per.1 pg.

Always a Step Behind

It is a race to the finish. Who will get there first? Is it the person who always shows up

for practice on time, tries their absolute hardest, and dedicates everything to the race or is it the

one who just shows up to most of the practices and never pushes themself past their comfort

zone? The answer: the latter one. It sounds unfair, right? Imagine putting everything you have

into a race and then being beat by some else who didn't try nearly as hard but was lucky enough

to be born stronger. They didn’t have to do anything to be ahead of you, but still you can’t catch

up.

I have been competitively swimming for years and am one of the top female swimmers of

my age group in the state. Everyday I train to get stronger so I can swim even faster. I put

everything into my swimming. And yet I can never catch the boys during practice. No matter

how hard I try they are always one step ahead of me. Even the ones that skip a few practices

throughout the week are still able to pull ahead of me. If I am able to catch them in practice they

just go even faster in official races. Every time I watch them easily swim my best time in a race,

I get angry or maybe just jealous. How are they able to effortlessly do something that took me

months of training? As I work tirelessly to perfect my technique, they are able to go even faster

by simply relying on their strength. My coaches constantly pit me up against the boys in practice

and each time it ends as if the winner was predetermined.

This is the reality for women in sports. We are constantly compared to our male

counterparts. We have to train significantly harder to reach their level, but as soon as we get

there, they rise even higher. This isn’t to say that there aren’t men out there that put in just as

much or maybe even more effort into their sport because there most certainly are. Both male and

female athletes put everything into their sport but only one group is recognized for their
 per.1 pg.2

performance. The differences in opportunities and media support between men’s and women’s

sports is a topic that is highly debated on many platforms but it is clear that physically there are

innate differences between men and women. These differences cannot be denied however, they

bring a new discussion on whether athletes should be trained differently depending on their sex.

The question is: How do the physiological differences between women and men affect their

physical training in sports?

There are many physiological differences that are responsible for the difference in

athletic performance between men and women, however they all lead back to men’s increased

testosterone production. Three key differences that testosterone is linked to are blood production,

muscle mass, and bone strength.

Testosterone stimulates red blood cell production through the bone marrow. This helps

make the heart more healthy by enabling it to pump blood to the rest of the body so organs and

muscles can be at peak performance. Testosterone is also responsible for the greater muscle mass

in men than women. According to the Journal of Physical Education and Sport, “as far as muscle

tissue is concerned, predominance is male; referring to body mass, muscular tissue of men is in

fact about 45%, while in women it is about 36%”(Altavilla). The percentage of body fat in

women is on average 25% and in men is 15%. More testosterone production gives men more

lean and muscular bodies which naturally gives them an advantage over women. The strength of

muscle is directly related to their size. Men’s muscles are naturally bigger than women’s before

training and with training they will get even bigger. Women can train as well, but since they are

starting behind men they won’t be able to catch up easily. Eventually the body hits its limit and

the muscles are unable to continue growing. With an increased amount of testosterone, men’s

muscles are able to grow significantly more than women’s so their limit is much higher.
 per.1 pg.3

Testosterone also plays an important role in bone material density. Men have longer and larger

bones than women which allow them to support more muscle mass; the bones have more surface

area enabling them to support more muscle mass. Testosterone makes men’s bones more dense

and strong so they not only support muscles but also organs aiding them in athletic performance.

Testosterone has been proven to aid in athletic performance, and it is a prime agent in

steroids. There have been many instances of high level athletes using steroids to get ahead and

cheat in their sport. While competitively this is illegal, many body builders or non-competitive

athletes take steroids in order to get stronger simply because they want to. However, abusing the

use of steroids can have more negative impacts than positive. While testosterone has been shown

to aid in the production of red blood cells, “athletes who abuse testosterone and other androgenic

steroids have a sharply increased risk of high blood pressure, heart attack, and stroke. And in

high doses, testosterone can have a negative effect on cardiac risk factors, including HDL

(‘good’) cholesterol levels”(Harvard Health).

It is important to note that the difference in testosterone production between men and

women does not occur until puberty. Before puberty, there is no difference in the circulating

amounts of testosterone and in athletic performance. According to the US National Library of

Medicine, “after puberty men produce 20 times more testosterone than women, resulting in

circulating testosterone concentrations 15-fold higher than in children or women of any

age”(Handelsman). I have been a competitive swimmer since I was a child and looking back at

my anecdotal evidence on the matter, in the age groups of children under ten years old there is

not much of a difference between the girls’ times and the boys’ times. After the ten year mark the

times start to move away from each other; as the age increases, so does the time gap.
 per.1 pg.4

An important aspect of athletic performance is one’s maximum rate of oxygen

consumption, also known as VO2 max. Basically, VO2 max is the measurement of the maximum

amount of oxygen a person can use during intense exercise. According to an article by Gaetano

Altavilla about different physiological and performance aspects between female and male

athletes:

In adult women, the VO2 max value is on average less, about 15-20% for trained

athletes, while rising to 15-30% for untrained subjects. One reason of this difference, in

relation to maximum oxygen consumption, is the highest concentration of hemoglobin

(10-14% more) in men, because in men's circulatory system there is greater oxygen

transport capacity and, consequently, has a greater aerobic capacity, to which the VO2

max value is related (Altavilla).

As stated above, men have greater oxygen transport capacity. Men’s body mass is what gives

them an advantage. Body mass has a direct effect on VO2 max. Andrew Latham states in an

article that “elite male athletes have a higher oxygen carrying capacity than women, which

allows them to reach their maximum training peak earlier”(Latham). In the cardiovascular

system, women have smaller cardiac chambers, lower blood hemoglobin concentration, and

lower volume of circulating blood, which all hamper aerobic capacity. Ironically, even though

men have the advantage in aerobic capacity, they tend to rely more on anaerobic pathways for

energy production while women rely more on aerobic pathways. The anaerobic energy pathway

is a smaller but faster source of energy. This energy pathway only uses carbohydrates as its fuel.

Using the anaerobic pathway gives men energy faster, therefore enabling them to pull ahead of

women early in a race. The aerobic pathway is a slower source of energy but it is much larger.

This pathway is also able to use both carbohydrates and fat as fuel. Since women have a higher
 per.1 pg.5

percentage of body fat than men, it makes sense as to why using this energy pathway would be

more effective. Using the aerobic energy pathway does put women at a disadvantage for most

races but the further the race is, the stronger women become. According to the US National

Library of Medicine, in marathons “the mean change in pace was 15.6% and 11.7% for men and

women, respectively”(Deaner). This means that men start to slow their pace more on average at

the end of a marathon than women. Whether this statistic is the result of physiological

differences or psychological differences is still in need of more research, however, there is a

great amount of evidence suggesting either way.

New studies into competitions such as ultra-running have shown that there is a point

where women have the advantage over men physically. Ultra-running is a sport in which

competitors run races that can be anywhere from 50 miles to 200 plus miles long. The ability to

fuel efficiently and utilize caloric reserves of fat stores in the body is vital to ultra-running. As

these races are extremely long, there are not many people willing to train for and compete in

these races. In an article discussing the differences between men and women in the sport, Sam

Heward, an ultra-running athlete, writes that “84% of competitors in races that are more than 50

miles are men”(Heward). Still, with being only 16% of the competitors, many women have won

these races against men:

In 2019, there were a flurry: Jasmin Paris famously becoming the first woman to win the

268 mile Montane Spine Race, smashing the record in the process; Katie Wright beating

40 men to win Riverhead Backyard ultra marathon in New Zealand; and Courtney

Dauwalter winning the 238 mile MOAB race (Heward).

There are many physical aspects necessary to long distance races in which women naturally

excel. For one, female athletes are more efficient at converting glycogen to energy. Glycogen is a
 per.1 pg.6

secondary fuel source that is used when glucose levels drop. In short events, muscle mass is

more beneficial for performance which is why men have the advantage, however for long

distance races runners must be able to continue to perform on low levels of fuel/energy. Women

are able to continue fueling their muscles more at the end of long races than men are. Women’s

natural use of the aerobic energy pathways helps them excel at the end of long races. Another

advantage women have is their superior fatigue resistance. “Women tend to have a greater

distribution of slow twitch muscle fibres than men. Whilst not so good in a 100 metre sprint,

these tend to be more resistant to fatigue and more suited to endurance”(Heward). Women also

have reduced ATP depletion and lower blood lactate. ATP or Adenosine triphosphate is an

organic compound that provides energy to drive processes in cells. Lactate is a product that is

produced when there is insufficient oxygen at a cellular level or when cells are unable to produce

energy as usual. ATP depletion and blood lactate that appear towards the end of strenuous

exercise are what cause your muscle to get tired. Since women are less susceptible to both of

them, they are able to power through the end of long races better. In a study performed by

Guillaume Millet, a physiology researcher, at the Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc race, he found “that

men’s muscles got more fatigued over the race”(Heward). Women’s naturally smaller bodies are

also an advantage in ultra-running since it means carrying less body weight and stressing the

body less. With shorter legs, women are also able to have a faster cadence that ensures efficient

use of elastic energy that is created in a running stride. Another advantage for women is their

lower center of gravity which lowers the risk of falling on the difficult terrain in these races.

Women also typically have a larger surface area to mass ratio body shape which enables them to

dissipate heat from the body quicker and can help regulate body temperature in extreme

conditions. This comes in handy when running for hours in the blazing heat. To make a long
 per.1 pg.7

story short, women have many little advantages here and there that give them an edge over men

in ultra-running. As of now, men and women compete together for ultra-running since women’s

strengths at the end of the race even out with men’s strengths at the beginning, but time will tell

if they continue doing it that way.

Despite the number of new studies being conducted, there are few female runners

participating in ultra-running races. There also is not much history of women running these races

that researchers can look back at. Women were only able to officially compete in marathons in

1972 let alone any race further than that. With only 40 years of being allowed to participate in

long races, women’s true potential in ultra-running has yet to be realized. “In the last 20 years

participation has increased by more than 1500%, and with that the number of females has

jumped from 14% of participants to 23%”(Heward). While this is a great stride for the women’s

ultra-running community, the number of female participants is still far from being equal to the

number of male participants.

Sports injuries are another area in which we see differences between men and women.

With men’s sports being highly popular in the media, many people tend to think that men get

injured more frequently than women, but it is actually the opposite. Women tend to get injured

more in most common sports injuries such as ankle sprains, knee injuries, shoulder injuries, etc.

There are several anatomical differences that are the cause of this phenomenon, one of these

differences being women’s wider pelvis, explains Laura Davis, a nurse practitioner working in

sports medicine and orthopedics. “Women are extremely likely to tear their ACL because women

have more lax joints than men and the hips come down at an angle and hit the knee, so women’s

knees are more unstable,” said Davis. This angle disrupts the alignment of the knees and ankles

causing women’s knee joints to experience greater stress and more pressure increasing the risk of
 per.1 pg.8

tearing the ACL (anterior cruciate ligament). Another reason why women are more likely to tear

their ACL is that their intercondylar notch, where the ACL passes through the femur, is naturally

more narrow and the ACL itself is also smaller in women than men. Both of these increase the

risk of tearing the ACL. Differences in movement also put stress on women's knees. “For

example, when landing from a jump, women tend to land more upright and with the knees closer

together. And when female athletes suddenly change direction, they tend to do so on one foot,

while men tend to ‘cut’ from both feet”(Shmerling). This is the result of women’s wider pelvis

and lower sense of gravity that gives them greater balance. However, since women have a

slightly slower reaction time, their knees take a little longer to stabilize, increasing the risk of

injury in sudden movements.

For upper body sports we see women have an increased trouble with shoulder instability.

According to Davis, in swimming women are more likely to have shoulder instability because

women, in general, are more likely to have instability throughout the body. Women who are

swimmers, added Davis, are more likely to become patients later on with chronic shoulder

instability and labral tears. Women’s ligaments and tendons are more fragile and flexible than

men’s which gives women excellent flexibility but causes them to be more unstable resulting in

more musculoskeletal injuries. This instability increases women’s risk of hyperextension of the

ligaments. If you tie the instability of women’s joints with their less powerful muscle, you get the

perfect equation for injury. There is a way to combat these injuries. Davis stated that women

could focus more on shoulder stabilization exercises and it would prevent injury or could

potentially prevent surgery because they would have more stable shoulders and be less likely to

get a labral injury. Many female athletes do stabilization exercises, not only for the shoulder, but
 per.1 pg.9

for other parts of the body as well in order to prevent injury. Of course there is no 100% effective

way to prevent getting injured but it has been proven that these exercises can help tremendously.

One physiological and psychological reason for women’s injuries in sports that is barely

talked about is the fact that women are more likely to play through their injuries. Women have a

higher pain threshold so they do not feel like their injury is that bad until it reaches a point where

the injury has worsened. The psychological part comes from the cultural aspect that women do

not want to give anyone a reason to put them down. In society as a whole women are constantly

shamed no matter what they do. To be a woman means you have to be perfect, and even if you

are perfect people will still find something to criticize. Simply put, women can’t show any

weaknesses. For female athletes, injuries are the cherry on top of a pressure sundae or maybe it’s

more like the echo that starts an avalanche. Female athletes don’t want to be seen as a burden by

anyone and they don’t want to be doubted by their coaches and peers. The psychological effects

on female athletes also extend past physical injuries. In a study conducted on high level French

athletes researchers found that “20.2% of women had at least one psychopathology, against

15.1% in men. This female predominance applied to anxiety and eating disorders, depression,

sleep problems and self-harming behaviors”(Schaal). These statistics can be attributed to the

high amount of stress that is put on female athletes to not only perform well in their sport but to

also adhere to society’s strict standards for women. Body image is one of the biggest stressors on

women in general but even more so on female athletes. Since looking muscular is seen as

masculine in society female athletes are always scrutinized for not looking femine enough.

Along with this, society also emphasizes thinness causing female athletes to not only worry

about looking too masculine but also about maintaining a lean figure. “In a study of Division 1

NCAA athletes, over one-third of female athletes reported attitudes and symptoms placing them
 per.1 pg.10

at risk for anorexia nervosa”(NESA). Considering these factors, it is not only unfair advantages

in the body that give men an edge over women in sports but also the discrimmination against

women in society.

There is a big difference in the number of injuries that are more common in women than

the ones that are more common in men. Male athletes do suffer from all the same injuries as

female athletes however not as frequently. Male athletes typically sustain injuries from colliding

with other athletes while female athletes sustain more injuries from colliding with equipment.

“Because men's sports tend to be more contact-centered, male athletes may be more at risk for

acute trauma injuries rather than overuse injuries. Studies have found that male athletes are most

likely to get injured during the opening or closing 15 minutes of a competition when contact and

rough play are at higher levels”(Gombera). Male athletes also do stabilization exercises in order

to prevent some overuse injuries, however they do not experience the same inherent instability

that female athletes do. The areas where men have a significantly higher injury rate than women

are in the hip and groin. Since women have a wider pelvis, they are not affected the same way

with these injuries as men are. It is important to point out that the influence of psychological

factors on male athletes pales in comparison to how they affect female athletes however they are

present. In society men are forced to appear tough and strong and aren’t supposed to show any

kind of weakness. Due to this stigma, men are less likely to report feelings of anxiety and

depression which makes it difficult to find accurate data on the psychology of male athletes.

There are many physiological differences between men and women that affect the

frequency of certain injuries, explains Bradley Hubbard, a chiropractor and sports rehab

specialist from Walnut Creek. “I think coaches should definitely pay attention to the

physiological differences between men and women,” said Hubbard. It is important for coaches to
 per.1 pg.11

be able to watch for specific flaws in both women and men due to their physiology. Coaches

should be helping their athletes train, not only to get stronger, but also to prevent unnecessary

injuries in the process. They may need to cater certain stabilization exercises for the female

athletes, however male athletes may also benefit from doing the same exercises.

Aside from coaches being attentive towards specific injuries based on sex, in general

endurance and strength training there is no evidence to support different training methods based

on sex. However, depending on the sport there may be differences in how the game is played

which could lead to more focused training.

In racing sports, athletes typically train on time intervals. In practice, if there is a variety

of interval groups to choose from then athletes can choose based on their own ability. Stronger

male athletes will be able to go on faster intervals than the stronger female athletes, however

there would be a rage to their options. Being able to decide based on one's own ability makes

sure that that individual is getting the proper training that he or she needs. With my own

observations of practices like this, I believe that separating groups based on age and ability is the

best road to take. Putting athletes together with people who are at a similar interval training will

allow them to be able to go similar times and be competitive with each other. At age group and

highschool levels, most teams train coed, however some elite colleges do separate their women’s

and men’s teams. Once you reach the collegiate level you and your teammates have similar

training capacities so even with separating the sexes, everyone will still be able to train at their

highest level.

In team sports, women and men almost play a completely different game. Women’s

sports tend to be more technical while men’s are based more on power and athleticism. For

example, women’s and men’s basketball. Women’s and men’s basketball have almost exactly the
 per.1 pg.12

same rules and they play on the same sized court, however the games are very different. In men’s

basketball you see players that can easily dunk the ball or jump from the free throw line to score

a basket. Feats like these are tributes to men's ability to jump higher than women. In women’s

basketball you will see a few players that can dunk but they aren’t able to leap across the court

for their baskets. Instead female players had to create their own way to play the game. Women’s

basketball can be described as more fundamental. They use more of the basic skills of the game

rather than plain athleticism. This isn’t to say that male players don’t also use fundamental skills

in the game, but it is not used as often as in the women’s game. They are just two different styles

to play the same game. With this, women and men train differently to play the sport their way.

Men’s training styles will reflect a more power based playing style while women’s training will

be more technical.

Through my research I found that there are not many differences in training for men and

women. The main difference is based on age. Younger athletes are unable to train in the same

way as older athletes. Things like time spent training and weight lifting are going to be different.

Younger athletes cannot train for hours on end or get up early on weekdays before school to

train. They also cannot lift weights like older athletes. Differences like these are what really

define an athletes training and you don’t find any significant ones between men and women of

the same age. Even if these physiological differences do not affect training methods, they still

explain the difference between women’s and men’s sports. It all comes down to one’s

physiology. All the slander that female athletes face on a daily basis from society is not because

of the hard work we put in everyday. No. They will never see us at five in morning when it is

below freezing outside and we are on our way to practice. Nobody sees or acknowledges the
 per.1 pg.13

work we put in. And nobody even cares about our successes. All because of a hormone that

flows through our body.

 per.1 pg.14

Works Cited

INTERVIEWS:

Davis, Laura. Nurse practitioner specializing in sports medicine and orthopedics at Muir

Orthopedics. Personal Interview. 8 March, 2021

Hubbard, Bradley. Chiropractor and sports rehabilitation specialist at Inner Action Sports

Rehabilitation. Personal Interview. 2 April, 2021

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