height of the scaffold andat every third pair of standards along it's entire length Reveal ties should not exceed 50% of the total number of hes Are all critical ties intact and secure? Remember critical ties are essential at any cantilevered point (tans, loading bays) and where braces have been removed lor access. Remember never altow the removal of criti expert advice tes without Have any alterations been made to the scaffold? Check stems 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 very carefully at the points where alterations have beer made: Ensure reveal ties have been physically checked and tightened Ensure all anchorage points are strong enough! Always double check the ties after adverse weather (especially high winds}. It in doubt - seek advice from the experts 33WORKING PLATFORMS A working platform can be anything from a single board spanning across two small trestles to. a cantlevered structure, 60m up near the top of a multi-storey building The Construction (Working Places) Regulations require that where work cannotsately be done on ar frem the ground, or from part of a building or other permanent structure... a scaffold, ladders, or other means of support must be provided. The provision of 8 working platform is the most common method of meeting this requirement Other legal requirements relating to working platforms specify that platforms must be close boarded’, that is, there shauld be no gaps through which men and materials could fall, and Should be fitied with guardrails and toeboards. Further Regulations specify the width of the platform, provide for some means of sate access ladders. gangwave etc. and require that precautions shouldbe taken to prevent todls, materials oF equipment falling off, endangering these below. These requirements are simply illustrated below Oversail approx 60MM Guardrail! Clase boarded Platform / Punchean ase Handhols Standards spaced to support loads: 34Boarded Lifts The spacing of putlogs and transems used to support a bearded piattorm is determined by the strength and thickness of the boards used, For 38mm (1!:ns) boards this Must not exceed 1.5m (5ft) and for 50mm (Zins) beards, not be more than 2 6m (ft Bins}, In practice, a standard 38mm board, 3.9m long must be supported at four places 4 Supports Upto 1.8m, 2 supports fixed BOTH ends 213m 3 Supports fixes to prevent tippi The space between the edge of the working platform and the building must beassmall as possible, and inno circumstances exceed 300mm (1 Zins} Boards must rest firmly and evenly on their supports and extend the platform wherever possible at least 60mm (24ins} beyond the end of any wall or working face. Boards should overhang their supports by not lessthan 5Omim (Zingjandnotmorethan 150mm (ins) in the case of 38mm boards, 200mm (Bins) for 50mm boards unless they have been secured against upping. Short boards tip more easily than thase of a full length (3.9m), To be safe, short boards (less than 1.8m long) should be fixed at bath ends. 35Tripping hazards can be minimised by fitting bevelled pieces, or fillets, where baards overlap. As a general rule, boards should be laid with their ends butted. ltis sometimes nacessary to overlap boards; this should be done sothatthe upperboardremainslevel, and is properly supported alang its entire length, as illustrated bavel ieeer This board was unsupported Lapped boara n ) aes bose . = 3 Transom fixed ta \ Transom fixed standard wath toledger 1 right angle coupler \ 4 Board E Ps ps Board ez, i 2nd, Transom fixed! ~~ with swivels and Standard raised to support board 36Platform width As previously stated, the widtfof the working platform willbedeterminedby the use far which the platform is intended 2 boards wide - is considered adequate for access, inspection, gangways and runs 3 boards wide - for men without materials, or only for the passage of materials. The diagram shows a three-boarded platform being used by a painter. Normally scaffolds are erected so that they do not faul pipes, gutters, sills, etc. An /nsideboardcanbefitted to extend the effective width of the platform, and reduce the gap between the platform andthe building 4 boards wide gives adequate space for men and materials and soften erected as a multi-trade platform. An ingide board may be added for the same reasans as before. 5 boards wide — a five board platform is commonly used by bricklayer and is wide enaugh to permit materialsto be stacked on the platfarm and still leave enoughroam for the passage of men and materials and for men to wark. Illustrated is a progressive putlog scaffold. Braces etc. have been omitted far reasons of clarity - _| | — + 3 Boards wide = | 6 Boards wide=Men+ Men without materials Materials + passage of Materials Inside Board 376-8 boards wide - these ar@ used by stonemasonsand others who mayrequire tadres or shape stone or undertake other heavy work, or to support a higher platform, These wider platforms are outside the scope of this book: they should only be erected under the supervision of a qualified scaffold design engineer Guardrails and Toeboards Every platform more than 2m (6ft 6ins) high must be provided with guardrails and taeboards (or barriers). These legal requirements are summarised pictorially below: Guardrails and toeboards may be removed for temporary access, but must bereplaced as soon as possible Where materials are likely to be stacked above the height of te toeboards, a stack of bricks for example, brickguards or other, similar barriers must be erected to prevent materials falling off, endangering those below Guardrails. I v | Maximum mm 765mm. Toeboards i}. u / Burt-boarded 1.5m Max distance / L Max. height 1150m Min, height 0.910m / Max.150 mm—< Lf ~— Min. 5mm NS PLAN VIEW DETAIL 38Access Access to. a working platform is usually byladdar, This mustbe secured nearthetopand extend above the level of the platform by a minimum of five rungs (1,.05m, 3ft Bins) unless adequate hand-holds are provided. The vertical run betwaen landings must rot exceed 9m (SGM) Care must be taken to see that there 1s. adequate space between rungs to give a fern foothold, and that there 18 No possibility af the foot being trapped between a rung a) ledger, transom or brace tube Ladders ore discussed in more detaits in a fater ehapter Access should be as small as practicable The landing area must be kept clear of stacked materials, etc., and be provided with guardrails and toebeards. The access shauld not be more than 500mm (1ft Bins) wide and be ag small.as practical in other directions When the platform is not in use, access should be blocked off to prevent unauthorised persons, members of the public and ehildean from ascending the platform and placing their lives in jeopardy 39Gangways and Runs Gangways and runs shéuld be at least two boards (430mm/17ins} wide if used only for men, and at least three boards wide if used for barrowing materials. Gangways, and runs should be set level if possible but may slope up to 1:4. If the slope is more than this, stepping laths must be provided which may incorporate a gap, net mare than 100mm (4ins} wide for the barrow wheel, Likeall other platforms, ifabove 2m (6it 6ins} ganqwaysand runs mustbe pravidedwith guardrails and loeboards Keeping the platform clear One of the greatest dangers associated with working platforms is that caused by obstructions to free access and movement. Working platforms must be kept free from unnecessary obstructions which can cause tipping and falling accidents, Materials should nat be stored on the working platform unless required far immediate use. They shauld he evenly distributed over the entire length of the platform, and care taken to stack heavy items as near te the standards as possible. Rubbish must be oved reqularly and trailing cables, ropes etc., clipped up out of the way. Theload on the platform must never exceed the design limits (See Table 1 page 12) 40LADDERS Main Types of Ladder Three main types of ladder are in use throughout the censtruction industry: standing ladders, pole ladders and extension ladders, Standing Ladders. These are single section ladders of up to 7.30m (24f1). The stiles are rectangular: the rungs may be rectangular or round. Construction may beef wood or aluminium Pole Ladders. Single section ladders with the stiles made from a single pole cut lengthways, or halves afdifferent polesaf the same speciesof timber suitably matched The advantage of this construction lies in the strength and flexibility gained by sectioning @ pole lengthways, Pole ladders may be tapered or parallel, They are available in lengths up ta 12m, Pole ladder Extension Ladders. These comprise two or sometimes three sections coupled together, which extend by sliding over ar inside each other. They are very seldom used in scaffolding work Aluminium Ladders. Mast types of ladder are available inaluminium, They arelighter to carry than timber ladders, are strong and will not warp, but should notbe used near electrical equipment or an electrical supply because of the possibility of electri¢shack. Detailed specifications for ladders can be found in 8S 1128 1982. Portable timber ladders, steps. trestles and lightweight stagings; and in BS 2037 1964 ‘Aluminium: jadders, steps and trestles for the building and civil engineering industries Condition of Ladders The law requires that ladders mustbe in good repairand strong enough for thejob. They should be checked for damage, faults and wear before use. Inthisconnectionitshould be noted that itis illegal to paint or otherwise treat a ladder in such a way asta conceal defects. New ladders can be protected by a transparent coating such as a varnish, shellac or clear preservative. atInspection of Ladders Stiles. Check stiles for warping, splintering, cracking, bruising fwhich admits moisture into the timber and encourages decay) The feet of thestilesare particularlyvulnerable todamage Rungs: Rungs should not be wornar missing Examine rungs especiallyatpaint wirere they enter stiles, If they are wedged, these should be correctly positioned Grasp the rungs firmly and twist to make sure none rotate, Rungs can be tested by tapping witha mallet, A dull sound indicates a defective rung Soundness of construction. Take each end of the ladder in wurn and try to pull stiles apart -then push together. Mavement will indicate insecurely fixedsungsand loose tie rods. A further check should be made by laying the lacier flat, raising ene end and attempting te push onestilewhile pulling the other. If hestilescan be moved relative to each other in this way, the rungs are loose: Check that metal tie rods are in placeand secure and that none are missing. Damaged or worn ladders Detective ladders must be taken out of service as soon as the fault or damage is discovered, They shouldbe marked clearly ‘(DEFECTIVE - DO NOTUSE' andremainaut of use until repaired, Where it is not possible orpractical torepaira ladder wh: for use. it should be destroyed immediately hisuntit Carrying Ladders Short ladderscan be carried by one person. Rest them uprightagainstthe shoulder and grasp the rung justbelow normal reach teraise the foot of the ladder clear of the ground. Use the other hand to steady the ladder by graspingthe stile furthest from the shau Ider 42Longer ladders should be carried horizontally on the shoulders by two people, one either end, halding the upper stile, or as illustrated, in as comfortable a manner as possible When carryinga laddercare should be taken in roundingcornersor passing betweenor under obstacles, If the ladder is baing carried in an uprightposition, special care should be taken in the vicinity of averhead pawerlines to ensure the top of the ladder is well clear of any cables. Erecting and Lowering Ladders Aladder's erected as follows, First lay itonthe groundwith the foot towardsthe base of the structureitistebesetagainst One personshouldstandatthe footaf the ladder witht one foot placed at the bottom ta brace it against movement. The second man should position himself at the head of the ladderand taking holdof the toprung, raise itover tis head, Grasping the ladder rung by rung, he should mave towards the foot, raising the ladder as he goes. The anchor man grasps the stiles as they came within reach and draws the ladder towards him The squence is reversed when lowering a ladder, One person can raise a short ladder by placing the foot against a wall ar fixture and pushing it upright from the head 43Placing Ladder The angle at which a ladder is set up against a structure should be 75 degrees oraratio of 4upto 1 out. The base of the ladder should rest on firm, evenground Neverpack one side of the ladder to compensate for uneven ground: either level the ground or, alternatively, bury the foot of the ladder so that it stands evenly. On soft earth, puta board down, The essential point is that the foot of the ladder should fest on a secure, stable base. Never attempt to gain extra height by placing the ladder on boxes, drumsor any other type of makeshift platform. If itis not long enough for the job. get a langer one! Ladders must project at least 1.5m (3ft 6ins) above the landing place. The landing Tung should be level with or slightly above the working platform. There should be shace above each rung for a proper foothold. Ensure the foot cannot become trapped between rungs and obstructions behind the ladder, Where ladders are positioned on intermediate stagings these shouldbe close boarded and provided with toeboards and guardrails, WOTE. When moving or placing ladders, beware of overhead power lines and ther electrical hazards. 44Lashings and Ties A ladder must be supported and held by the stiles, never by the rungs, Itshauld be held securely in position so that it cannot move from its top or bottom points Ladders provided for scaffolding access should be securely lashed from stiles to scaffold (ieciger or extended transoms| usingasquare lashingasshown at ar ust below the upper landing, Proprietary fixings lie. ladder ties and clamps) maybeused, but care should be taken to use the correct type. Some require the stile cross-section to be rectangular and are not suitable for use with pole ladders Ladder Clamp Ladder Tie 45Long ladders may require a lashing or tie at the mid-point to prevent excessive movement. In some circumstances the use of ladder stays will makea job both easier and safer The ladder must not rest against (or be lashed to) any fragile surface or against fittings Such as gutters and drainpipes. Bracing boards should be used for windows and other openings orss ladders should be secured Use of Ladders both at the foot and top A seoure fooling is essential in any ladder work and this requires a sound pair of boots with soles in good condition, {ree of mudor grease. In wet or icy weather extra care will be necessary to maintain a secure footing, Check there is nobody else on the ladder before elimbing or descending it. Always face the ladder and hold onto the stiles, not the rungs. Thighs and hips should be kept between the stiles and feet should be placed in the middle of the rungs; ladders are not designed tor anydegree af side loading. Donotelimb higher than the third rung fromthe top Avoid carrying materials and tools up Whenever possible. If a hoist line is available, it should be used, Alternatively, tacls may be carried up in pockets, ona beltdesigned for the purpose, of in a bag Whichever method isused, it should leave both hands free to hold onto the ladder Over-reaching or stretching whilst on a ladder is extremely dangerous and can lead to loss of balance. I the work area cannot be reached, move the ladder or abtain a langer Gne as appropriate 46Preventing Unauthorised Access Unauthorised access outside working hours can be prevented by lashing a scaffold board across the rungs. The same precaution should be taken to prevent access to incomplete scaffolding when ladders providing access remain in position. Warning Notices should also be posted in these circumstances meme il DANGER INCOMPLETE SCAFFOLD: KEEP OFF Ladder blocked off Care and Storage of Ladders, Steps, etc. Ladders, especially if made of weed, should not be stored outside for long periods, where ihe weather can damage them, They are best stored inside, but if this is not possible they should be overed ar stored in a protected position Ladders should either be hung horizontally on a rack, supported under the stiles or rested on blocks, again under the stiles. They must not be supported by the rungs (this. can loosen or otherwise damage them} nor stored flat en te ground or against walls. radiators or hot pipes which can lead ta warping, sagging and distortion Deposits of mud or grease should be cleaned off rungsand cement wipedawaybetore it hardens (aluminium ladders may be corroded by wet lime or cement). Pulleys and hinges need lubrication, cords and ropes should be checked Any damage or deterioration should be reported to the person responsible for the equipment 47MANUAL LIFTING AND HANDLING A quarter of all reportable accidents occuring in the Ganstruction Industry each year involve injuries sustained through manual lifting and handling of materials and equipment. The number af lifting and handling accidents has increased by 75% over the past 20 years, to more than 70,000 accidents a year. A scatfolder spends most of his time lifting and handling scaffolding material under a variety of conditions. The nature of the job dictates that he must be mentally alert to the inherent dangers of a physically strenuous job. Muscles and joints can be strained by sudden and awkward movements, twisting or jerking whilst lifting or carrying aload, or by attempting tolifttooheawya load. Backinjuriesarecomman. They may be the cumulative effect of repeated minor injuries o the result of abrupt strain. The tisk of injury can be reduced by adopting a correct mental attitude which encourages good lifting techniques. Stoop lifting should be avoided; it greatly increases the chance of back injury. The stress imposed on a rounded back is much greater than ifthe trunkis kept upright, usingtheleg andthigh musclestopawerthe lift, The illustration shaws an example of stoop lifting. The trunk is twisted to enable the handto reach down to the load, which is grasped by the finger-tips, and theknees have been locked to prevent the manaverbalancing. The muscles inthe lower backare about 1o do the work and will come under great strain as the worker attempts to simultaneously straighten up and lift the load. The consequence of this may be a slipped disc or torn back muscles | esa prec | Kinetic Lifting The kinetic method of lifting enables the worker to make full use of the body's own weight and momentum to initiate the lift, The natural shape of the spine is maintained throughout (although the body may be bent forward the spine should remain straight) and the lift is powered by the strong leg and thigh muscles. This method of lifting involves the minimum amount of muscular effort and this reduces stress and fatigue 48The following six key factors should be practiced until they became second nature, a single co-ordinated action 1. Feet. All lifting and handling can only be successful if itis carried out on a firm base. The scaffolder may work from the ground, or ona temporary platform and it is essential that the feet are placed so that a good balance is maintained throughout the lift. There is no correct or exact distance apart for the feet, Each individual has to consider his own weight, heightand build. In general terms the feet shouldbe in fine with the lift, comfortably apart, with one foot slightly in front of the other. The rear foot should point forward when lifting, in the direction of movement. This position givesa good, adaptable balance and a wide enough base to perform the lift. 2, Legs. Having established a good base for the lift and recognised that it may be necessary to make adjustments of balance, it naturally follows that thelegsmust be relaxed sufficiently to achieve flexibility. To obtain flexibility, both knees must be unlocked to allow the feet to adjust automatically. This is @ requirement for all good movement. Whilstitis important to unlock and bend the knees, theyshouldnotbe placedinto the complete squat position as thiswillplace extreme pressureonknee joints. The illustration shows the forward leg at 80° angle whilst the back leg will provide the thrust for the lift. Although the lifter is only using one hand, the weight will be taken through the centre line of the body, thus maximising the weight of the body.Head, The head should be gently raised and thechintuckedfirmlyin,Thiswill not only straighten the neck; but the whole spine and it will bring about many other corrections in body movement, automatically lifting the chest and preparing the arms for a more efficient action. This head action should be carried out at the initial stage of all lifting movements, Straight Back. A bent back is weak back. It will lead to excessive muscular tensionand damage to the spine. It will also undermine shoulder and arm efficiency. Generally, if the correct head positionis adopted, the back can be kept straight even if it is not vertical, The back should straighten automatically, priortothe hands taking the load. The illustration shows a difficult lift; the feet are well planted, the knees well positioned and the back straightened asthe chinisbeing drawn in Arms, Arms should beas clase to the body as possible. The further the arms are extended the greater the strain, The elbows should be kept into the body, Grip. A good grip is essential for the scaffolder as he spends the majority of his time handling tube which because of its shape, is difficult to grasp. Whenever possible, one hand should be below the load, with most of the weight being taken by the palmand roots of the fingers. The illustration on the left shows the weight being taken an the fingertips. This is wrong. The picture on the right shows the hand under the load with the weight on the palm and the roots of the fingers y | /*Sequence of lifting a scaffold tube Before lifting any weight, a worker must ensure that the ground area is clear andfree from tripping hazards. It is important to see that no-one is in the way andthatthere is. nothing likely to obstruct the lift. The weight should be within the lifting capacity of the individual worker. The load should be approached squarely, facing in the direction of travel. The feet must be piaced apart with one foot slightly in front of the other to maintain a comfortable balance, the knees bent and the body as close to the load as. possible, The tube shouldbe firmly grasped, with thearmskept asclose intothe body as possibie grasping the tube in front of the body, Adjust the position of the head head up - chinin} and beginto lift usingthe leg and thigh muscles. As the tubeis raised transfer thegrip to maintain a balanced grasp on the tube, holding it close to the body. The weight of the body can be easily transferred from one feot to another ensuring that the balance is maintained and enabling the load to be taken by the whole body This use of the bodyweight is best illustrated when the scaffolder is sartying long tubes in the vertical position, The diagram opposite shows the back leg siill inthe thrustpositian, the front foot inthedirectionof the lift The back is straight and head erect The weight is taken on the palms of the hands and the entire bodyweight is positioned to resist any movement of the tube. Note that the top forefinger is extended along the tube and will act a8 a sensor 10 give early warning of any movementaf the tube, enabling the feet to be repositionedto maintain a good balance Remember! Aches and pains are warning signals and indicate fatigue and stress. If ignored, the final outcome may welll be some form of injury as a result of incorrect lifting techniques.LIFTING SCAFFOLD TUBES The following sequencesshowsomeofthecommon handlingandlifting tasks required of scaffolders every day Safety Check Before lifting, check - (a) thatthe area isclear of any tripping hazards (b) that your aetion will not endanger anybody {co} thatyou are capable of lifting the load Lifting a Long Tube The correct foot position has been adopted - front foot in the direction of the lift, the rear foot ready to thrust behing the load. The chin is still to be tucked in, but the back ss straight The tube is lifted - the feet havebeen adjusted to allow the lifter to walk to the centre of the tube using a hand over hand movement to maintain the weight of the load. The chin hasbeen tucked in thus maintaining a straight back.Having reached the centre of the tube the hands adjust for balance. The hand which is placed over the tube is bearing very little weight because the hand under the tube is pasitioned closer to the centre of the tube and is therefore taking most of the load Now the tube is ready to be raised to the carrying position which in this case ison the shoulder, As the lift is carried out it will be necessary for the body to be turned in the direction of the intended line of carry. The knees are unlocked and ready to allow the feet to adjust to the new position The arms and shoulders are used to begin the lift 53As the liftnears the correct heightthe feet have begun the adjustment which will allow the bady to turn under the tubeand allow the shoulder to receive the weight The shoulder hand has been placed into the steadying position, the feet have completed the adjustments which have allowed the body to complete the turn safely. The lift is complete, and the carry can begin To place the tube back an the ground the actions are reversed. The load has been released by the load bearing hand and transferred 10 the shoulder, the other hand is keptin position to steady the tube, The feet have nearly completed the adjust- ments.LONG TUBE (vertical carry) Again before performing the lift- (a) Ensure the area is clear of tripping hazards (b) Ensure your lift action will not endanger anyone (c}) Ensure you are capable of handling the load As you are about to carry the tube in the vertical position (d) Ensure the area and space above head height is clear alang the entire length of the carry, The same actionsas intheprevious|iftiscarried out, unt the loadis takenby thehands inthe centre. The end of the tube should be butted against samethingsolid. Ifnothing Ss available, another man can use the instep of his baot te ‘block’ the end of the tube. AL HY e NOTE: NEVER use the toe ofthe boot asthetubecouldtwrstauton either side and cause a very painful injury a aHaving butted the tube it canberaised above the head and with the bodyweight behind the tube, and the palms and heels of the hands bearing the weight, the tube can be walked 10 @ near upright position, To begin the lift, the knees bend and both hands maintain the same distance apart by sliding down the tube equally. This. will incline thetube even more towerd the lifter, who accommodates the movement by slightly bending the high arm - which is the arm that is about to take the entire load - the bottom hand is only acling as a guide and restraint The tube is nowready tobelifted, with the knees unlocked, the back straight and the chin tucked in, the bodyweight is positioned to resist the movement of the tube. NOTE: the high hand forefinger is again acting as a sensor.The lift is completed as the legs straighten They must remain unlocked allowing the feet to make the necessary adjustments which will permit the body to change to the direction of carry With the manoeuvre completed the carry can begin, NOTE the bottom hand is placed Sound the outside of the tube toactas a restraim, whilst the tap hand bears the full weight of the tube,Lifting short tubes This method is normally used when lifting short tubes (between 1.5m and 2.4m which are placed at ground level The natural position is adopted for selection af tube. As the initial selection is made by inserting the fingers into the ends ot the tubes, itisessentialtoensurethey are free of sharp edges, The tubes are now upright and canbe adjusted t@ form a pyramid pattern with the base toward the shoulder The knees have remained unlocked: back is still straight. The feet have made the necessary adjustments. Chin remains firmly tucked in. The bodyweight is still behind the load 58 As soon a8 they are clear of the ground the free hand is placed under the tubes to assist in control NOTE: Three tubes have been raised although the thirdoneishiddenby he other two.The top and bottem hands slide down the tubes as the knees bend. This will allow the shaulder to be positioned just below the centre of the tubes, The weight is taken on the shoulder with the forward hand and shoulder arm acting as a restraint NOTE: the rear foot is in the thrust position and the bodyweight is positioned behind the load As the shoulder is below the centre point of the load it will easily tip over into the horizontal position, with the front hand steadying the momentum As the tubes reach the horizontal position the legs carry out and complete the lift With the lift completed, the carry can begin, To place the tubes back on the ground the movements are repeated in raverse. 59The illustrations have shown a man lifting tubes at ground level. Itcan be clearly seen that the job is physically strenuous. Scaffold tubes are unwieldly anddifficultto handle, The problem is even more difficult when tubes are handled vertically. ‘The scaffolder has to use the same handling skills when working on a three or four board wide plaiform a considerable height above the ground. Apart from using the correct techniques a seaffolder must be even more careful in making the usua|pre-lift checks when handling long tubes vertically. The final illustrations show same of the dangers which may be encountered: - Copinas Winds — whuch can be steady er gusty Elec y oF tele phane cates Open windows Gena sills Tubeends should he goad ang siewve or spigal servicuable Some hazards which might be encountered 60IIIS ROPES, KNOTS AND HITCHES [he correct tise of rope andknotsis very important in scaffolding work Ropesare used forraising and lowering tubes, boards and fittings, and for lashing ladders end boards Types of Rope Ropes cian be broadly split into natural fibre and man-made fibre ropes Natural fibre Man-made fibre Manila Polyamide inylan} Sisal Polyester Hemp Polyethylane Cotton Polypropylene Coir Ropes larger than 8mm in diameter are generally supplied in 220m lengths The most common size of rope used for hfting materials im sc affolding is 18mm Siameter Thisisthe correct size for use with a gin wheel Smaller wire ropes are occa for lashing ladders. Robes are classified by the number of strands and the manner inwhichthe strandsare {ised and plated together The only type in common use is the threu-sivand plain fer Hawser laid rope 3-strand [ptain or hawser laidi rope Man made fibre ropes are gradually replacing natural fibre ropes, The reasons for this are that they are stronger, lessliable tochemicalattack, campletelyrasistanttorildes, and rol and have better water resistance. However, they do burn and caro should he taken 10 avoid excessive friction in sheaves and blocks wheracaremustbetaken tesec that the correct size of rope is u Care must also be taken when acetylene eutters or blawlampsare im use not tolet the Hame come in comact with a man-made rope Natural fibre ropes lend tocharbra not burn and are safer in these conditions Perhaps the most suitable ropes for use in scaffolding are of staple Spun or fiir film polypropylene, These are not as strong as nylan and polyester but ere considerably cheaper. They are light, dufable and cheaper than manila and are particularly wate Heenan and float in water The only draw-back of this type of material is that as peeberature increases il becomes softer and loses sirength; however. this only becames signihicant above 50°C (1 20°F] where there is.a lose of 13 in strengit 61Care and Use of Fibre Ropes Fibre rope, lke wire rope, can be damaged while itis being removed fromthe shipping carl, Anew coil or rope, should be laid flatanthe floor and unwound through thevoil ina counter-clockwise direction, Even when therape is unwound correctly, loops and kinks may form and these must be carefully removed, to avoid damage to the rope. Alter use, the rope should be re-colled in a clockwise direction. When coiling the rope remove kinks as they form Whenever a fibre rope is cut, the rope ends must be bound or whipped to prevent the rope [rom untwisting and fraying, Ordinary whippings are made with fine twine. Storage Pooistorage can cause fibre rope to deteriorate as rapidly asharshuse Inordertokeep ropes in good condition for as long as possible © Store them inva dry coo! room that has good air circulation ® — Donot store rapes an the floor. in boxes, of in cupboards where the ig restricted, They should be pegs well above the floar sircirculation ng up in loose coils on large-diameter weaden © Protect ropes from wet weather and sunlight. They should be kept away from boilers, radiators, steam pipes and other sources of heat and all ex) aust gases. ® —_ Dryand clean wet ropes before storing them, Moisturenatonlyhastensdecaybut also causes theropeto kinkveryeasily.Ifawetropebecames frozen, it must notbe disturbed unt! 1 is completely thawed, otherwise the frozen fibres will break when handled Allow wet and frozen rope to dry naturally. Teo much heat will cause the fibres to become brittle and the rope will be unfit for further service. Use of Ropes © Never overload a rope Apply a factor of safety of atleast § 1 and preferably 10:1 and make further allowances for the age and condition of the rope © = Never drag a repe along the ground The outside will be damaged and grit will become embedded and destroy the internal fibres. © Never drag a rope over sharp or roughedgesand never drag one partof a rope over another 62© Avoid all but straight tine p approximately 50%, Is with rape! a knot or bend will weaken it by e Pack all sharp corners when lifting materials, to prevent them abrading the rope. e When a rope ts attached toa hook or ringa thimble should be placed in the loopor ye to reduce the wearon the rope. @ Never use fibre rope near welding or flame cutting operations, The sparks and maiten metal can damage the rope ar set it on fire. Avoid exposureto all forms.of hear With Thimble Packings. Inspection The oily way to determine the safety of a rope, and its load-carrying ability is by regularly inspecting every faot of its length. The main points to be watched for are extemal wear, cuts and abrasions, internal wear between the strands and deterioration of the fibres If the rope is dirty and in poor condition, of if the strands have begun to uniay, or if the rope has lost its life and elasticity, 1 should not be used for lifting purposes. Should there be any doubt as to whether or nota ropeisfit for use, itshould be replaced atonce. Never risk danger ta life or damage to property by taking chances When a rope has been condemned, it should be destroyed at ance or cut up into short lengths so that it cannot be used for lifting purposes 63KNOTS, BENDS AND HITCHES Knots and bends cut the rope strength by 50% and hitches reduce thestrength by 25%. This relates to the final strength of the rope and not the resistance of any given knot against slip. Common knots The most common knots and hitches used in scaffalding are ~ Rolling Hitch This is the preferred knot for lifting tubes and hoards Clove Hitch For lifting tubes and beards. However the rolling hitch is preferred since itis lessilikely to slip, When lifting the rope shauld be positionone thirdat thew along the tube or board Figure of Eight Knot Used to lock a rope in position ie. 1@ prevent it sliding through a block or to temporarily prevent the end of the rope fram fraying ROLLING HITCH FIGURE OF EIGHT CLOVE HITCH 64i Timber Hitch Suttable for lifting boards, sometimes used in conjunction wath a half-hiteh, Half-Hitch and two Half Hitches Can be quickly tied and can be put to almost any general use Often used in conjunction with other knots eg. clove hitch, round turn, timber hitch, Square Lashing vsed in scaffolding to secure ladders to the scaffold structure Begin the lashing with a clove hitch and pass the rope over and behind the transom or ledger and back in front of the ladder stile several t times: Make two frapping turns and finish off with anotherclove hitch. Lash both stiles TIMBER HITCH TWO HALF HITCHES SQUARE LASHING 65RAISING AND LOWERING MATERIALS The scal fold gang spends a great deal of its time during the erectionanddismantlingof scaffolds in raising or lowering tubes, boards and fittings, This work has tobe carried out in all kinds of weather. and at many different locations - in the High Street or ather public places, on enclosed building sites or an some major civil engineering construction in a remote area. The methods used to raise and lower scaffalding materials will be determined by the extent and type of scaffold being built and the equipment avaiable The methods available will generally fall inte one or other of the following categories Handballing ‘chaining Forklift truck Light line “hand line Goods norst Gin wheel and rope Tower crane This chapter examines these various methads and suggests how riskscan be reduced and working effacianey improved! Handballing sometimés called ‘chaining’ is the method normally adopted on the first few lifts of a scaffold. The gang will farm a chain up the face of the scaffold and pass tubes and boards from one to another. The illustration show a good example of handballing Man 4 has passed a long tube toman8wholike man C hasadoptedagaodsafeposition where he can use both hands toraisethe tube. Man should not release the tubeuntil man 8 has clearly indicated he has lull control of the tube. A good method of communications for the man receiving the tube to call ‘my tube when he isreadyand in control 66Light line sometimes called “hand line’ is often used on scaffolds up to 15m high Tubes, baards or sacks of fittings are tied to the lower end of a 13mm"), )fibre rope and then hauled up by hand. It is essential to adoptasafepesition whendoing this. This involves using astandardfor support, one leg being placedbehind the standardto a an anchor and preventthe lifter fram overbalanging, Body positioned around front of standard Back straight nas slightly bent Feet placed planted behind & firmly either side on of ledger standard Crouch pasition Back tends to bend CANNOT OVERBALANCE STANDARD ACTS AS AN ANCHOR Foot position wide _ Rape attached in wang place Ts Baca OHHC 15] COULD OVERBALANCE NO FAILSAFE BACKUP 67The Gin Wheel and Rope iscommonly usedtoraise materials, whicharetiediotheend of a. 18mm (34") diameter rope passed over a single wheel pulley. This is fixed toa horizontal cantilevered tube, The material is then hauled up by the man onthe ground to the working level. Twotypesof Gin Wheel are available, the ‘Ring’ typeandthe Hook’ type, Theringtype is designed to fit aver a scaffaldtube, The hooktypeanly diffarsarthe pontof suspension: Instead of a ring the pulley is suspended bya hook. 760mm max The gin wheel is usually suspended froma cantilevered tube. This should be properly fixed with right angle couplers, preferably totwo standards approximately 2m above the landing place. If the cantilevered part of the tube is unsupported, the point of suspension should not extend more than 760mm {21 Bins), Check fittings should be fixed either side of the Suspensign point to ensure the gin ANGLE COUPLERS FIG EIGHT ~~ wheel cannot move If 4 hook type | wheel is used it must be suspended je cove HITCH and the open endof the hook must be moused to ensure tl cannot be SLEEVE COUPLER displaced ONLY The fibre rope should have a minimum diameter of 18mm and a stopper knot fusually a figure of eight knot) tied near the ends so that it eannot run through the gin wheel ona 6mm wire lasting with at least five 1urns around the hook and tube, 68 "INDEPENDENT SCAFFOLD fa PUTLOG SCAFFOLD The maximum load that should be raiged or lowered bya gin wheel and rope atany one time is 50kg. The load smposed an the scaffold will be double that being lifted (as Hustrated) Care shauld be taken particularly when lowering materials. If the weight is teo great either the man lowering the load will weigh less than the Joad and will be pulled off his feet, or the complete assembly may collapse 6Forklift trucks are frequently used to raise and lower scaffold material to and fromthe scaffolding. Itis essential that the forklift driver is made aware ofthe weightofthe load He should also know the load bearing capacity of the scaffald. Working platforms are sometimes overloaded by enthusiastic operators who are not aware of these factors, Where a forklift truck is used for loaciing a platform, a second frentledger is sometimes fitted, in front of, and below the main front ledger ta provide extra protection from impact and asa ‘check fitting’ Tower Cranes are often used to raise and lower large loads of scaffolding material during the construction of multi-storey blocks, The driver should be made aware of the weights involved; it is essential to ensure that the scaffold is capable of bearing the load. Extreme care should be taken by the manregeivingthe load. The crane driver hasonly a limited control and the receiver can be easily knocked from the platform Goods Hoists should only be used to raise or lower material that can be safely contained within the area of the hoist platform, This rule generally restricts the scaffolder to very shart tubes, (transom) and scaffold fittings. Remember many accidents are caused by falling materials, Ensure thatall material is raised, lowered and placed safely and securely an the platform. 70ORGANISATION AND WORKING METHODS Erecting a scaffold involves a great deal of hard physical effort — it is hard work, generally only undertaken by fit young men. As with all work of this kind there is no absolutely right, or correct way of doing the job - much will depend on the particular circumstances; the height and extent of the structure, the nature and lacation of the site, the numbers employed and so on, It remains true, however, that unless some thought is given to planning and preparing for the job a great deal of timeandeffortcan be wasted. Wasted effort means unnecessary expense, tired operatives, (who are likely to cut corners or make mistakes}, and sub-standard work, The result may bean increased risk of accidents ta all those using the soaffold and even to innocent passers-by The industry is geared ta payment for work done: the more youda-the more yau earn Slow workers will tend to cutcorners and takerisks inorder to maintain theiraverage or achieve higher payments. The reasons far their lower perfarmance will invariably be found in their approach ta the work, a lack of foresight, planning and organisation, An example 1s given below. Example 1A Agang of scaffolders arrive ata site to erect an independentseaffold, 36m tang by 25m high, They have a choice of unloading at points, A, Bar C. They choose ©. unload the lorry and begin laying out material from paint A and working back towards the unloading point y BUILDING LINE % ‘ | =< —____— SCAFFOLD POSITION 36m LONG ——}| A 8 c The material has to be carried and laid out for each of the lifts. Each 6m section of the 38m run contains 265m ledgers 2-2.5m braces 6-1.8m transoms 26 - scaffold fittings Each lift of scaffold requires one man to carry and lay out these materials six times. nExample 1A The total distance walked is as follows: g BUILDING LINE /, Yih, bin Se im in es “TP Seem e OL Lor tos 9m Toa! 108m Lg anise ren > Tosa 180m, I—1 2eripax 24m Total 252m ua Ls 2rrpss 27mm Vota 3240 ich and 6 trips trom = 12 trips.of 331 each trip ~ 396m Each trip comprises one carry and one return trip, so that each 6m run requires: 12 trips of 33m which equals 396m 12 trips of 15m which equals 180m 12 trips of 27m which equals 324m 12tripsof 9m which equals 108m 12 trips of 21m which equals 252m 12irips of 3m which equals 36m Atotal of 1296m per litt, to be walked by one man, Asthereare 13liftstabe laidaut, one man must walk 16848m (13 1296), which is the equivalent of 107, miles (Note the above calculations donotinclude sway braces, boards, guardrails, toehoards, standards, ladders or tes) Example 1B DD LLEE io BONDING LINE ALLY, EP [=m > Gm eft — em Gin [en em 4 ! ‘ Le ivan hat The materialis unloaded at point 8, Each 6im section would require the same number of trips, (i.e. 12) butas the materials are distributed from the centre, each 36m run will require: 12 trips of 15m which equals 180m 12 trips of 15m which equals 180m 12inipsof 9m which equals 108m 12 tps of 9m which equals 1G8m 12inipsof 3m which equals 36m 12 trips of 3mwhich equals 36m 72A total of 648m per lift to be walked by one man. Again 648m multiplied by 13 lifts equals 8424m which equates to just aver 5 miles, The distance between the two positions 8 and C is only 18m, but through lack of foresight, over 10 tons of material has been carried an additional 5 miles Expressed more simply, by thinking ahead and planning where the materials shouldbe unloaded (and before that, at the Depot, of how they should first be Inaded onto the lorry), the effort, time and cost of laying out the materials can be considerablyreduced, as.can the risk of tired men making mistakes and causing accidents, To achieve a planned and organised work pattern it is necessary to examine existing methods of work, Each task should be analysed (a) What can! do to improve the flow of work? (b) What can go wrong? If question (a) has been appliedto the first example, a considerable amount of time and effort would not have been wasted, Question (b) is necessary when planning a.work pattern to identify potential hazards. The next example shows how these questions give results that improve praductivity and decrease the risks Example 2 One further example will serve 10 show how a thoughtful, commonsense approach to the job can save time and effort and reduce the risk of accidents Inthe sketch below three men are employed in erecting an independent scaffold. Man Ais fixing right angle couplers to standards, ready to receive ledgers Man Bis throwing up fittings, dragging the sack of fittings along behind hin Man Cis eatching the fittings and placing themon the platform, ready for Man A, 73Amore efficient use of labour is achieved in the example shown below, Each of the men on the platform has his own sack of fittings, which has been raised ta the working level with the aid of a light line, The third man (B)can be employed laying. out ledgers ready for fixing. This is obviously amore productive arrangement. Twomen are employed in fixing the couplings insteadof one, asin the original example, with the third man preparing for thenextstage of the work, The jab will proceed more quickhyand the risk of someone being injured by a badly thrownor misdirected fitting is eliminated Safety Note The cammon practice of throwing up fittings is efficient only where a small number is required and the distance thrown is not toa great. A skilled and experienced man can only be relied upon to throw up a fitting 5 or 6m (say 18-20It) and there is always. danger that one inay be misdirected or dropped, causing a potential hazard 10 those working below or to passers-by, Itis far safer toplace the fittings ina sack andhaulthem up to the required level with a line and gin wheel {tis not intended to condemn this widespread practice outright, there will beoccasions where it's as quick and gasy to throw up a few fittings as its torig upa gin wheel and line - but it should never be done (a) 11 the Scaffold is being erected in a public place (b} near glass or neara fragile roof {c) anywhere where it may cause injury toa third party, or damage to property {d) anywhere other than from ground level (e) if the practice contravenes the company's Satery Policy 74Safety and Efficiency These are only two examples of how, with forethought and planning and by adopting an intelligent approach to the job, scalHotding work can be made easier, less costly and safer There are many opportunities in scaffolding work to practice these principles, What is needed aboveallisathoughtful, conscientiousattitudeto thejobandaconvers for safety, ‘As in so many instances involving scaffolding work, efficiency and satety go hand in hand: elficiant working methods are usually also the safe way of working 7OBSTACLES AND HAZARDS OVERCOMING OBSTACLES Many ebstacles are encountered inscaffold work-all presentingproblemswhich need tobe resolved. The solutions may be very simple - for example, raisinga ledger te give access ta a doorway - or exiremely complex - say a scaffold bridge over a motorway, requiring the expertise of an engineer to design the structure and supervise its construction, In many cases a scaffolder will need to use his own ingenuity in overcoming many lesser obstacles, This chapter offers some advice on how to overcame the more typical obstacles encountered in everyday scaffolding operations, Occupied Houses Many of the problems the scaffolder encaunters on this type of jab could be overcome by better liaison between the contractor and the householder. Quite often the householder employs a builder who in turn employs the services of a scaffolding contractor. Itis at that point that things can go wrong, The householder is not told what is going to happen, and doesn't have a chance to pass thisinformationon to his neighbours, who may already be somewhat upset by the general disturbance. A housewife who has just hung out her washing, or someone who has weeded and Tidied up the garden will object strongly to the gang laying soleboards aver flowerbeds, walking material across the lawn or laying scaffold tubes inthedriveway. Inthecaseof the neighbours, if accessis required through their grounds, permissionis unlikely tabe given without prior notice All these prablemscan beavoidedor dealt with priortothegangarriving. Iftheganghas co-operation from bath the householder and his neighbours it will reduce thedifficulty of overcoming some of the obstacles. Thiscan be seen in some of the pictorial examples that fallow. Asimple doorway has been bypassed 76Bridging over a garage roof: can the roof take the weight? | Vi ™ Resting on window: ledge tied if possible ak il J Helps to stop seatfelding Some weight taken t0 shiding down roof window ledge BUT can garage roof lake the resi? NOTE: FRONT SCAFFOLD OMITTED FOR CLARITY A lightweight bridge over the garage. Protection GARAGE 2 | | | Sp a eM Tay weight of Bruge NOTE BRACES BOARDS, ete, OMITTED FOR CLARITY 77An arrangement for re-roofing that will reduce the amount of wear and tear on the garden and will also increase productivity. Main access Scaffold Walkway TERRACE OF COTTAGES NOTE-LADDER ACCESS & END TOESQARD OMITTED FOR CLARITY TERRACE OF COTTAGES i Cottage! | Comage2 | ' eS re : > Garcons fi tts L an % Pathway Skip } Walkway. 78Braces Blind Bow ale -SWAY BRACE OMITTED FUR CLARITY ia Gailey A typical arrangement on a shop i front. The inside standard is founded at the first floor level and the outer standard an the pavement. Generally these scaffolds are for decoratars Occasionally a fan willbeaddedtothe scaffold when roofing or chimney work has tobe carried out. Itmaythen be necessary to double the outer standards as shown The same principles cam be applied to the base of house which has @ basement floor Reference to the chapter on Foundations will show other typical obstacles that face scaffolders 79PUBLIC HAZARDS Pavement scaffolds cause many problems for the scaffold gang. Materials have tobe unloaded and stacked on the pavement or in the gutter, presenting an obstacle and @ hazard to others. All local authorities have rulesandregulationsthat mustbe observed; for example a pavement licence may be required, It may also be necessary to seek permission from the palice to unload lorries in ‘No Parking’ areas, Whenever a scaffold is erected in a busy public place it is recommended that the local police are kept informed. Theycan give valuable advice and help in solving many ofthe problems that may arise. Between 2.1 & 2.5m Nothing projecting Lift height over or inta the roadway Spare material & | ladder stowed on Bottom lift should bottom lift overnight be close boarded Ledger braces removed far access after Ties have been Tubes painted white or adhesive fluorescent — stripes All joints should be wrapped to prot Material stacked public from sha: in gutter during erection (with warning canes) Plastic protective cup inserted into or over the end of tube 80Cf EEEE':’:”U re ihe first duty of @ scaffold gang is the protection and safety of the public. Porticular problems willdependon the location ofthe scaffold, it maybe ina busy shopping area, with a narrow pavement adjacent ta traffic lights, or near school a park or playing area. or public house or fish and chip shop. Whatever the location the following Problems will need to be considered, - At busy and congested sites.a very early start will enable the gang to unload the lorry and erect the base of the scaffold before the traffic builds up itmay be necessary to remove ledger braces to permitaccess under the scaffold, } and provide a close boarded bottom lift tastap anything falling onto pedestrians. If guardrails or foot tie tedgars are provided, the endsof the tubes shouldbe capped and all joints should be wrapped to prevent injury to passers-by Children, espectally under 11 years of age are inquisitive and fearless. They will climb lacders or even shin up standards, and have a habit of getting themselves into danger A special watch should be keptwhenchildrenare out andaboutalter School. Always attach a scaffold board flat against the rungs of the ladcer when leaving the job for lunch or tea breaks to prevent unauthorised access The evening and night-time can bring problems from older children, vandals or Cult revellers. All spare material should be secured, either by removing it fromm thesiteorstacking it securely onthe first lift, Always removaladders and place ina safe place - out of reach. If through ties have been fixed, someone should ensure that the open window cannot be used by a thief 81GENERAL SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS Sate passage mustbe provided forthe public. Remember blind people, people in wheelchairs, senior citizens, ladies with shopping alleys, prams, pushchairs etc. may have difficulty in negotiating places where access is restricted, Barriers erected as required No part of the scaffold mustproject intothe roadway whereitmaybestruckby any vehicle Statutory requirements, local authority regulations and police adviee should be complied with Lighting regulations must be observed Safety notices displayed as necessary Other safety considerations 1 Projections such as canopies, large caping stones, bowwindows, drain pipes etc. Overhead cables, electricity, phone cables Fire escapes, emergency exits etc. Foundations Considerations prior to dismantling 1 2 82 Are all the ties intact and secure? Have any adaptions taken place, andif so, have they affected the stabi the scaffold? Has the scaffold been damaged? lf the lighting is fixed to the scaifold, has it been disconnected at the mains?PROTECTIVE FANS Fans are erected to afford protectian from anything which may fall fromascatiokdora building, They comprise an inclined framework of scaffold «bes covered vith corrugated iron sheeting or scaffold beards. The diagram below illustrates the general arrangement | Cl SHeets VERT Ica TOEBOARD \ WIRE Co CRADLE WwiNDOW BOARDS DUTRIGGERS (NEEDLES) TRANSOMS PAVEMENT BOAD Fans are not intended for access to a scaffold, nor for the storage of materials. ‘Warning Notices to this effect should be clearly displayed on the fan FANS ARE FOR PROTECTION ONLY DO NOT USE FOR ACCESS OR STACKING pS Types of Fan Fans are classified lightweight or heavyweight according to their load capability, Itis not always possible to predict what weight will fall and from what height CLASS A A light duty fan with a maximum loading equivalent to 0.75 kN/m? Suitable for protectian from paint and mortar droppings. 83CLASS B A medium duty fan with a maximum loading equivalent to 1kN/m?, for protection from bricks, aggregates and like weights from heights not exceeding 10m CLASSC Afan with a leading aver 1kN/m?2, which shouldbe designed tasuitthe application. CLASSD A tan for arresting the fall of persons or like weights. This should be ‘erected in accardance with GP 93. Design and Construction Fans in class Aand class may be specifically designed although the standard form will be constructed without design drawings, Class C and D fans must be designed and are beyond the scope of this book Fans attached to scaffolds Fans consist of outriggers or needles extended fromthescaffold, supportedby wiresor spurs (rakers). Transoms are run paratlel with the scaffold ledgers to permit the fan to be boarded or sheeted at right angles to the building or scaffald..A common method of fixing light duty fans is to pass the outriggers over the outside ledger and under the inside one, The problemsof thisarrangement are shownon the illustration. Inanycase, i 8 better not to fix fans to existing lift ledgers 1 Addinenal leading on inside ledger might cause uplift although unhikety 2 Likelihoed af materials being placed on fan Difficulty of Fomaving dabeis via working lift a upon can eause falling materials 19 bounce aff sod miss te tan Wie may alsa be damaged 4 Shallow angle atiews falling material to build ap on outside offan Remaval salety hazard to peopl wirsils erected om outside ecge of fan eacoutages-people 0 walk on 4am an increnges tin loading | 4s OIAGRAR OE HETS 84Fans attached to buildings (Class A) These are generally used in conjunction with cradles for window cleaning, stone Glaaning operations or other maintenance work on the face of the building. The Suspension points for the cradle and wire for supports may often be the same. Large quantities of water are often required for these jobs. Inthese circumstancescorrugated iron sheets must be fixed so as to afford. adequate and safe drainage 4 Detail of @® shook fixing General construction requirements Outriggers (needles) - spaced every 1.5m for fansattached tobuildingsand every bay when attached to scaffolds. Class Bans shouldbetixedat everyscatfoldbay Support transoms- must be spaced soas te make sure ther are no ‘traps’ inthe decking Farapets -should be erected by fixing puncheons an the outside fan ledger and fixing tasboards to these. Spurs and rakers — rakers, genorally described ag transcm supports if used to Support the fan from above instead of wires. The term ‘spurs’ is generally used to describe raking tubes used to support the fan from below, Spursshouldbetixedto the outside fan ledger or an additional ledger within the outside third of the lan Wires — the diameter and strength of suspension wires should be designed according to the size and loading of the fan, Most purpase-made slinging wire is Binen independent wire rope core (IWRC), whieh has abreakingstrainat 4toanes, but 8 safeworking load of 0.5 tonnes. Wires shouldhe fixed usingaroundturnand two bulldog grips. ON NOACCOUNT SHOULD 6mm DIAMETERWIRELASHINGS BE USED. Additional ties must be fixed at the level of the fan ise chanteron Ties} only load bearing fittings may be used their construction fans supported by spurs will require additional bracing 85Decking When erecting a fan it isimportantto make sure thatthe lift atthe level at whieh thefan is fixed is boarded out, so that material does not fall down the inside of the scaffold Alternative arrangements may be made, for example parapets fixedtethe inside ofthe fanor the next lift down boarded out Scaffold boards should ether be lashed, using 6mmwire,orsecuredwithan additional scaffold tube. Galvanised corr ugatediron sheets mayalso befixed usingtubesorwitha variety of sheeting clips which clip round the end of the sheets. or with sheeting hooks which pass through the sheets and hook round the supporting scaffold tubes. Fans aré often exposed to high winds which can lift sheets and boards off the fan, gon sequently Its important to make sure thatall decking is firmly secured. 86SAFETY CHECK Spacing of outriggers to suit load on fan ié. type of decking and duty of fan Scaffold must be ~ close boarded properly lashed or held down ~ properly supported ie, no ‘traps Corrugated iron sheeting must ~ havea minimum of four clips or hook balts per sheet ~ drain properly, Guttering and drain pipes must be fixed where necessary Fan should be inspected daily by the user and particular care taken after high winds and storms. Any damage to the fan must be repaired immediately a7PART TWO BASIC SCAFFOLD STRUCTURESINDEPENDENT TIED SCAFFOLDS The independent tied scaffold is perhaps the most commonly used scaffold. It consists of two rows of standards parallel to the building, jained together with ledgers fixed with right angle couplers. In turn transoms are fixed at right angles to the ledgers with ‘putlog’ couplers, The assembly must be braced with ledger bracing, usually at alternate pairs of standards and with longitudinal or facade bracing every 30m alang the face of the scaffold, Independent scaffolds must be tied to the building. (See Ties. paye 25) Fight angie ‘coupler age Steve Locgers a Fight angle ue “Coupler = Uses and loadings The uses to which independent scaffolds may be put and their associated permissible loadings are summarised in BS‘5973 Table 1 (See page 12) Most independent scaffolds are five boards wide with four boards between the standards and one board between the inside standard and the building. Two and three board scaffolds are used when there is restricted access between buildings or for inspection purposes only, Independent scaffolds may not be built higher than 50m without expert advice, a1The requirements for bracing and tying independent scaffolds have been discussed in other chapters; However, these are summarised below for convenience: - © Longitudinal bracing every 30m along scaffold, either continuous or ‘dog leg © Ledger braving at alternate pairs of standards, using right angle couplers from ledger to ledger or swivel couplers to standards. © Ties should be every ather lift and approximately every matong thescaffold Not more than half of the ties should be reveal ties, ACCESS The main working platform for independent scaffoldscan often be 30m-4Om above the ground, Consequently access of men and materials to this platform requires careful consideration, Materials are often raised by hoists but men normally gain access via fadders. For higher working platforms tabove 20m) a ladder tower is the preferred means of access and gives access to each lift ifrequired Ene toebeard NOTE Boards masked thus « should te had dows to a puece oF 6OGmimn board 92Alternatively, ladders and landings can be built into the scaffold itself. The distance between landings must not be more than 9m. Access holes through landings should not be more than 500mm wide and should be as small as practicable in the other direction. Ladders should project al least 105m {8ft Bins) above each landing. They should be set at an angie of 4 vertical to 1 horizontal and supperted only by the stiles, which should be secured at the top using lashings or other attachments, Routine Safety Check Each night © Ladders shoul be boarded up to prevent unauthorisedaccesstathescattald * Lights should be placed sa that the public are protected from accidentally damaging either themselves or the scaffold, ag. by driving into it © Cheek that warning signs aré in position Each morning © Make sure that seaffoldhas not been interferedwith, particularlyby children, and is safe for use Every week @ Statutory inspections must be made every week and after severe storms bya competent person’ and form F 91 Part 1 completed. When dismantling @ = The order in which a scaffold is dismantled is not neces: the order of erection. Generally, scaffolds should be take Not fram ane end ta the other, arily the reverse of down lift by liftand Hazard awareness Independent scaffolds are in common use and are often taken for granted. Whilst independent scaffolds are straightforward to erect and use, carelessness can resultin accidents. An awareness of the potential hazards is essential if accidents aré to be avaided 93ERECTING AN INDEPENDENT SCAFFOLD The following diagrams show a typical sequence of erection (for 4 three man gang), It should be noted that only two temporary tubes are used, both afwhicheanbe left inthe structure until it is time to dismantle Insome of the diagrams different activities are shown — the sequence isalwaysA, B,C +8. Lovollog Fix first RAC at lift height a Position first pair of standards Fix first ledger A. Fixed to:standard bolow ledger 8 Levalled: ! © Fixed . { Reveat +— D ® Position standard and transom Repeat at other end Fixed to standards above tiansoms Fox foot ue ledger approx 150mm up | {fom ground ® 6 \ 6 second ledger e Fix foat tie 94Attach braces and check structure is plumb and level 8. Plumb standard SX MMA INANNNNNNANNNNNNNNNNANY AARNE Fix intermediate standards Attach intermediate standards and transom@ A. Fix permanent main transoms ‘on top af lexigers. Position facade brace and plumb brace at standards © Plumb standard and fix bottom of brace Plumb remaining standards and fix intermediate transoms to suit boards1 PUTLOG SCAFFOLD The putlog scaffold, also called a bricklayer's scaffold is erected with tubes and fittings to Support a work platform adjacent to a wall or building The scaffold consists of a single row of standards parallel to the face of the wall supported and tied together by a ledger. The ledger also supports the outer endat the putlog, the other end of which is inserted into the wall The putlog is in effect, a transom which has been flattened at one end to form a blade; alternatively, the transom can have a putlog adaptor connected atane end, Theblade is fully inserted into the bed joint of the brickwork or laid flat on top of the brickwork; or inserted an edge into a vertical joint, when the scaffold is erected against existing brickwork, Put log” LESTALLLS ADE CONSTRUCTION Standards These should be placed on baseplates, founded on sole boards. The spacing between | standards should not exceed 2.1m with a maximumdistributed load of 2.5kN/m? (50 bf ft’), The lift height 1s normally 1.35m. Ties Through ties must be inserted on alternate lifts to the full height of the seaffold, and every 8m horizontally. On progressive bricklayer's scaffolds, care Must be takenwhen the brickwork is ‘green’. The scaffold should net be worked on until the brickwork is capable of supporting the scaffold, On walls without openings single bricks should be left aut to accept ties 97 foBracing Facade or sway braces must he fixed in the normal way. Ledger or cross braces are nat strictly required, although for a progressive bricklayer’s scaffold it is advisable to fit a ledger brace every third standard, Bridle Where itis necessary to by-pass.a window or door openingabridletubeisconnectedto the underside of the putlogs and acts as a support for the ends of putlogs not supported by the brickwork. It should be fixed with right angle couplers. The.bridle tube also serves as the inner fixing point for braces. 5 Boards wide ——-} + & passage 120mm to allow for plumbing by Bricklayer, Putlog blade pushed in flat at least 7mm Bridle Tube Ledger Standard - Advisable tofit [F} Baseplate leriger brace every| third standard Sele ete | ~~ Foot Te TH 98Guardrail Standard \ Toeboard Platform Working Platform The working platfarmn should be five boards wide, with sufficient room between the face of the brickworkand the edge of the inside board to allow the bricklayer to slumb thebrickwork The gap also allows the superfiuous mortar to drop to the ground witheut spoiling the face of the brickwork In addition t6 the normal arrange- ment of guardrails and toeboards, brickguards should be erected to ensure material cannot fall from the platform. 99HAZARDS Some of the hazards moré commonly associated with putlog scaffolds are listed below.- ¢ Foundations can be undermined byotherwark, orthescaffoldmaybe erected on backfilled trenches! © Working platforms can be overloaded andhavebricks stacked higherthanthe guardrail ® The guardrails are removed for forklift access and not replaced. @ Toeboards are sometimes removed and used to prop up doar and window frames © Single unsupported boards are used to provide access to the brickstack © Brickguards not erected (ar not available} @ Ties or braces removed Brickstack higher than Guardrail height ~~ No Brickguards. _ Window — Frame. Unsupported Scaffold Board \ Brickwork: ~ERECTION SEQUENCE 1 Erect standard on soleboard and baseplate and fix first putiog to standard with right- angle coupler Fix second standard and putlog as before Foe ledger to standards belew putlogs. The structure is temporarily supported with rakers 101Level and fix foot tie ledger approximately 150mm above baseplate = i \ Fox bridle tube approximately 100mm from wall. Brace the structuré. Ledger braces may be fixed from bridle to foot tie and include facade brace to provide longitudinal stability, The scaffold is completed by adding intermediate transoms, the working platform and guardrails and toeboards 102Safety Checklist Before Erection © Clear all debris and level ground. © Ensure all backfilled trenches are firmly compacted © Ensure the scaffolder is aware of the backfilled trench positions © Ensure the scaffelder is aware of the position of future groundworks After erection of Baselift © Standards plumb and properly founded en soleboards and baseplates, * Ledgers level and connected to the: standards by well-serviced right-angle couplers. © Putlog ends (or putlog adaptors) are properly insert brickwork ad into, or laid on the * Putlogs are level, properly spaced and connected to the ledgers {main putlogs within 300mm of each standard) © Bridles are connected to the putlogs with right-angle couplers © Boards are close taid, properly supported and sulficient space has been allowed between the inner edge and the face of the brickwork to allow the bricklayer to plumb the wall, © Guardrails, tocboards and brickguards are in place © Froper accesshasbeen provided in thecorrectposition, (narmallyadjacentto the brickstack, and the mixer}, @ Ensure the bricklayer fereman and the forklift dnver are awore of the maximum loads the scaffold is capable of carrying,.eg.-- 2.1m standard spacing = 2.6kN/m? (S01bI/ft’) which in turn equals approx 140 bricks {stacked next to each standard), one laaded mortar board and the bricklayer and his tools —per bay. 103After the Erection of the Second Lift and before it is boarded out © Ensure the ties have been fixed to mature brickwork Senerally it is impossible ta fix ties to the second lift without leaving holes in the brickwork and second lift brickwork is unlikely to be mature enough toprovideasecure tig. Ties should be inserted in the baselift to mature brickwork ie. through door and window openings © Ensure the blades of the putlogs are still fully inserted in the wall, at baselift level. There is a tendency for scaffoldersto ‘spring’ the scaffold away fromthe building when inserting the second lift putiogs, This is less likely to occur if ledger braces are incorporated During Operations, ensure: © The forklift driver daes not everload the platforms. © Brickguards are always used © Unused ladder access points are properly guarded @ Any damage done by the forklift or dumpers is rectified immediately © Boards are not taken and used as props for door frames, window frames and roof russes, © Gable ends have praper through ties @ The gable end lifts have correctly supported boards. guardrails, toeboards and proper access and egress During the Tiling Operation, ensure:- © The top lifts high enough for the tiler to comfortably step onto the root © Consider the necessity of fixing additional guardrails to ensure that the tiler cannot fall over the scaffold guardrail if he fails down the roof During Progressive Dismantling:- @ Ensure guardrails are erected at the correct height and the platform 1s properly laid for the glaziers or for the bricklayer whe is pointing the putlog heles © Cheek ties are left inplace 104|. CC EIIISOEOOOS’'S iM ACCESS BIRDCAGE SCAFFOLDS The 'Birdeage’ scaffold is so called because it resembles a cage! It is normally used inside buildings to provide an access platform for working on ceilings, soffits-er in the nsiallation of lighting or ventilation or sprinkler systems. Small jobs would generally be done using a tower or hydraulically operated aerial platform where possible, but fo. larger projects involving longer periods of time, an access birdcage is required The scaffold is constructed using standards arranged at regular intervals in parallel lines, usually evenly spaced. Standards are laced together with a grid of ledgers and transoms al every lift height and the top lift is boarded out to provide the working platform. 105SCAFFOLD REQUIREMENTS ‘The requirements specified for access birdcage scaffolds are fully set out in BS 5973 and vary according towhether the birdcage is a single lift or has mare then one lift, For single lift birdcages particular attention must be paid to bracing These requirements are summarised below Maximum loading 0.75 kN./m’ {equivalent to 1 man every square metre) Standard spacing Max 2.5m (8') in each direction Lift height 1st lift max 2.5m (8'} subsequent lifts max 2.0m (6° 6") Edge bays Width of edge bays may be three, four or five boards to accommadate the access requirements for the scaffold Ledgers, transoms and fittings Ledgers and transoms should be fixed to standards and to each other with right angle couplers. At the working lift, transoms may be fixed to ledgers with putlog clips to enable boards to be laud, Bracing Braces may be fixed fram ledger to ledger or to standards using swivel couplers. ‘When ledger bracing is used, a foot Ue is required to receive the lower endof the brace on the first lift. One brace must be provided for every six verticals in each line in both directions. Ifthe birdcage is fullybutted atall levels thenbracescanbe omitted (see low). Tying and butting Stability may also be provided by butting tubes against existing structures: But if ‘only one wall is available it is necessary te provide a push-pull fixing. Where two parallel walls are available, tubes can be butted against both walls. No vertical shauld be more than six tubes away from an edge or other restraint point. One restraint should be pravided every 40m? (430!t4) of vertical face. CONSTRUCTION Foundations Great care must be taken when scaffolds are erected on highly polished wood block, masiac, marble and similar floors. 1 necessary a protective layer of suitable material must be placed under the soleplates With birdcage scaffolds the floor of the building has to carry the full weight of the scaffold and its load. Soleplates are therefore necessary to help distribute the load as. widely as possible - and they should always be set at right angles to beams or joists. 106Baseplates and Standards Baseplates must be placed on soleboards to receive standards, These shouldbenailed oF screwed ta the soleboards if there is any danger of mavement. Standards shouldbe plumbed and joints in alternate standards staggored in order to obtain strength and stability Ledgers Ledgers should be fixed ina horizontal plane atall times. Itisadvisabletofixthe first lift at 2.5m (Bft) and subsequent lifts at 1.8m — 2m (6f-Gft Gins} centres. (The British Standard recommends thatthe first lift maximum should be 2.5m (Blt), subsequent lifts at 2m (6ft Gins) maximum, ngle lift birdcages, horizontal tubes in the top lift should be joined with sleeve: couplers and not internal spigots, as there are no additional liftsto maintain horizontal rigidity, f the horizontal tubes are butted against parallel walls the scaffold can be difficult to dismantle Transoms ‘On non. working lifts transomsshouldbeliedto thestandardsby rightangle couplers, On working lifts, transoms should be-fixed to the ledgers with right angle or pullog couplers and spaced as other scaffolds to support boards evenly (See Table 3 page 12) Generally, one transom shouldbe fixedin each bay, natmore than 300mm (12ins}from @ standard, Joints in transams must be staggered in order toobtain maximum rigidity and safety Bracing Stability is obtained by. diagonal bracing to the {ull height of the Séa fold atgach corner in both directions, particularly if it 1s not possible to include ties (See under Seaftold Requirements, apposite) Ties Tying is normally achieved by butting walls with alternate ledgers andtransoms. {Ends of tube may have to be padded to prevent damage}. Alternatively box or reveal ties may be necessary. Foot ties should be provided throughout the scaffold except where access is required, and at least in alternate bays in both directions to form boxes. (See under Tying and Butting, opposite) Werking Platform The working platform must be close boarded and if 3.9m (13ft) boards are used, each board must be span at least four transoms, Handrails and toeboards must be provided where the space between the decking and the wall exceeds 150mm (éins) These must be fitted on the inside of the standards Access Access requirements must comply with BS 5973, Section 16, Access is generally provided at the edges of the scaffold using ladders and landings, (See under Access page 39) 107METHODS OF ERECTION Two methods of erecting a birdcage scaffoldare commonly used. The first uses a foottie round a box two bays wide, approximately 150mm from the base, fixed to standards at each of the four corners followed by ledgers at the first lift height, Intermediate standards and braces can then be fitted. Foot Tie Erect standards at each corner and secure with foot ties Transom f Ledger Altach ledgers at first lift 108Fix centre standard Attach temporary transoms 410Attach ledgers for secand lift Continue facade bracing in a zig-zag or dog leg fashionThe sequence is repeated until the structureisatthe requiredheight. Working platform will be boarded: out and guardrails and toeboards fitted Safety Checklist 112 © Check sole plates are positioned so that total weight is distributed as widely as possible. Base plates of standards secured to sole plates © Check standards not more than 2.5m apart in each direction; mustbe vertical and in tine, © Check ledgers are level and in line and spacing of transoms © Check diagonal bracing in both directions; securely fixed with swivel couplers @ Check security of ties; at least one every 40m? of vertical face. Wheretransoms or ledgers butt walls, check no gap. Packing te prevent damage to wall © Check security and condition of boards, toeboards and guardrails ® Checks: urity of couplers and fittings; condition af fittings. @ Check load on warking platform is evenly spread; platform not overloaded Materials stacked near standards. Where necessary brick guards etc used. © Check ladders provided for access correctly supported and lashed or clamped ta scaffold. Extending at feast 1.05m (3ft 6ins) above platform levelTOWER SCAFFOLDS Where scaffold towers are formed fram standard steel scaffaid tube and fittings they may be fitted with castors or wheels for mobility, or constructed as stationary towers They usually supportasingle working platfarmnotprojecting beyond ihe base area and are provided with handrails and toeboards, Access to the working plalform by ladder may be either inside or outside the structure, erzonio! ningee: hand NOTE, Proprietary towers tn both stee/and aluminiunrare not cavered in this chapter, These shavid be constructed and tised in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions, 113Light duty access towers are used mainly for lightweight work such as painting, simple maintenance, etc, and will notsupporta load greater than 1 SkN/m?(3OIb{/ft?) This isequivalent toa loadof twomenstanding persquare metre. Thesafeworking load should be clearly displayed on the working platform Heavy duty towers such as camera towers and welding platforms must be capable of sustaining distributed loads in excess of this figure. These towers are nearly always stationary and expert advice should be sought in their design and erection Stationary towers differ from mobile towers only inas faras theycannot be moved and that they aremore stable, They are generatly builtto greater heights than mobile towers and are frequently anchored or guyed in order to give extra stability. Common uses. include television camera towers, welding platfarms, lighting. access to working places and routine ingpectians. Foundations Scaffold towers must always be vertical, evan if erected on sloping ground Mobile scaffold towers should only be used and moved on firm and level surfaces Where the ground is uneven or softit maybenecessary tolaya temporary foundation or track to spread the weight and permit the tower to be moved more easily and safely These temporary foundations should be suitably constructed so that the bearing capacity of the ground immediately below the track is not excceded at any paint, Any displacement of the foundation or track should be prevented by anchoring it securely The anchoring of the track to the ground does not remove the necessity for the tower itself to be anchored to the graund where this is essential Where it 1s known thata tower is to be used on-a suspended floor it should be designed sothat the load is no greater than thebearing capacityof the floor. Expertadvice should be sought in these circumstances When guy wires are used or kentledge is applied to provide stability, the laad imposed on the standards is considerably increased The foundations must be capable of Supporting these increased loads. The general rules relating to foundations apply equally to stationary towers, Onsome. sites adjustable base plates may be needed to ensure the tower is vertical These must be prevented from falling out of the vertical tubes and any locking devices correctly engaged Stability Tovgive stability toa tower the ratio‘af the righting mament (the force acting to keep the tower upright] £0 the overturning moment {wind forces or an eccentric Weight such aS that imposed by a. gin wheel should be greater than 1.5. In practice this is achieved by limiting the height to the jeast base ratio, Outriggers may be used ta increase the stability of a tower, by effectively increasing the base dimensions The height to least base dimension ratic af mobile access towers used withinbuildings should not exceed 3.5 101 Mobile access tawers adjacent ta buildings should have a ratio nat more than 3 to 1, No tower should be built with a least base dimension of less than 1.2m (ait). 114For stationary towers these ratios may be increased to4to 1 and 3.8 t01 respectively. These ratiosapply only to towers constructed of steel scaffolding materials. Aluminium towers are lighter and different criteria apply. [ower should be braced on all sides and in plan at every alternatelift, beginningatthe base and also under deck level Anchors and Guys |p order to increase the stability of stationary towers, guy ropes may be. fixed to the tower and attached to anchors founded in the ground. Guidance is given inBS 50.74. the types and uses of anchors for supporting free standing towers. There are foes common types: ® Cross tubes attached to the foot lift ® Driven tube anchors attached to guys © Screwed in flight anchors © Plate and pin anchors Guys for temporary scaffolding structures shouldbe of 10mm ar 12mm diameter wire rope. which should be attached to the scaffold structure and to the ground tubs or anchored by a single round turn and three bulldog clips. Detailed descriptions and methods of use for anchors and guys arenot covered in this ‘book. Castors Suitable castors or wheels should be selected to suit the size and loading of the tower. The sate working load is usually marked on the wheel. These must be fixed at the extreme corners of the tower in such @ manner that they cannot fall outif the tower is moved, of a wheel is out of contact with the graund, They must be fitted with effective wheel brakes which cannat be accidentally released When kentledge (dead weight such as sand bags, concrete blocks, etc) is used 10 Stabilise @ tower, the capacity of the castors to take the-extra load should be checked Ladder Access Ladders should be fixedby lashingthestilesof the ladder tohorizontal tubesand should be located on the narrower face. Where possible ladders should be positioned inside the basearea. When the means of accessis outside the structure, consideration should be given tothe effect on the stability of the tower In practice it isdifficultto fix ladders inside the tower asthis wouldinvolveconstructing ta aeeess Hap in the working platform. If the access ladder is used frequently and the {ower is large enough to preventdanger from overturning. the ladder will generallybe fixed on the outside of the tower. 115TOWER CONSTRUCTION The height of the lifts should not exceed 2.7m (9ft}. The lowest ledgers and transoms should be fixed as near to the castors as possible. The tower should be stiffened using diagonal bracing at approximately 45° to the horizontal on all four faces, Ledgers, transoms.and plan braces must be joined to the standards by right-angle couplers. Standards should be joined with sleeve couplers or lapped tubes; never with internal spigot pins. All joints should be staggered There is. a minimum basedimension of 1,2m, Whenthe tower base is greater than 2.5m x2.5m(8' x8") the weight of the tower hinders it from being moved easilyand forthese larger towers advice should be sought The Working Platform Working platforms should be close boarded. Transoms should be spaced at intervals Not exceeding 1.5m (Sit) when 38mm thick scaffold boards are used. However it is recommended that transams are not mare than 1.2m, (4ft)apart. Where short boards are used (far example at aecess openings) they must be fixed down at both ends to prevent tipping. It is good practice te do this for all boards USE The user should never apply horizontal forces at the level af the working platform (ag., by hauling heavy ropes or cables,) and should not lift significant weights up the outside of the tower Where gin wheels are used on cantilevered tubes the tower must be specially designed for this purpose. Mobile towers should only be used on evenground, never onasiope which mightallow them to run away. Castars should be locked except when the tawer isbeing maved. If there is any doubt about the adequacy of the brakes, wheels should be chacked. Mobile towers should never be moved with men or materials on the working platform. When moving the tower, this should be done by pushing at the lowest practical point. ERECTION SEQUENCE The erection sequence for a Tower Scaffold is shown on pages 119-120 116Safety Checklist Foundations Ensure that ground surface is firm and level For stationary towers check that standards are fitted with baseplates and that baseplates are securely fixed to prevent lateral movement, Iftemporary foundations or pathways have been provided for a mobiletower, see that they are properly prepared Ensure that suspended floors are nat overloaded Check for additional loads which may be imposed when guys or kentledge are used Standards Must be vertical and stable Joints should be made with sleeve couplers, and staggered. Ledgers and Transoms Must be horizontal and complete Must be fitted to sta ards with right angle couplers Lowest ledgers and transoms {ixed as near to castors as possible Spacing of transoms 1.2m ~ 1.8m (4-5tt)or less Bracing Towers braced an all sices andin plan atevery alternateliftstarting at thebaselift and also uncer deck level Ladders Chek that the ladder is lashed top and bottom on each stile. The ladder should be fixed to the narrower side of the tower. Ensure that the foot of the ladder is about 150mm clear of the castor <6 thatthe tower can be moved about easily.Working Platform Only one working platform is permitted Decking must be in good condition and be evenly supparted with correct overhang Where ladder access is provided, there must be only a minimum gap for access to the working platform Guardrails and Toeboards Must be in place and properly secured. Couplers Check that only correct couplers are used, and they are fully tightened. Tubes Check all tubes for splits, flattened ends and corrosion, Castors. Ensure that cas ground ors are frtted so that they cannat fall off if out ef contact with the Check that brakes are fitted and in proper working order Check castors are greased regularly and rotate freely Check Wheel treads are in goad condition Loading Ensure thatthe maximum distributed loadis not greater than 1.5kN/m? andthat sihesthailange is Used to ensure stability the castors are capable of supporting Ties and Guying Guys should be checked to ensure that tension is correct and that connecting points and anchors are secure Onlarger towers, seek advice on methodsof guyingandonloadsimposed by guys and ties Nate. Towers must be secured against adverse weather, vandalism etc, when lett unattended, 118Erect standards at each corner and Measure off first lift and fix ledgers secure to foot tie and transoms, level and secured with right-angle couplers Add braces on all four sides and fix For mobile towers fit castors, secure plan brace and brakeFix intermediate trangoms and-deck Measure off second lift and fitledgers out temporary intermediate working and transoms platform 6 7 Add braces and intermediate Board out working platform and add transoms guardrails and toeboards 120SYSTEM SCAFFOLDS Introduction System scaffolding may be described as easy-to-use scaffolding which can be assembled by relatively inexperienced labour, There are a great many such systems now available, ranging fror light duty aluminium alloy access towers 1 heavy duty ReelSupport structures. They all employ different patented locking devices (wedges, locking pins etc) and are designed ta different specifications, which makes it diffe: and sometimes dangerous to interchange one system with another However, the majority of systems are made from standard diameter tubes, so thattheycan be used with standard scaffold fittings, itis vital that specific instruction, training or anerection handbookbe provided for the nen erecting any system seattold. Users should pay strict attention to loading and inethods of erection published inthe manufacturer's instructions, Thereis nonatonal ‘orcamman specification for system scaftalds. Consequently, care should he takennot to mix different systems Common Types of System Scaffold Most systems are composed of standards with preformed connectors welded at {ngervals along their length to which ledgers are fixed with a proprietary clamping or wedging arrangement, as illustrated below. | r ZFSome earlier systems use tubes made into frames typically or X shape, to avoid the need for bracing, Components Standards come ina variety of langthsand have preformed connectors welded atequal distances along their length. A spigot arrangementisformedatoneendof thestandard for extension purposes; occasionally sockets are formed instead Ledgers are in varying lengths with connectors welded to each end. The connection is made when the wedge, cup or bolt is hammered or screwed tight Transomsare generally made to receive either 4 or 5 boards, Theendsal the transoms are connected to the standards in the same way as the ledgers, Some. systems accommodate traditional scaffold boards and therefore require intermediate transoms, Braces in each direction are made to fit the different bay sizes, Some systems use standard tubes and fittings for bracing 122Boards also called stagings or battens come ina variety of lengths, thicknesses and widths. Decking is seldom interchangeable aseach type is designed tosit exactly onthe narrow lip ofthetransom Boards are often made from steelwithaslipresistantsurface. and pre-drilled drainage holes. These systems allow for the attachment of proprietary toeboards, Boards Transoms — Toeboard Transom Ties are generally formedin tube and fittings. As yetno one has designeda successful ‘system tie’ 123Adjustable base plates are essential except on completely level surfaces. In practice these are often interchangeable between systems. However, care should be taken to establish whether the adjustable base plate is designed for heavy or light duty use; and the SWL (safe working load) where necessary Coarse & fine adjustment — Pin Adjustable jack jack oS Base plate Erection Methods 1. Foundations are prepared as for other types of scaffold, by placing sole plates on firm ground or timber sleepers, or for long term scaffolds or falsework, by bedding them in a lean concrete mix. Clearly the type of foundation will depend on the purpose for which the scaffold is intended Sloping or uneven ground can cause problems. Careful considaration should be given tothe starting point of the scaifold. Setting outshould start from the highest point and adjustable base plates used to level the structure. 1242 Position base plates and/or adjustable base plates” jacks in roughly the correct place. Lay out trangoms and ledgers for the firs! standards are in place. y so they are ready to fix after the Place a pair of standards on two adjustable base plates and loosely fix bottom 1255, Fixtransom at head height or above to form a frame. 6 Fix ledger and third standard 7. Camplete bay and adjust jacks to ensure that bottom ledgers and transoms aré level 8. Tighten up wedges” fraing attachments 126Deck out as necessary before erecting subsequent bays and lifts as required Completetoworkinglift,deckoutandilix guardrails and toeboards, braces andties as required Where returns are necessary, careful planning is required to ensure the scaffold “fits”. This should be done at first lift stageMost manufacturers produce their own literature describing erection anddismantling pracedures and this should always be referred to. Managers must ensure that the system is suitable for the work; and that employees are aware of the basic scaffolding rules, particularly those concerning foundations, bracing, platforms (including guardrails and toeboards} and ties SAFETY AT WORK Whatever system of seaffold is used, st 1s essential that all operatives, regardless of their skill and experience should have regard to their own safety and the safety of others. This isparticularly importantwhen system scaffolds are erected by untrainedor semi-skilled operatives. In these cases careful supervision iseven moreimportantand Supervisors will need to have a sound knowledge of basic scaffolding techiniques if aecidents are to be avoided Readers are recommended to study “Safety at Work’ (GC 702) a CITB publication intended primarily tor young people entering the construction industry for the first time, but of value to adult workers and to all thoge engaged in their supervision and training 128GLOSSARY OF TERMS Abnormal facade. A facade which does not permit the fixing of through ties or non-movable ties Adjustable base plate. A metal base plate embodying a screwjack. Adjustable forkhead. A forkhead fitted with a threaded spindle and nut to give adjustable height, Anchorage. Component cast or fixed into the building for the purpose of attaching a tie Anchor - guy. A pin or tube driven into the ground at approximately 45° to the horizontal to provide an anchorage for a rope, Base plate. A metal plate with a spigot for distributing the load froma standard or @ raker of other load- bearing tube Bay. The space between two adjacent standards along the face of a scaffold Bay length. The distance between the centres of two adjacent standards, measured horizontally Board-clip. A clip for fixing a board to a scaffold tube. Board - inside. A board placed between the scaffold and the building on extended transoms, or a hep-up bracket Boards - retaining. See brick-guard. Board - scaffold. A softwood board combined with others to farm acces: working platiorms and generally used for protective camponents such as toeboards on a scaffold, Bolted tie. An assembly of nuts, bolts, anchors, rings or tubes fixed into the surface of a building, Box tie. An assembly of tubes and couplers forminga tiefor the scaffolel by enclosing a feature such as a column, Brace. A tubs placed diagonally with respect to the vertical ar horizontal members of a scaffold and fixed 10 them to afford stability Brace - facade or face, A brace parallel to the face of a building Brace - knee. A brace across the corner of an opening in a scaffold to Stiffen the angles or tostiffen the end support of a beam, Brace - ledger or cross. A brace at fight angles to the building Brace - longitudinal. A brace in the plane of the longer dimension of the scaffold, particularly in birdeages. Brace - plan. brace in a horizontal plane Brace - transverse. A brace im the plane of the shorter dimenstan of the scaffold Bracket - Hop up or extension, A bracket to attach usually tothe inside of a scaffold to enable boards to be placed between the scaffald and the building. 129Brickguard. (Also retaining boards} A barrier, usually of coarse mesh filling the gap between the guardrail and toeboard, and sometimes incorporating @ne or both of these companents Bridle. A horizontal tube fixed across an opening or parallel to the face of a building to suppart the inner end of a putlog transom or tie tube. Bridle - inside or outside. A bridle either inside or outside @ building wall Bridle - vertical, A vertical tube performing the same functian as a bridle. Butting transoms. A transom extended inwards to butt the building to prevent the scaffolding moving towards the building, Butt tube. A short length of tube. Butting tube. A tube which butts up agains! the facade of @ building or other surface to prevent the scaffold moving towards that surface, Castor. A swivelling wheel secured to the base of a vertical member for the purpose of mobilizing the scaffold Check coupler or safety coupler. A coupler added toa joint under load to give security to the couplerts) carrying the load Chord. The principal longitudinal member's) of a beam or truss Chord stiffener, A tube fixed at right anglesto the chord of aprefabricated rafter, beam or truss for the purpose of preventing buckling 130 Coupler - fixed finial. Aeouplerto fix a tube across the end of another at right angles in the same plane, as in the guardrails, Coupler - parallel. A counler used to jon two tubes in paraflel Coupler ~ purlin, rafter or ridge. Special angle or variable angle couplers for joining members in sheeted buildings and roofs. Coupler - putlog. A coupler used for f2xing a putleg or transom toa ledger or to connect a tube used only as a guardrad to a standard Coupler - right angle. A co Used to join tubes al right angles Coupler - sleeve. An external coupler used ta join one tube to anotier coaxially Coupler - supplementary Coupleris) added to a yoint aback up the main coupler taking the lead whan the estimated load on the joint 1S mM excess of the safe working load of the main cou Coupler - swivel. A coupler Jomeng tubes at.an angle o night angle sed for erthana Coupler - swivel finial, A coupler to fix a tube cross the endof another in the same plane but at an angle, as the handrail 19 a staircase Crane - jib. A smatl crane specially adapted for pivotal mounting 10 a seaftald tube Decking. The boardis) or units forming the working platform Dowel pin, See spigot pinEnd guardrail. A guardrail placed across the end af a scaffold or used to isolate unboarded part End toeboard. A toeboard at the end of a scaffold or at the end of a boarded portion of it End toeboard clip. A similar device to the toeboard clip for use on end toebo. rds Expanding spigot. A device design to expand and grip the inside of a tube. Used for joining tubes. Facade - abnormal. A facade which does not permit the fixing of through ties or non-movable ties, Facade brace. Face brace. A brace parallel to the face of a building, Facade - normal. A facade which permits the fixing of through ties or non-movable ties Fittings. A general term embracing components other than couplers. Forkhead. A U-shaped housing for assembly on the end of a tube to accept bearers Forkhead - adjustable. A forkhead fitted with a threaded spindle and nut to give adjustable height Forkhead - rocking or swivel. A forkhead to accept bearers at a range of angles. Gin wheel or black. A single pulley for fibre ropes attached to a seattold for raising or lowering materials Going.The horizontal distance between the nosings of two consecutive steps of a stair measured in a horizontal line Guardrail. A member incorporated in a Structure to prevent the fall of a person from @ platform or access way. Guardrail post. A vertical tube, frequently @ puncheon supporting a guardrail Guardrail - end. A guardrail placed across the end of a scaffold or used to isolate unboarded part Guy anchor, A pin or tube driven inte the ground at approximately 45° te the horizontal to provide an anchorage for a rope, Height. The height measured from the foundation to the top assembly of ledgers and transoms, Hop up or extension bracket. A bracket to attach usually tothe inside of a scaffold to enable boards to be placed between the scaffold and the building. Independent tied scaffold. A scat- fold which has two lines of standards, one line supporting the outside of the deck and one the inside, The transoms are not built into the wall of the building, It is not free-standing, but relies on the building for stability Inside board. A board placed between the scaffold and the building on extended transoms, or a hop-up bracket, Interlock pin. See spigot pin, 131Jib crane. A small crane specially adapted for pivotal mounting to a scaffold tube. Joint pin. An expanding fitting placed in the bore of a tube to connect one tube to another coaxially (see spigot). Kentledge, Dead weight, built-up or added to @ structure to ensure adequate stability Ledger. A longitudinal tube normally fixed parallel ta the face of a building in the direction of the larger dimensions of the seatfold, It acts as @ support far the putlogs and transoms and frequently for tie tubes, and ledger braces and is fixed to the adjacent standards, Ledger or cross brace. A brace at right angles to the building Lift. The assembly of ledgers and transoms forming each horizontal level of a scaffold Lift - foot. A lift erected near to the ground Lift head room. The clear distance between a platform and the tubular assembly of the lift above Lift height. The. vertical distance between two lifts, measured centre to centre. Lip tie, An assembly of tubes forming an Lor J shaped hook rounda part of a building Lip tie - double. 4 lip tie which is a push/ pull tie , ie, has a cross tube on the back and front of the wall. 142 Longitudinal brace, A brace in the plane of the longer dimension of the scaffold, particularly in birdcages. Movable tie. A tie which may be temporarily moved for the execution of work. Normal facade. A facade which permits the fixing of through ties and non-movable ties. Parallel coupler. A coupler used to join two tubes in parallel. Plan brace. A brace in a horizontal plane. Prop tie. An assembly of telescopic props and/or scaffold tube jacked or wedged between the floors of a storey inside a building and including a tie tube. Puncheon. A vertical tube supported al its lower end by another scaffold tube or beam and not by the ground or on a deck, Purlin. A tube secured to the ratters of a building and parallel to the ridge for the purpose of attaching the roof covering and te act as a top chord stiffener for the rafter beams. Push/pull tie. A tie which acts to prevent the scaffold moving either towards or away from the building, eg, 2 reveal tie, a box tie, a double lip tie, a bolted tie with a tie tube Putlog, A tube with a blade or flattened end, to rest in‘or on part of the brickwork or structure Putlog adaptor. A fitling to provide a putlog blade on the end of scaffold tube.Putlog coupler. A coupler used for fixing a putlog or transom taaledger, or to connect a tube used only as a guardrail to @ standard Rafter and rafter beam. A transverse tube, beam or truss in a building spanning across a roof or fram the eaves to the ridge Raker. An inclined load-bearing tube. Retaining bar. A strip or device fixed across the top of the decking to hold it down Retaining boards. See brick-guard Reveal screw pin. A fitting used for tightening a reveal tube between two opposing surfaces, Reveal tie. the assembly of a reveal tube with wedges or screwed fittings, and pads, if required, fixed between opposing faces of an opening in a wall together with the tie tube, Reveal tube. A tube fixed by means of a threaded fitting or by wedging between two opposing surfaces of a structure, eg. between two window reveals, to form an ancher to which the scaffolding may be tied Right angle coupler. A coupler used to join tubes at right angles. Rise.The vertical distance between two steps of a stair. Roofing clip or sheeting clip. A fitting for fixing roof or wall sheeting to tubes in structures without the need for holes in the sheeting Scaffold, A temporary structure which provides access, or from which persons work, of which is used to support materials, plant or equipment. Scaffold board. A softwood board combined with others to form access, working platforms and generally used for protective components such as toeboards an a scaffold. Scaffold - free-standing. A scaffold which is not attached to any other structure but is stable in itself or, if necessary, stabilised by rakers and/or anchors Scaffold - independent tied, Ascaf- fold which has two lines of standards, one line supparting the outside of the deck and one the inside, The transoms are not built into the wall of the building. It is not free-standing, but relies on the building for stability Scaffold - putlog. A scaffold which has one line of standards to support the outside edge of the deck and utilizes the wall being built or the building to support the inside edge. Scaffold - slung.A scaffold hanging ‘on tubes, ropes or chains from a structure overhead. It is not capable ‘of being moved or lowered Scaffold - suspended, A scaffold hanging of ropes wéiich 1s capable of being raised and lowered 133Sheeting, Horizontal, vertical or inclined sheets of material, such as corrugated metal or plastic sheet, attached to a scaffold in order to provide protection from the effects of weather or alternatively to protect the surrounding area from the affects of works being carried out from the scaffold structure_ Sheeting hook. A threaded red hook with @ washer and a nut used for attaching sheeting to tubes. Sheeting rail. 4 horizontal tube fixed fo the verticals of a scaffold to support the sheeting, Sill. See sole plate, Skirt. A short portion of vertical sheeting usually adjacent te the edge of a roof to give extra pratection tothe area enclosed immediately under the root Sleeve coupler. An external coupler used to join one tube to another coaxially Sole plate. A timber, conctete or metal spreader used to distribute the load from a standard or base plate to the ground Spigot, An internal fitting to joinone tube to another coaxially (see joint pin). Spigot - expanding, A device designed to expand and grip the Inside of a tube Used for joining tubes Spigot pin, Apin placed transversely through the spigot and the scaffold tube to prevent the two from coming apart 134 Spine beam. A longitudinal main beam spanning from end to end of a roof at the ridge or eaves. Standard. A vertical ar near vertical tube. Standards - pair of, The standards forming the frame at right angles to the building Supplementary coupler. Coupler(st added to a jaint to back up the main coupler taking the load when the estimated laad on the joint is in excess of the safe working loadof the main coupler. ‘Sway transom. A transom extended inwards in contact with a reveal or the side of a column to prevent the scaffold maving sideways, Swivel coupler. A coupler used for joining tubes atan angle other thana right angle, Swivel finial coupler. A coupler to fix @ tube across the end of another in the same plane but at an angle, as the handrail to a staircase, Tension pin. See spigot pin Tie tube. A tube used to connect @ scaffold to an anchorage. Tie or tieassembly. The components attached to an anchorage or the building or framed around a part of it ‘er wedged or screwed into it, Used with a tie tube to secure the seatfold ta the structure Tie - bolted. An assembly of nuts, bolts, anchors, rings or tubes fixed to. the surface of a building.Tie - box. An assembly of tubes and couplers forming a tie for the scaffold by enclosing a feature such as a column. Tie - double lip, A lip tie which is a push/pull tie, ie. has a cross tube on the back and front of the wall. Tie - lip. An assembly of tubes forming an L or J shaped hook round part of a building Tie - movable. A tie which may be temporarily moved for the execution of work Tie - prop. An assembly of telescopic props and/or scaffold tube jacked or wedged between the floars of a storey inside a building and including a tie tube Tie - push/pull. A tie which acts to prevent the scaffold maving either towards or away from the building, eg. @ reveal tie, @ box tie, a double lip tie, a bolted tie with a tie tube. Tie - reveal, The assembly of a reveal tube with wedges or screwed fittings, and pads, if required, fixed between opposing faces of an opening in a wall together with the te tube Tie - through. A tie assembly through a window or ather opening in a wall Tie - wire or band. An assembly of a fing anchor and wire or steel banding used to tie the scaffold to the building. Toeboard. An upstand normally at the outer edge of a platform intended td prevent materiais or operatives’ feet from slipping off the platform Toeboard - end. A toeboard at the end of a scaffold or at the end of a boarded portion of it Toeboard clip. A clip used for attaching toeboards to tubes. Toeboard - end clip. A similardevice to the taeboard clip fer use on end toeboards. Transom. A tube to connect the outer standards to the inner standards or spanning acrass ledgers to form the support for boards of units forming the working platform. Transoms - butting. A transom extended inwards tobutt the building to prevent the scaffolding moving towards the building Transom - needle. A transom extended from or into a building Transom - sway. A transom extended inwards in contact with a reveal or the side of a column to prevent the scaffold moving sideways. Vertical bridle, A vertical tube performing the same function as a bridle. Width, The width of a scaffold measured at right angles to the ledgers from centre to centre of the upright. Sometimes designated by the number of boards, within the uprights and the number beyond the uprights on extended transoms Working platform. The deck from which building operations -are carried out, 135INDEX Access — ro Working platform = unauthorised ~ toindependent scaffold ~ tower scaffolds Anchors and guys — tower scaffolds Base lift Base plate Basic scaffold requirements Birdcage scaffold - construction and use ~ scaffold requirements bracing foundations tying and butting ~ erection sequence Boards thicknesses identification inspection and maintenance common faults Storage Board bearers Boarded lifts Braces ~ independent scaffold putlog scattold birdcage scaffold tower scaffolds Bridle tube BS 5973 - Tables 1, 2,3 Checklists ~ scaffold nes public hazards ~ fans 39 47 92 115 115 1,19 105 106 106 106 106 108 18 15 15 16 16 35 92 98 107 16 98 12 33 82 a7 ~ independent scaffold ~ putlog scaffotd ~ birdeage scaffeld ~ tower scaffold Clove hitch Common scaffolding terms Couplers right angle - putlog swivel inspection and maintenance Critical ties Cross brace Decking — of working platforms ~ of fans Distributed loads Dog leg brace Erection sequence independent scaffold putlog scaffold ~ birdcage — towers — system scaffolds Facade brace Fans ~ protective types of design and construction general constru requirements n decking Figure of eight knot First lift Foot tie 93 103 2 Ws 64 Ww wv W 18 at 35 86 12 94 101 108 119 124 a3 83 84 86 86 64Foundations — basic rules heavy duty pavernent ~ sloping ground birdcage scaffold ~ towers ~ systems scatfold Guardrails and toeboards Gangways and runs Gin wheel Glossary of terms Handballing Independant tied scaffold ~ uses and loading ~ access ~ ereetion sequence Inspection Internal joint pin Intermediate transom Joints - staggered Kicker lift Kinetic lifting Knots and hitches Ladders - types inspection rrying ~ erecting and lowering - lashings and ties use of ~ pare and storage Ledgers Ledger brace Ledger spacing Lift height 138 6.19 a 23 24, 108 114 124 38 40 68 129 66 91 at 94 W 1.9 4.8 48 64 4 a 42 42 45 46 47 Reo Loads on scaffolds Main transom Manual lifting and handling Materials ~ raising and lowering Obstacles — overcoming Organisation ~ efficient working methods Pavement foundations Platform width Protective fans Public hazards Putlogs and transoms Putlog couplers Putlog scaffold ~ construction and use ~ ties — bracing ~ common hazards ~ erection sequence Rakers Replacing ties Right angle coupler Rolling hitch Ropes - types - careand use ~ storage ~ inspection Safety ~ general considerations Safety at work Scaffold couplers Seaffold frame Sleeve coupler 11,12 48 5,13 86 76 nm 23 3? 83 80 a7 97 o7 98 100 101 30 32 17 64 61 62 62 63 82 128Sloping ground ~ foundations Soil compaction Sole board Sole plates Spacing ~ of standards of ledgers Span of boards Spigot Split joint pin Square lashing Staggered joints Standards Sway brace Swivel coupler System scaffolds - commion types ~ erection methods “Throwing up’ fittings Ties ~ general rules - number and position ~ types = ‘through’ ~ ‘box’ = lip ~ serew ar anchor ~ reveal ~ critical ~ replacement of ~ checklist Timber hitch Toeboards Tower cranes - use in scaffolding 24 20 124 124 74 9 25 25 26 26 27 28 28 29 31 32 33 65 38 70 Tower scaffolds ~ foundation ~ stability = anchors and guys castors (wheels) ~ ladder access - construction and use = working platform ~ erection sequence ‘Transoms = distance apart Tubes specification repair of ~ inspection ~ common faults ~ storage Two half hitches Width of scaffold of working platform Working platform maximum number width boarding out access to ~ putlog scaffold - independent seaffold birdeage scaffold tower scaffold Zig-zag brace 113 114 114 115 115 118 116 116 119 107 116 2,10 139