The Cell & Molecules of Life (9744) Carbohydrates 2018

Carbohydrates

Describe the structure and properties of α glucose and β glucose monomers and the formation and the breakage of a glycosidic bond.
Carbohydrates: Cn (H2O)m
Monosaccharides: (CH2O)n Features

α glucose
Disaccharides: Cn(H2O)n-1
1. Have a free carbonyl (C=O) group hence are all reducing sugars. (Property of glucose)
2. Small size and have multiple hydroxyl (OH) groups and can form hydrogen bonds with water
hence readily soluble in water (Property of glucose) and easily transported in animal and
plant transport systems
3. Ring structures exhibit α- and β- isomerism (α – if OH grp at C1is below ring and on opposite
β glucose side of C6 and β – if OH grp at C1 is above ring and on same side as C6)
4. e.g. glucose, galactose and fructose
Features

1. Are made up of 2 monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond formed between two

monosaccharides by a condensation reaction that involves the loss of a water molecule
2. Can be split into their component monosaccharides is via hydrolysis reaction where, with the
addition of one molecule of water, the glycosidic bond can be broken
3. Have many hydroxyl groups which extend out of the ring
α glucose α 1-4 α glucose  form hydrogen bonds with water and hence are readily soluble in water and easily
glycosidic
bond transported in animal and plant transport systems
4. All are reducing sugars except sucrose
5. e.g. Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
Maltose (glucose + glucose)
Lactose (glucose + galactose)

Maltose

Compare the structures and properties of starch (amylose and amylopectin), glycogen and cellulose and explain how these are related to
their roles in plants and animals.
Polysaccharides:(C6H10O5)n are made up of many monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds formed between them by condensation
reactions which involve the loss of water molecules.
Point of Comparison Starch Glycogen Cellulose
Function Plant storage polysaccharide Animal storage polysaccharide Plant structural polysaccharide
Location Stored as granules in chloroplasts Stored in liver and muscle Cell walls of plant cells
cells
Monomer Made up of -glucose monomers Made up of -glucose Made up of β-glucose monomers
monomers
Bond between monomers In amylose: (1-4) glycosidic bond (1-4) glycosidic bond links β (1-4) glycosidic bond links
links monomers; monomers within a branch and monomers in a molecule
In amylopectin: (1-4) glycosidic bond (1-6) glycosidic bonds links
links monomers within a branch and (1- monomers at branch points
6) glycosidic bonds links monomers at
branch points
Orientation of monomer All glucose monomers in the chain have All glucose monomers in the Alternate β glucose monomers
the same orientation chain have the same rotated 180° with respect to each
orientation other
Structure of each molecule Amylose is a helical molecule while Helical and branched Long, straight chain
amylopectin is a helical and branched molecule, like amylopectin, but
molecule more extensively branched
Bonds between molecules No interchain hydrogen bonding No interchain hydrogen bonding OH groups projecting outwards in
both directions allow interchain
hydrogen bonding between parallel
chains  forming microfibrils

How the structures of starch and glycogen make them
good STORAGE molecules
1. Made up of many -glucose monomers that coil to
form helices
a. Hence is a large yet compact energy store as many
-glucose monomers can be packed per unit volume
b. Hence most OH groups are involved in
intramolecular hydrogen bonding within the helix
and few OH groups available for hydrogen bonding
with water.
Hence starch/glycogen is insoluble in water and the
Ψw of cells are unaffected by its presence. (Property
of starch/glycogen)
2. Amylopectin and glycogen are branched
a. Thus they have multiple branch ends which hydrolytic
enzymes can work on. Hence more glucose molecules
can be released at the same time and more ATP can
be generated by respiration per unit time.
How the structure of cellulose makes it a good
STRUCTURAL molecule
1. Adjacent glucose units are inverted 180 with respect to each other
and hence form a long, linear, unbranched molecule with free OH groups
projecting out in both directions which can hydrogen bond with OH groups of
other cellulose molecules lying parallel to it and form microfibrils.
Hence microfibrils have high tensile strength. (Property of cellulose)
2. As a macromolecule, cellulose has few OH groups available to hydrogen bond
with water as most are involved in interchain hydrogen bonding. Thus only the
surface of the microfibril has OH groups that can hydrogen bond with water.
Hence cellulose is insoluble in water and the Ψw of cells are unaffected by its
presence. (Property of cellulose)
3. The meshwork of microfibrils that form the cell wall
a. have a porous structure and hence the cell wall is freely permeable to water
and solutes and allows movement of substances across the cell wall.
b. Are strong and rigid and distributes stress in all directions to prevent the
plant cells from bursting due to osmotic stress.
4. Cellulases that hydrolyse cellulose are found in very few organisms. Thus
cellulose cannot be hydrolysed and used as a respiratory substrate and is a good
structural molecule.

Prepared by: Mrs Selvamani Nair & Mrs Wong SH Raffles Institution (Yr 5-6) 1
The Cell & Molecules of Life (9744) Carbohydrates 2018
Test Procedure Observations and Deduction
Benedict’s Test 1. Place 2 cm3 of test solution in a test tube. Presence of reducing sugar is indicated by formation of brick-red
for Reducing 2. Add equal volume of Benedict's reagent. precipitate.
Sugars 3. Shake the mixture.  colour of final suspension depends on amount of reducing sugar
4. Heat it by immersing the tube in boiling water bath for present (test is semi-quantitative)
3-4 minutes.  varies from green to yellow to brown to brick red

Test for Non- If a negative result for Benedict’s test is obtained for the Presence of non-reducing sugar indicated by:
Reducing test solution, then  A blue solution remains when Benedict’s test is first carried out.
Sugars 1. boil equal volume of test solution with dilute  After acid hydrolysis, Benedict’s test is carried out again
hydrochloric acid for about 1 minute to hydrolyse  colour of final suspension depends on amount of sugar
disaccharide to monosaccharides present
2. cool contents of tube.
3. neutralise acidic content with sodium bicarbonate *Both observations must be made to conclude presence of non-
solution. reducing sugars.
4. carry out Benedict's test for reducing sugar.
Iodine Test for 1. Add a few drops of iodine solution to 1 cm 3 of test Presence of starch is indicated by blue-black coloration.
Starch solution (or a piece of test specimen).
2. Observe any colour change.

(unbranched)

α glucose
(branched) monomer

α 1-6 glycosidic
bond at branch α 1-4 glycosidic
point bond within branch

α 1-6 glycosidic bond at branch

points
(extensively branched)

α 1-4
α glucose
glycosidic monomer
bond within
branch

(unbranched)

β 1-4 glycosidic bond

β glucose
monomer

Prepared by: Mrs Selvamani Nair & Mrs Wong SH Raffles Institution (Yr 5-6) 2