PLATE TECTONICS

-theory of moving lithospheric plates.

-the plates move very slowly but constantly, and this
movement is called tectonics.
-According to the plate tectonics model, the entire
lithosphere of the Earth is broken into numerous segments
called plates.

THREE TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

 Primary (P- waves), Secondary (S- waves) and Long
Surface waves (L- waves).
 The first two travel into the Earth’s interior while the A. DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
last one on the surface. These waves travel at different
velocities; thus, do not arrive at a seismic recording station at
the same time.
 The farther the recording instrument is from the focus,
the greater the difference in arrival times of the first P- wave
compared to the first S- waves.
 The difference in arrival time will tell us the distance
of the earthquake’s focus from the seismic recording station.

LOCATING THE EPICENTER OF AN EARTHQUAKE USING THE

TRIANGULATION METHOD
1. Obtain data from three different seismological situations.
2. Determine the difference in the arrival time of S and P
waves recorded from each of the seismological situations. B. CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
3. Determine the distance of the epicenter from the situation.
4. Use the triangulation method to locate the center.

TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

Type of Plate Relative Motion of Geologic Features/
Boundary the Plates Events Present
Divergent Moving away from Rift valleys, oceanic
each other ridges, earthquakes
Convergent Moving towards Mountains,
each other volcanoes, trenches
earthquakes
Transform Fault Sliding past each Earthquakes
other
C. TRANSORM FAULT BOUNDARY
OCEANIC- CONTINENTAL COVERGENCE
When oceanic crust
converges with continental
crust, the denser oceanic
plate plunges beneath the
continental plate.
This process,
called subduction, occurs at
the oceanic trenches. The
entire region is known as a
subduction zone. Subduction
zones have a lot of intense earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The
subducting plate causes melting in the mantle above the plate. The
magma rises and erupts, creating volcanoes. These coastal volcanic
mountains are found in a line above the subducting plate. The volcanoes
are known as a continental arc.
OCEANIIC-OCEANIC CONVERRGENCE
The features of a subduction
zone where an oceanic plate
subducts beneath another
oceanic plate are the same
as a continent-ocean
subduction zone. An ocean
trench marks the location
where the plate is pushed
down into the mantle. In this
case, the line of volcanoes
that grows on the upper
oceanic plate is an island arc.
CONTINENTAL- CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE
Continent-continent
convergence creates some
of the world’s largest
mountains ranges. Magma
cannot penetrate this thick
crust, so there are no
volcanoes, although the
magma stays in the crust.
Metamorphic rocks are
common because of the
stress the continental crust
experiences. With
enormous slabs of crust
smashing together,
continent-continent collisions bring on numerous and large earthquakes.
DIVERGENCE OF PLATES
Formation of rift valleys and oceanic ridges are indications that the crust is
spreading or splitting
apart. Most divergent
boundaries are situated
along underwater
mountain ranges called
oceanic ridges. As the
plates separate, new
materials from the
mantle ooze up to fill the
gap. These materials will slowly cool to produce new ocean floor. The spreading
rate bat these ridges may vary from 2 to 20 cm per year. Although a very slow
process, divergence of plates ensures a continuous supply of new materials
from the mantle. When a spreading center develops within a continent, the
crust may break into several segments. The breaking leads to the formation of
down valleys called rift valleys.
TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARY LAYERS OF THE EARTH
Transform Plate Boundaries are locations where two plates slide past one
another. The fracture zone that forms a
transform plate boundary is known as a
transform fault. Most transform faults are found
in the ocean basin and connect offsets in the
mid-ocean ridges. A smaller number connect
mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones.

SEISMIC WAVES
 Crust- thinnest and the outermost layer of the Earth. It is subdivided
-Earthquake is a vibration of the Earth produced by the rapid release of
into two regions: Continental Crust which is mainly made up of silicon,
energy most often because of the slippage along a fault in the Earth’s crust. This
oxygen, aluminum, calcium, sodium, and potassium, and the Oceanic
energy radiates in all directions from the focus in the form of waves called
Crust which is found under the ocean floor and is made of dense rock
seismic waves, which are recorded in seismic graphs.
such as basalt.
TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES  ELEMENT PERCENTAGE
1. Surface Waves- can only travel through the surface of the Earth. They arrive Oxygen 46.60
after the main P and S waves and are confined to the outer layers of the Earth. Silicon 27.72
a. Love Wave- is named after A.E.H. Love, a British Aluminum 8.13
mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for
this kind of wave in 1911. It is faster than Rayleigh wave and Iron 5.00
it moves the ground in a side-to-side horizontal motion. It Calcium 3.63
causes the most damage to structures during an earthquake. Sodium 2.83
b. Rayleigh Wave- is named after John William Strutt, Lord Potassium 2.59
Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this
kind of wave. It rolls along the ground just like a wave ro9lls Magnesium 2.09
across a lake or an ocean. It moves the ground either up and Titanium 0.40
down or side-to-side similar to the direction of the wave’s Hydrogen 0.14
movement. Mantle- makes up 80% of the Earth’s total volume and about 68% o its total
2. Body Waves- can travel through the Earth’s inner layers. They are used by the mass. It is mainly made up of silicate rocks, and contrary to common
scientists to study Earth’s interior. These bare of a higher frequency than the
belief, is solid, since both S-waves and P-waves pass through it.
surface waves.
a. P- wave (Primary wave)- also called compressional waves, is  Outer core- is 2900km below the Earth’s surface. It is 2250km thick and
a pulse energy that travels quickly through the earth and is made up of iron and nickel. Its temperature reaches up to 2000˚C at
through liquids. It travels faster than the S- wave. It reaches this very high temperature, iron and nickel melt.
a detector first after an earthquake. They travel through  Inner core- is made up of solid iron and nickel and has a radius of
solid, liquid, gas. 1300km. Its temperature reaches to about 5000˚C.
b. S- wave (Secondary wave)- is a pulse energy that travels
slower than a P- wave through Earth and solids. It moves as
shear or transverse waves, a force the ground back and forth
perpendicular to the direction of waves. It cannot travel to
liquids.

THE EARTH’S MECHANISM

The Continental Drift
 In 1912, Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, proposed
a theory that about 200 million years ago, the continents were
once a large mass called Pangaea, aa Greek word which means “All
Earth”.
Evidences to the Continental Drift Theory
 Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle- The most visible evidence
that these continents were once one is their shape. Their edges were
surprisingly matches the edge of another.
 Evidence from Fossils- Fossils are preserved remains or traces of
organisms from the remote past. Fossilized leaves of a n extinct plant
Glossopteris were found in 250 million years old rocks. These fossils
were located in the continents of Southern Africa, Australia, India and
Antarctica, which are now separated from each other by wide oceans.
Mesosaurus and Lystosaurus are freshwater reptiles which were
discovered in different continents as in South America and Africa.
 Evidence from Rocks- the rocks itself also provide evidence tat
continents drifted apart from each other.
 Coal Deposits- were formed from the compaction and decomposition of
swamp plants that lived million years ago.
The Seafloor Spreading
 In early 1960, scientists Harry Hess and Robert Dietz, suggested an
explanation to the continental drift which is the Sea Floor Spreading
Theory. According to this theory. hot, less dense material from below
the earth’s crust rises towards the surface at the mid- ocean ridge. This
material flows sideways carrying the seafloor away from the ridge, and
creates a crack in the crust. The magma flows out of the crack, cools
down and becomes the new seafloor.
Magnetic Rehearsal
 It is also called magnetic flip of the Earth. It happens when the North
Pole is transformed into a South Pole and the South Pole becomes the
North Pole. This is due to change in the direction of flow in the outer
core.,
Convection Current
 As a substance like water is heated, the less dense particles rise while
denser particles sink. Once the hot less dense particles cool down, they
sink, and the other less dense particles rise. This continuous process is
called convection current.
 Because of this, the tectonic plates are able to move slowly along the
tectonic boundaries, pushing each other, sliding past each other and
drifting away from each other.