LITERATUTR REVIEW:

THE construct of body image has been defined as a multidimensional attitude toward one’s body that
includes perceptual, affective, and cognitive components (Cash, Ancis, & Strachan, 1997), but the
current emphasis of researchers on body image is on shape, weight, and the degree to which individuals
are satisfied with their appearance. Concerns about body image represent a source of distress for a
majority of American women. Studies have revealed that approximately 50% of young women are highly
dissatisfied with their current physical appearance (Vartanian, Giant, & Passino, 2001), and this body
dissatisfaction is also evident in older women (Allaz, Bernstein, Rouget, Archinard, & Morabia, 1998;
Lewis & Cachelin, 2001; Pliner, Chaiken, & Flett, 1990; Webster & Tiggemann, 2003). In fact, the
prevalence of body dissatisfaction has become so prominent that some researchers have termed it “a
normative discontent” (Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1985, p. 267).

As body image disturbance is strongly associated with adolescent mental and physical health, many
researchers suggest that a population-based approach to the prevention of eating problems and the
improvement of adolescent body image is well founded. Such studies adequately confirm the existence
of the relationship between poor body image and eating problems.

Eating disorders, including anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), binge eating disorder (BED) and
eating disorders otherwise not specified (EDNOS) are major and serious health problems related to body
image disturbance amongst adolescents (Thompson & Smolak, 2002). In Western countries, the rates of
AN and BN amongst young females are reported to be 0.3% and 1%, respectively, in the general
population (Howk & van Hoken, 2003). Although eating disorders have been previously regarded as
peculiar to Western society, they are now considered a more global issue with some researchers
recently confirming that non-Western countries including Japan, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the Republic
of Korea and Singapore (Keel & Klump, 2003) have increasing rates of eating disorders (Mellor et al.,
2009).

As the etiology of eating disorders is strongly related to societal norms, culture and ethnicity (Keel &
Klump, 2003), their study requires an understanding of the issues around body image disturbance within
different cultural contexts.

Unhealthy dieting behaviors appear to start in Japan in early adolescence. Some research has shown
that around 20% of 10 years old girls and boys had already undertaken dieting experiences (Kaneko,
Kiriike, Ikenaga, Miyawaki, & Yamagami, 1999; Suka et al., 2006). The rates for adolescents who had
undertaken dieting behaviors also increased as they got older (Kaneko et al., 1999). Some studies have
investigated unhealthy eating behaviors.

Mukai et al. (1994) pointed out that 60% of female participants admitted to having at least sometimes
engaged in a binge eating and 15% of them answered that they vomit occasionally. Nakamura et al.
(1999) showed that from a sample of 406 participants, 42.4% had dieting experiences and 5.9% had
fasting experiences. In regard to the use of laxatives, diet pills and diuretics, 14.3%, 10.3%, 3.7% of them,
respectively, have used these ways to lose weight (Nakamura et al., 1999).
Obesity in Japan as an influence on body image and eating disorders Obesity is one of the most
prominent and popular issues in the media in developed societies and the issue also receives a lot of
attention in Japan. Binge eating disorder may account for a significant proportion of obesity cases and
hence, obesity is considered a potential risk factor for acquiring eating disorders and vice versa (Darby,
Hay, Mond, Rodgers, & Owen, 2007). Dieting is known to predict weight gain in teenaged girls
(Neumark-Sztainer, Wall, Haines, Story, & Eisenberg, 2007).

According to the National Health and Nutrition Survey in Japan (2007), amongst Japanese populations
aged over 20 years, the rate of obesity in males and females was 30.4 and 20.2, respectively. Comparing
this to the rate of 20 years prior, the rate of obesity particularly in the male population has increased
significantly (Ministry of Health Labour and Welfare, 2008). This trend may place an added focus upon
weight issues and may precipitate or worsen body image concerns and the tendency towards eating
disorders.

The salience of body dissatisfaction in women, regardless of age, has a number of potentially negative
consequences. Studies have indicated that body image is highly correlated with one’s overall self-
concept in both men and women (Stowers & Durm, 1996; Webster & Tiggemann, 2003), and a negative
body image has been associated with low self-esteem (Corning, Krumm, & Smitham, 2006; Green &
Pritchard, 2003). Negative body image and body dissatisfaction have been implicated as risk factors for
various forms of psychopathology, including depression, anxiety, and disordered eating (Forman &
Davis, 2005; Jaeger et al., 2001; Klemchuck, Hutchinson, & Frank, 1990; Tylka, 2004; Woodside & Staab,
2006).

Despite the fact that a negative body image represents a considerable risk factor for a number of
psychological difficulties, there has been relatively little research examining the impact and course of
body image attitudes across the life span. Although it appears that body dissatisfaction is common in
adult women, the bulk of the current research has focused on college-aged individuals (Clarke, 2001;
Pliner et al., 1990; Reboussin et al., 2000).

Body image and body dissatisfaction are important aspects of the self that have been shown to
contribute to the development of eating disorders (Jarry, 1998; Rosen, 1990). In fact, body image
disturbance, including, in particular, body dissatisfaction and desire for thinness, is one criterion for the
diagnosis of eating disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Striegel-Moore, Franco,
Thompson, Barton, Schreiber, & Daniels, 2004). Although eating disorders have been highly researched
over the past several decades, the vast majority of research has focused on adolescent and college-aged
women. Males and older adults essentially have been ignored when examining the etiology and course
of these disorders (Braun, Sunday, Huang, & Halmi, 1999).

The literature consistently shows that women experience high levels of body dissatisfaction, that this
body dissatisfaction persists across the life span, and that women continually report more body
dissatisfaction than men. Interestingly, while body dissatisfaction appears stable, the importance placed
on physical appearance tends to decrease over time.
For Asian women (and other women of color), body image appears to be influenced by physical
characteristics of skin color, facial features, hair, etc. that signal racial differences from their white
sisters. Asian women see many physical disparities between white women and themselves in addition to
weight and size. This comparison may lead to “feelings of inferiority” (Arkoff & Weaver, 1966), self-
hatred (Fujitomi & Wong, 1973), and racial self-hate (Sue & Sue, 1971).

Social, economic, and vocational opportunities may also affect the rate of eating disorders. It is
predicted that as these opportunities increase in ethnic populations, the rate of anorexia nervosa will
also increase (Root, 1990).

Women representing ethnic minorities are reportedly less susceptible to developing eating disorders
compared to white women in Western industrialized societies (Dolan, 1991; Gordon, 1988; Schwartz,
Thompson, & Johnson, 1982). The prevalence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa is reportedly rare
among young black females in the United States (Andersen & Hay, 1985; Dolan, 1991; Gray, Ford, &
Kelly, 1987; Hsu, 1987; Pumariega, Edwards, & Mitchell, 1984).

The findings of the present study regarding restrictive dietary behavior and attitudes about body image
as related to negative psychological dispositions (anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem) may be
understood in terms of theories linking the development of eating disorders to traditional female
socialization and recent sex-role changes in society (Bruch, 1985; Boskind-White & White, 1983; Timko,
Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, & Rodin, 1987).

The psychological adjustment of high school boys and girls who were trying to reduce or gain weight was
compared in a large sample. Reducers of both sexes and male gainers exhibited lower physical self-
esteem. Girls who were trying to change weight in either direction showed depression and lower global
self-esteem, but male reducers and gainers did not differ on these measures. Restraint Scale scores for
girls were predicted by body image, weight variables, depression, and social anxiety; restraint for boys
was predicted by body image and weight variables only. Thus, the psychological correlates of weight-
changing efforts are more extensive in girls. The adolescent's decision to gain or lose weight may be
brought on by his or her psychological adjustment as well as by the prevailing social pressure.
Alternately, a weight-change attempt may be a risk factor for psychopathology, especially for girls.

Weight reduction attempts by adolescents are significant tiecause they may be a risk factor for eating
disorders or other harmful dietary patterns (Moore-Striegel, Silberstein, & Rodin. 1986; Polivy &
Herman, 1985). Anorexia nervosa and bulimia patients have reported in case histories that the
symptoms of their eating disorders of late adolescence or early adulthood, including the use of drastic
weight-loss methods such as fasting or purging, occurred soon after they experimented with dieting in
high school (Dally & Gomez, 1979; Fairburn & Cooper, 1982; Hawkins & Clement, 1980; Johnson,
Stuckcy, Lewis, & Schwartz, 1982; Mitchell, Hatsukami, Eckert, & Pyle, 1985; Polivy & Herman, 1985;
Pyle, Mitchell, & Eckert, 1981).
Negative physical self-esteem, female weight gainers exhibited negative psychological adjustment, as
evidenced by depression and global self-esteem, that matched that of the female weight losers indicates
that weight concern is having a significant impact on female teenagers.

References:

Chisuwa, N., & O’Dea, J. A. (2010). Body image and eating disorders amongst Japanese adolescents. A
review of the literature. Appetite, 54(1), 5-15.

Peat, C. M., Peyerl, N. L., & Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2008). Body image and eating disorders in older adults:
a review. The Journal of general psychology, 135(4), 343-358.

Hall, C. C. I. (1995). Asian eyes: Body image and eating disorders of Asian and Asian American
women. Eating Disorders, 3(1), 8-19.

Abrams, K. K., Allen, L. R., & Gray, J. J. (1993). Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors, psychological
adjustment, and ethnic identity: A comparison of Black and White female college students. International
Journal of Eating Disorders, 14(1), 49-57.

Rosen, J. C., Gross, J., & Vara, L. (1987). Psychological adjustment of adolescents attempting to lose or
gain weight. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55(5), 742.

LINKS:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195666309006692

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3200/GENP.135.4.343-358

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10640269508249141

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/1098-108X(199307)14:1%3C49::AID-
EAT2260140107%3E3.0.CO;2-Z

https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1988-07214-001