CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Sudan is very rich in natural resources, a fact that has inevitably

made the country base its economy on agricultural and animal
production. Consequently, agriculture is considered the
backbone of the economy in the country. However, agricultural
production varies from year to year because many biotic and
abiotic factors that cause widespread of poverty and famine.
Statistics and economic analyses show that the agricultural
sector is pioneering in the country's economy (Eltoum, 2009). In
2002, the agriculture contributed about 45.5% of the total
national growth and 80% of the population depends on it. Of
Sudan's exports, 90% are agricultural products. The agricultural
sector has many opportunities and enormous resources that
make good bases for development and investment. Sudan is
named as one of three countries, with Australia and Canada, to
solve the problem of food insufficiency in the world. However,
its agricultural exports were estimated as only
106 thousand tons during 2062 (Eltoum, 2009).
The variations in climate and topography in Sudan created
agricultural conditions for the production of various types of
fruits including date palms, citruses, mangoes, guava, banana
etc. This large potential could supply both local and export
markets. Many types and cultivars of fruits can be produced
almost all the year round due to the climatic variations plus
available land and water. However,
horticultural crops represent about 12 % of the national
agricultural income. The estimated total annual fruit production
in Sudan is about 1.9 million tons in a cultivated area of about
186.000 ha. Fruit production in Sudan needs very little
agro-chemicals thus the fruits are relatively free of chemical
residues which if
certified could give a comparative edge and a competitive
advantage in
international markets (Elbashir and imam, 2010). In recent
years, fruit production is greatly hampered by fruit flies
worldwide with a loss above 30%. Also, the loss of fruit
production in many African countries was estimated between 30
— 80 %; however it reached about 100% during outbreak years
(Mohamed, 2003). In additional to causing direct losses in the
yield and marketability, they pose as significant threats to
quarantine security and thus to international trade in fruits and
fresh vegetables worldwide (El-Aw et al., 2008). Sudan, like
some other African countries was facing a large problem with
fruit flies during the last few years. In Sudan, nearly 40 fruit fly
species were recorded; the most serious ones are those attacking
mango (Mangifera indica), guava (Psidium guajava) and Citrus
spp. In recent years, fruit production has been seriously
hampered, mainly, because of the sudden and persistent
outbreaks of some fruit fly species (Ali et al., 2008). Ali et al.,
(2008) reviewed that, the fruit flies were firstly reported by
Venkatraman and Elkhidir in 1965 on egg plant, Solanum
melongena and guava Psidium
2

guajava. Ali, (1967) found fruit flies in P. guajava and Citrus sp.
Schmutterer, (1969) reported that, the family Tephritidae was
considered the fourth group of insect pests causing serious
damage to fruits in Sudan. Siddig, (1984) and Arop, (1990)
mentioned that, medfly Ceratitis capitata is the major pest of
guava. According to Beije (1996) the main species of fruit flies
found in Kassala and Gash delta were Dacus spp. on melons,
and C. capitata and C. cosyra on guava and mango. Also, Abdel
Aziz (1996) stated that, Dacus ciliatus was the major problem
facing production and export of melon in Gash and Tokar deltas
in Eastern Sudan. Abbas (1998) reported that, the population
abundance of medfly has two peaks in autumn (August and
September) and winter (January and Februray). Musa, (2005);
Bashir et al., (2006); Drew et al., (2005) and Ali, (2007)
revealed that, a new species Bactrocera invadens was reared
from mango, guava, citrus, papaya and banana fruits in Sudan.
In 2007, the damage due to fruit flies became so severe to the
extent that they were addect-to the list of the notorious national
pests of the Sudan (Abdelmagid et al., 2012a). Moreover, there
is no quarantine strategy and standing recommendation for the
control of fruit flies in Sudan, and insecticide spraying may not
be
encouraged because of the risk of fruit contamination
(Mohamed and Ali, 2008). Generally, B. invadens is a new fruit
fly species for which few scientific data are
available.
3

Justification of the study: Fruit production represents very

important sector for national income in Sudan. However, the
amount of marketable fruits for local market and export are
relatively low compared to the corresponding yield. More
recently, B. invadens has become the main constraint for mango
and guava production for both local and export markets. To our
knowledge, no information on the different aspects of B.
invadens in many faces (e.g., ecology, biology, population
dynamics and control methods)
are available in Sudan. Therefore, this study was conducted to
find out some information about biology, ecology, population
dynamics and control methods of B. invadens in Sudan.
Objectives of the study: 1- To monitor the population dynamics
of Bactrocera invadens, and the different factors (biotic and
abiotic factors) affecting its population during mango and guava
seasons at three study sites in Sudan. 2- To evaluate the present
status of B. invadens after application of control ° measures at
the study sites. 3- To determine the suitable method for fruit fly
control, and the effectiveness of ME application against B.
invadens.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. The Invasive

fruit fly Bactrocera invadens: 2.1.1. Classification: True fruit
flies belong to Diptera: Tephritidae (= Trypetidae, according to
European and early American authors), this family includes
more than 4000 species assigned to 500 genera. Approximately
250 of them are of economic importance and are associated with
fruits and vegetables (Mohamed and Taha, 2008; PHA, 2011).
The identification and bionomics of harmful and beneficial fruit
flies of economic importance has been monographed by White
and Elson- . Harris (1992). At present there is no generally
accepted higher classification of the family, but three
subfamilies are currently recognized: Dacinae, Trypetinae and
Tephritinae, each of which is divided into a number of sub
tribes. As such, illustrated keys for the identification of species
of economic significance are based on adult and larval
characters. Most species of Tephritidae which attack fruits
V
fi
belong to the genera: Anastrepha, Bactrocera, Ceratitis, Dacus
and Rhagoletis. The genus Bactrocera belongs to the subfamily
Dacinae, tribe Dacini, and it is the most economically
significant genus, with about 400 species which are considered
as important pests (Drew, 1989, 1994; White and Elson-Harris,
1992).

Drew et al., (2005) recorded that, a new species of Dacinae,

Bactrocera (Bactrocera) invadens from Sri Lanka and Africa is
described and illustrated. 2.1.2. Description of B. invadens:
According to Drew et al., (2005), Bactrocera invadens
(Appendix 1) is similar to Bactrocera (Bactrocera) dorsalis
(Hendel), from Southeast Asia, and Bactrocera (Bactrocera)
kandiensis (Drew and Hancock), from Sri Lanka, in possessing
a very narrow costal band and anal streak, scutum black,
parallel-sided lateral postsutural vittae and abdominal tergites 3
— 5 with a dark 'T' pattern and narrow dark lateral markings on
all three terga (Appendix 1). It differs from both species in
having the scutum base colour dark orange-brown with a dark
fuscous to black lanceolate pattern, from B. dorsalis in having a
longer aedeagus and narrow lateral postsutural vittae, and from
B. kandiensis in having femora entirely fulvous. A further
differentiating character is in the basal area of cell br, above cell
bm. B.
invadens and B. dorsalis have a bare colourless area adjacent to
cell bm
approximately one half the length of this cell, compared with B.
kandiensis that has a larger area that is also much paler fuscous.
In addition, B. dorsalis differs from B. invadens and B.
kandiensis in never having the dark transverse band across
tergite 3 broadly reaching tergite 4, and the dark anterolateral
band on tergite 5 is rarely extended as far mesally. Moreover, B.
invadens has postprontal lobe yellow (Appendix 1).
6

2.1.3. Distribution and Host Plants: The family Tephritidae is

represented in all the continent regions but the major pest genera
have a limited natural distribution (Drew, 1989). B. invadens is
believed to have invaded Africa from the Indian subcontinent
and was discovered in Sri Lanka after it was first reported from
Africa, where it has become a significant pest of quarantine and
economic importance. The insect is rapidly spreading across
tropical Africa and in addition to Kenya; it is now reported from
28 other African countries, including the Comoros Islands
(Appendix No. 1). Within 2 years of its detection in East Africa,
it has been reported from several countries throughout the
African continent. Besides being a good disperser, it also
appears to be an aggressive invader dominating several of the
indigenous pest species (Mwatawala et pl., 2006). Generally,
fruit flies are polyphagous with host plants sum as apple,
banana, citrus, cucurbit, date palm, eggplant, guava, mango,
okra, papaya, peach and tomato (Averill, 1996). Although B.
invadens has now been reported from 30 plant species, its
primary host is currently mango (Ekesi et al., 2009).
2.1.4. Biology: In the typical development cycle, adult fruit fly
females insert their eggs beneath
the skin of suitable hosts, especially in ripening and ripe fruits
and vegetables (Christenson and Foote, 1960). The eggs are laid
singly or in clusters. Generally, eggs of fruit fly species are
probably similar i.e. 0.8 mm long, 0.2 mm wide and
7

white to yellow-white in colour. The eggs hatch after 2 — 8

days according to temperature (Rahman et al., 1993). Moreover,
some species such as Ceratitis capitata have been shown to use
the oviposition deterrent pheromone to single their co-specifics
that the fruit is already attached (Averill and Prokopy, 1989).
The larvae shed their skins twice as they feed and grow. At
completion of the third instar, the larval skin hardens to form a
puparium with an inactive fourth—instar larva inside.
Eventually the larva within the puparium sheds its skin, forming
a pupa. However, they pass through three larval instars within 9
— 25 days, after which they drop into the soil to a depth of
about 5 cm, according to soil type. After the few days to a week
or more required for-attainment of sexual maturity after the
adult emerges, mating occurs, and a new cycle is begun
(Christenson and Foote, 1960). Alziber, (2011) revealed that, the
pre-oviposition period of B. invadens was 2 days. Immature
stages take about 20 days to reach the adult stage and the egg
hatching after 1 — 2 days. Also, the sex ratio 1Ns 4:-1 female to
male and adult longevity for B. invadens about 2- 8 weeks.

2.1.5. Damage and economic importance: About 70 species of

fruit flies are considered important agricultural pests and many
others are minor or potential pests (White and Elson-Harris,
1992). Fruit flies can
act as a biological control agent of different weed species of the
family Asteraceae. This was attributed to the phytophagous
habits of the larvae of many species of Tephritidae which inflict
heavy losses on fruit and vegetable crops. The economic effects
of any pest species include not only direct loss on yield and
increased control costs, but also the loss of export markets
and/or the cost of constructing and maintaining fruit treatment
and eradication facilities. In many countries, the exportation of
most commercial fruits is severely restricted by quarantine laws
to prevent the spread of fruit fly species. The cost of living with
an established infestation of C.capitata or several other major
fruit flies in California has been estimated as hundred millions
of dollars annually (Jackson and Lee, 1985). The
real pest status of flies within the B. dorsalis complex remains
ambiguous. There is
no doubt that in particular localities, and on selected crops,
complex species such as B. dorsalis, B. papayae, B. invadens
(Drew et al., 2005) and others cause major loss. There is also no
ambiguity about the fact that the presence of even one of the
pest species from the complex in a country or region can
dramatically impact the freedom of market access (Clarke et al.,
2005).
9

According to Lux et al., (2003) nearly 1.9 million tons of

mangoes are produced annually in Africa. About 40% of the
harvest is lost due to fruit flies. Fruit infestation rates vary
among countries and seasons, ranging from 5 — 100%. Other
factors such as the strict quarantine and the maximum residue
levels set by the European Union are affecting the production
and export of fresh mangoes from Africa. Also, Ekesi et al.,
(2006) mentioned that, the level of infestation varied with
location ranging from 3.0 — 972 flies per kg of fruits. There
was a significant inverse relationship between numbers of flies
per kg of fruit and elevation at which fruit was collected,
suggesting that B. invadens is a predominantly lowland pest.
In Sudan, mango is leading the horticultural exports. Although
mango production is more than 600,000 tons, only 6000 tons are
exported in the best cases. This is only 1% of the total
production (Elgozuli, 2008). The level of infestation in Sudan
varied with location ranging from 26 — 207.3 flies per kg of
fruit (Mardi, 2008). Infestation exceeded 80% in some of the
seriously infested areas. In the River Nile
State, the damage to mango and guava was estimated to range
from 85
Also, the percentage of damage due to fruit flies infestation
reached 70
guava in the Northern State (Gubara and Abu Elgasim, 2004).
10

2.1.6. Population Dynamics: The seasonal and annual

population dynamics of B. invadens was studied from October
2005 to January 2007 in Kenya. Multilure traps baited with 2%
Nulure and regular fruit collections- were used in fruit fly
population monitoring in targeted orchards. Peak population of
B. invadens was found to coincide with mango fruiting and
maturity in the field and availability of mango fruits was the
most important factor governing population increase of this pest.
The highest captures of fruit fly species during the season and
throughout the year was of B. invadens which always
significantly exceeded that of the native fruit fly Ceratitis cosyra
in abundance from both trap catches and fruit rearing. These
results suggested that a competitive displacement of the native
species was taking place gradually (Rwomushana, et al., 2008).
2.2. Determinants of Abundance:
Many factors, both biological and ecological, can influence the
endemic
distribution and demography of fruit fly populations by directly
or indirectly affecting survival and development rates of
different life stages and the fecundity of females. The most
important factors appear to be temperature, moisture,
availability of hosts, natural enemies and competition may also
be important in some circumstances (Fletcher, 1987).
11

2.2.1. Influence of Ecological factors on the fruit flies: A great

deal of information on the ecology of tephritids has accumulated
over the years, but most of it is scattered and fragmentary.
Investigations aimed at the
systematic assembly of quantitative and qualitative information,
leading to an understanding of the determinants of abundance of
populations of fruit flies, have been surprisingly rare. And yet
this is the kind of information which will be essential for the
application of pest management procedures (Bateman, 1972).
2.2.1.1. Influence of Weather Factors on the fruit flies:
The development of the immature stages, of tephritids is
possible under a temperature range between 10° to 30° C. A
temperature of 45° C is the upper limit for a few hours of
survival of all stages of flies (Bess and Harmamoto, 1969). The
role of temperature as a detetininant of abundance in tephritids
is mediated either directly through its effect on rates of
development, mortality and fecundity (Clark, 1957). Prokopy
(1978) stated that, the egg laying is usually restricted to a few
weeks in summer.
According to Bateman (1972), the moisture i5 an important
factor for the determination of abundance of tephritids and there
is a high correlation between the availability of moisture as
measured by rainfall and the peak number achieved each year.
However, Vargas et al., (1983) found a negative correlation
between
12

total monthly rainfall and number of Ceratitis capitata. Bateman

(1972) also stated that, tephritids were rarely found in extreme
dry parts of the world. This might be due to a limitation on the
distribution of their host plants, rather than on the capacity for
physiological adaptation. The study by Nelson (1964) showed
that, the survival rate of pupae at a relative humidity of 60 %
and below was virtually zero. On the other hand, Shoukry and
Hafiz (1969) reported that the effect of RH on the pupal
duration had no significance. However, the percentage of adult
emergence was found to be high at 60 % and low at 30 % RH.
According to Pena et al. (1998), the pupal period of B. dorsalis
in India was longest (18 days) at 15° C and shortest (6 days) at
35° C. Warm, humid weather is considered to be favorable for
Bactrocera fruit flies but populations decrease during dry
periods and pest populations build up as mango ripening occurs.
2.2.1.1.1. Influence of Weather Factors in Guava Orchards:
Shukla and Prasad (1985) reported•4:hat:the peak trap catches of
B. dorsalis had significant correlation with temperature and
relative humidity. They noticed a negative correlation between
weekly rainfall and B. dorsalis captures and a negative
correlation with average number of day light hours. A low
negative correlation was observed With weekly wind velocity.
Makhmoor and Singh (1998) reported that, temperature had a
negative correlation while relative humidity and
13

rainfall had a positive correlation with the population of B.

dorsalis. A significant positive correlation was observed between
trap catches of B. dorsalis and B. zonata with maximum and
minimum temperature (Gupta and Bhatia, 2000). Jalaluddin et
a l. (2001) observed a significant correlation betWeen the
population of B. correcta and mean maximum temperature,
minimum temperature, day degrees, morning relative humidity
and rainfall and a low negative correlation with weekly mean
sunshine hours. Sarada et al. (2001) found that, the fruit fly
incidence had significant positive correlation with maximum
temperature and non-significant and positive correlation with
minimum temperature at Tirupati. At Dharwad trap, captures
of B. zonata and B. correcta had significant positive
correlation with maximum temperature, and'a highly significant
negative correlation with morning relative humidity. At
Kumbapur, both the species had positive correlation with
maximum temperature and relative humidity (Viraktamath
and Suresh Babu, 2004). According to Rajitha and Viraktamath
(2006) B. dorsalis had significant positive correlation with
minimum temperature and morning and afternoon relative
humidity. It had significant negative correlation with maximum
temperature. Trap captures of B. zonata showed a highly
significant positive correlation with maximum temperature.

2.2.1.1.2. Influence of Weather Factors in Mango Orchards:

Bagle and Prasad (1983) reported a significant positive

correlation between weekly trap catches of B. dorsalis and
maximum temperature and a negative correlation with relative
humidity, rainfall and wind velocity. Similarly, Agarwal et al.
(1995) also observed a significant positive correlation between
trap catches of B. dorsalis and maximum and minimum
temperature. The population of B. correcta was positively
correlated with maximum and minimum temperature, whereas,
rainfall, sunshine hours and relative humidity had no
significant effect on population variation (Sushilkumar et al.,
1997). Verghese and Sudhadevi (1998) reported a significant
positive correlation of the trap catches of B. dorsalis with
minimum temperature and wind speed. Agarwal and Kumar
(1999) obtained a positive correlation between trap catches
of B. zonata and maximum temperature, minimum
temperature and rainfall and a negative correlation with
relative humidity. According to Madhura (2001), the
population of fruit flies showed a non-significant correlation
with maximum temperature during 1998 and a significant
negative correlation during 1999, and a significant positive
correlation during 2000. Relative humidity had a negative
correlation during 1998 and 2000, and a positive correlation
during 1999. According to Sarada et al. (2001) the fruit fly
population had positive correlation with minimum temperature
and rainfall,
 h reas with relative humidity it had negative correlation. The
w e

correlation was positive and non-significant with maximum

temperature. B. zonata and B. correcta had a significant positive
correlation with minimum temperature at Dharwad, while at
Kurnbapur the species had positive correlation with maximum
and minimum temperature (Suresh Babu and Viraktamath, 2003).
There was a highly significant positive correlation between trap
catches of B. dorsalis and minimum temperature, and morning
and afternoon relative humidity. B. correcta had a significant
positive correlation with minimum temperature while B. zonata
had a significant positive correlation with maximum temperature
(Rajitha and Viraktamath, 2006).

2.2.2. Interactio and Competition:

One of the most interesting of fruit fly relationships is the

competition between species (Christenson and Foote, 1960). The
introduction of species into a new area can alter successional
patterns, mutualistic relationships, community dynamics,
ecosystem function, and resource distribution (Mooney and
Cleland, 2001). Invasive species can also negatively impact
resident populations through ecological interactions such as
competition leading to displacement. Reitz and Trumble (2002)
defined competitive displacement as "the removal of a formerly
established species from a habitat through superior use,
acquisition or defense of resources by another species." This can
occur through many different facets that

are often broadly categorized as exploitative or interference in

nature. Competitive displacement is frequently difficult to
document under natural conditions, but it is occasionally
conspicuous when organisms invade a new continent or islands.
In general, opportunities to study the invasion process have
usually been missed because such community revolutions are
generally very swift and most research efforts are concentrated
on controlling the invading .pest. Several studies have however
tried to identify attributes of-invasive species, deter]. line
factors that govern their establishment and subsequent rate of
spread. In spite of the progress in these areas, predicting the
outcome of a particular invasion remains a daunting task (Ekesi
et al., 2009).

2.2.3. Microorganisms Associated with Fruit Flies:

Microbial pathogens, including fungi and bacteria, have

often been found associated with dead larvae and pupae, but it is
not always possible to determine if infection was the cause of
death,. (Fletcher, 1987). Fungi of genus Mucor was identified
as one of the major factors in larval and pupal mortality of fruit
flies. Significant mortality caused by microorganisms has also
been reported in many Dacus (=Bactrocera) species (Bateman,
1972 and Fletcher, 1987). One of the most interesting aspects of
dacinae biology is the role of bacteria in the nutrition and
survival of larvae and adults (Fletcher, 1987). Different Bacillus
species have been
isolated and commonly recognized as definite insect
pathogen. The most recognized species are: B. popilliae, B.
lentimorbus, B. larvae, B. thuringiensis and certain strains of B.
sphaericus (Obeidat, 2008).

2.3. Control Methods of Fruit flies:

There is no family of insect pests in which control measures are

as difficult as in the Tephritidae. In many cases, the study of
the biology of the insect has offered some clues for its effective
control. Some weak links in the life history of the pest is
discovered and this is exploited by economic entomologists.
Here, however, the study of the biology of the pest offers no
effective clues as the larvae live in fruits, vegetables, nuts, or in
the buds of the growing plants. The economic entomologist is
left with the only safe method of trapping adult flies, which is
ideally need to be carried out before they start laying eggs.
Based on the behavior of ovipositing females which they
normally seek protein source for egg maturation, protein food
baits have been developed to attract females , and a killing
agent is added to the bait to suppress the flies population

18
(Abdella, 2007). However, several control methods are used
against fruit flies worldwide such as: cultural, legislative,
biological, chemical control, sterile insect technique (SIT) and
IPM programmes.
23.1. Cultural Control:

The principal cultural control method used for controlling

fruit fly pest is field

sanitation. Sanitation involves destroying the source of the pest,

such as: hygiene measures of orchards, bagging - of infested
fruits with muslin bags, flooding of infested fields, early
harvesting and ploughing after harvest (Barsome, 1975; Liu
and Lee, 1987).

2.3.2. Legislative Control:

•
Quarantine laws aimed at preventing the entry and
establishment of flies in areas where they do not occur have
been established and are vigorously enforced. The United States
(US) Government has strict laws regulating the movement of
certain commodities to prevent the establishment of fruit flies
into the continental US. Also, the Japanese Government
restricts the entry of commodities attacked by these pests into
their country (Alziber, 2011).

2.3.3. Biological Control:

Biological control is the use of natural enemies to control pests.
Common natural enemies of fruit flies include predators, e.g. ants
and lizards, Opiine parasitoids and pathogens, e.g. Metarhizium
anisoplia, Beauveria bassiana and Bacillus spp. (Wharton,
1989; Ekesi et al., 2005). Although they can't always prevent
economic

damage, they are important for managing these pests. Often the
effectiveness of natural enemies is adversely affected by farming
practices such as the use of broad spectrum insecticides (Ekesi et
al., 2005).

2.3.4. Chemical Control:

Use of insecticides is only recommended as a last resort for

controlling adult population. Excessive or misuse of
insecticides may lead to environmental contamination and
toxic residues on and in the fruit; these may eliminate beneficial
insects such as pollinators and natural enemies and prompt
minor pests into becoming major pests (Abdella, 1997).
However, soil drenches with insecticides have been used as a
component of tephritid fruit fly eradication in the United
States and in California in particular (Stark and Vargas, 2009).
2.3.5. Sterile Insect Technique (SIT):

Sterile insect technique (SIT), is a more ecologically acceptable

control measure, but this approach is complicated and very
expensive (Bateman, 1972). The (SIT) relies on the release of
thousands of insects per unit area to reduce the reproductive
potential of a specific target pest. The release of insects is the
process by which sterile insects are delivered into a target area
to allow them to compete with their wild counterparts. The SIT
for fruit flies has developed in parallel for several pest

species in different countries and action programmes of

(SIT) were used successfully to eradicate fruit flies in several
parts of the world, early examples are the eradication of melon
fly from the Marina Island.. The most recent success is the large
eradication program in Okinawa, Japan, that has succeeds in
eradicating and declaring Japan free of B. dorsalis.
Moreover, SIT has been extensively investigated with 13
species of tephritids and its use is also supported by the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (Abdella, 2007
and Enkerlin, 2007).

2.3.6. Integrated Pest Management of fruit flies:

The use of some or all the previously mentioned measures

was adopted to minimize the pest population of Bactrocera
spp. in IPM programme (FAO, 2004). The effective IPM
methods used for controlling fruit flies are: bait application
technique (BAT) and male annihilation technique (MAT).
Both BAT and MAT attained control even on small and
medium sized farms (Stonehouse et al., 2002b).

2.3.6.1. Mass 'Taping:

r
Mass trapping has been given special consideration due the
availability of potent food, sex and visual attractants. A variety
of traps utilizing one or more of these attractants have been
developed and field-tested for the control of these pests as
follows: McPhail traps treated with chemosterilants; yellow
(visual attractant) sticky boards; yellow sticky boards with
food attractants; yellow sticky boards with
sex attractants, toxic (treated with insecticides) yellow boards;
toxic yellow boards with food and sex attractants and sticky
bottles with' food attractants. In all cases, various degrees of
crop protection was achieved, depending on a number of
parameters including: trap type, trap density and deployment,
attractant(s) and their formulation, insecticide used in toxic
traps and method of application, degree of orchard isolation,
size of the protected orchard, local environmental
(temperature and relative humidity), biological (pest population
density in the protected orchard, tree size, variety—fruit size,
fruit load), cultural (irrigation, pruning, soil fertilization),
and the number of years the method has been applied in the
same orchard. In cases of low efficacy of the method,
complementary measures, such as increasing trap density, or
bait or cover sprays, usually applied in spots with high pest
population densities, were required for acceptable crop
protection (Broumas et al., 2002).

2.3.6.2. Bait Application Technique (BAT):

Food baits based on protein solutions, fermenting sugar

solutions, fruit juices, and vinegar have been used since 1918
for the capture of adult fruit fly of several species (IAEA,
2003). Worldwide, the use of protein baits mixed with
insecticide, termed as the bait application technique (BAT), is
one of the main methods of fruit fly control. The technique
works on an attract and kill principle, whereby adult

flies (in particular females) in search of food (protein) to

mature sexually are attracted to the bait and are killed by an
insecticide mixed with the bait either upon contact or following
ingestion of the mixture. Such poisoned bait mixtures limit the
use of insecticide and at the same time increase efficacy of
control. Baits that have been found to be effective against fruit
flies are hydrolysed yeast or vegetable proteins. Poisoned baits
can be applied either as foliar sprays (aerial or ground) or in
discrete containers known as bait stations. Bait stations are
currently being used in some fruit fly management
programmes. The use of bait stations further limits the release
of insecticide in the environment as well as limiting insecticide
residues on fruits (Mangan and Moreno, 2007; Manrakhan and
Kotze, 2009).

2.3.6.3. Male Annihilation Tech(MAT):

MAT exploits the attraction of male fruit flies to Para-

pheromones (e.g. ME, Trimedlur etc.) to eradicate males so
that flies cannot reproduce. It involves even less expense of
insecticides and less threat to humans and non-target
organisms than BAT.

2.3.6.3.1 Methyl Eugenol (ME):

The first use of specific bait attractant for males of fruit

flies was (ME) for Bactrocera zonata in 1912 (IAEA, 2003).
Methyl Eugenol (ME) occurs naturally in more than 450 plant
species from 80 families (e.g. Canellaceae (Canella
winterana stems), Fabaceae (Acacia farnesiana), Lamiaceae
(Ocimum spp.) etc.) that grow mainly in the tropics and is a
fundamental nutrient of some Bactrocera spp. (Aluja and
Norrbom, 1999; Vayssieres et al., 2007; Tan and Nishida,
2012). Drew and Hooper (1981) reported more than 40 species
of tephritide responding to ME. In addition to being a powerful
fruit fly attractant, ME is commonly added to processed foods as
flavoring agent (e.g. jellies, chewing gum, relish and ice cream,
and as a fragrance in several cosmetic products)..

In order to control B. dorsalis complex, methyl eugenol (ME), a

highly potent male attractant, was extensively used with great
success especially in male annihilation programs (Steiner et al.,
1970). Recently, it was found that the consumption of ME
enhances the mating competitiveness of males (Hee and Tan,
1998). According to Chuang and Hou, (2008), the attract-and-
kill system containing ME incorporated with toxicants is
presently the most commonly used technology for field
monitoring and fruit fly control in Taiwan. Also,
Vayssieres et al. (2007) mentioned that, the MAT \has been
used successfully in eradicating several Bactrocera spp. such
as the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis from Rota and
Japan and the papaya fruit fly, Bactrocera papaya, from
Australia. It is also the current method used to eradicate
infestations of Bactrocera spp. in California and Florida.
The specific method of formulating and constructing bait
stations in each of these programs is individually tailored to
local conditionS and resources, but all consist of a mixture of
ME with toxicant and a carrier matrix in which it is applied.
The MAT bait stations that were used in French Guiana
were made of absorbent fiberboard blocks. These blocks were
soaked in a mixture of ME and ultra-low volume malathion
(96%) (3:1 vol/vol) and then hung by a wire in host trees
throughout the area in which the population had been
detected. The males, attracted by the ME, consume a small
portion of the mixture (although contact is sufficient) and are
killed by the malathion. Very high levels of male mortality (near
100%) are needed in MAT programs for an effective
reduction in the fruit fly infestation rate, requiring a thorough
distribution of the bait stations throughout the area (Vayssieres
et al., 2007).

2.4. Fruit Flies in Sudan with their damage and control from
2008 to 2012:

Mohamed and Ali, (2008); Mohamed and Taha, (2008);

mentioned that, homemade traps with methyl eugenol lure
were used to attract the adult males of B. invadens in Sudan.
Gubara et al. (2009) adopted that, the Para pheromone Trap
95% TC (methyl eugenol 95% TC) with 3 ml of mixture of
80% methyl eugenol and 20% of malathion 57% by volume
in a cotton wick (4 cm long X 1 cm diameter) was applied for
controlling the adult males of B. invadens in Sudan.

Elaraky et al. (2012) revealed that, the invasive fruit fly B.

invadens is the dominant species for the fruit trees in Gezira
State during period of 2008 to 2009. The guava fruits were
highly infested by B. invadens and C. cosyra than the mango
and banana fruits. Also, the infestation on guava fruits by B.
invadens, ranged between 78 — 100% and by C. cosyra,
ranged between 0 — 22%. However, the Mango infestation by
B. invadens ranged between 73.1-100%, whereas C. cosyra
ranged between 0-19.4 percent. The infestation on Banana
was found to be 80% and 19% by B. invadens and Drosophila
melanogaster, respectively.

Abdelmagid et al. (2012b) mentioned that, the fruit fly, B.

invadens has two peaks, in August and November, while the
C. cosyra and C. capitata have one peak in August and
November, respectively. Also, the seasonal activity of fruit flies
varies according to climatic factors and host range
availability. Moreover, weather factors, especially relative
humidity have significant contribution on fluctuation of fruit
flies populations and fruit infestation.

Abbas et al. (2012) reported that, the invasive fruit fly B.

invadens is present all year-round in Shendi area in Sudan,
with population peak at July to September during survey
period from May 2009 — July 20.10.

Salah et al. (2012) confirmed that, the peach fruit fly

Bactrocera zonata (Saunders)
is present and abundant in Wad Medani and Elkamlin
(Gezira State) and Singa
(Sinnar State). Also, the percentage of B. zonata ranged
between 4 and 82%, with B. invadens the rest of the sample.