Problem 1.1 Around bar made of mild steel, broken in a tensile test, exhibited a cup and cone failure. Examination showed that the central portion was perpendicu- lar to the bar axis but that the sides were inclined at about 45° to bar axis. @) What would their fractographic appearances be, at 2x and 2000x magnifi- cation? (b) How can these magnifications be obtained? Answer 1.1 @) The central portion, at 2x magnification, would have a gray, fibrous appearance and at 2000x magnification, would show equiaxed dimples. The sides, at 2x magnification, would have a smooth silky appearance and at 2000x magnification, would show clongated dimples. (b) A 2x magnification can be obtained via a simple magnifying glass. ‘A 2000x magnification can only be obtained by use of an electron microscope. Problem 1.2 An infinite steel plate, 30 mm thick, is subjected to a tensile stress. It contains a through thickness crack perpendicular to the stress direction. (a) Calculate the fracture stress (4,) for a crack length (2a) of 50 mm, assuming plane strain conditions. (b) If conditions were plane stress instead, what would be the failure condition, and at what expected stress level? (c) What microstructure would you expect such a steel to possess?Kc = 80 MPa m“!”; yield stress (S,) = 1900 MPa Assume Y = 1 for an infinite plate. Answer 1.2 (@) Work in m, MPa, and MPa m1 uni . Use Equation (1): Kc "Yan 80/(xx 0.025)'* = 285.5 MPa o Comment: The brittle fracture stress under plane strain conditions is much lower than the yield stress of the material. () Under plane stress conditions, ductile fracture would occur and the material would first yield at a stress of 1000 MPa. For this to occur, the plate thickness and crack length need to be less than the value of 25 = given in Equation (2.1), though this must not be regarded asa strict ‘go-no go’ type of condition. The condition can be satisfied by increasing K,- or reducing Sy or both. It is a general rule that in high-strength steels, the toughness is inversely proportional to strength. (©) The steel would very probably have a tempered martensite micro- structure, obtained through appropriate alloying and heat treatment. Problem 1.3 In Figure 14 give three possible reasons why the punched hole had initiated brite fracture. Answer 13 {@) The hole would create a fairly high stress concentration that would ‘add tothe applied stress, (A layer of material surrounding the bore of the hole would be heavily deformed and consequently would have its ductility fully exhausted; it would be quite brittle and probably contain small cracks, which could extend under stress. (9 The deformed layer would also contain high residual stresses that ‘would add tothe total stress.Problem 1.4 Why isit important to have adequate fillets in machinery components where the section sizes are variable? Answer 1.4 Machinery is invariably subjected to impact loading and variable loading. Sharp changes in section induce stress concentrations of high magnitudes that promote brittle fracture under impact loads and fatigue cracking under variable loading. Problem 1.5 A.2000 W (P) electric kettle is powered by a 240 V, 3-phase supply, via a plug with a fuse of 13 A. (a) Calculate the current (1) that it will draw and the resistance (R) of the heating elements. (b) If for some reason the resistance suddenly falls to 2.0 during use, what would be the consequences? Answer 15 ‘Ohm's law applies. For 3-phase current, the current (1) and resistance (0) are: (a) 1=PAV x 1732) =481 A; R=(V x 1.732)/1=86420 (b) IFR falls to 20,1 = (V x 1732)/2 = 20784 A. Since the fuse is rated at 13 A, it will blow and cut off the current to the kettle. (A blown fuse is symptomatic of a low resistance path caused by conductors shorting to earth [ground] it would be wise to investigate before re- connecting power. Own reading—what is the factor 1.7322) Problem 1.6 (a) Name a code of practice for welding steels that is commonly used the ‘world over. (b) PWHT is not used for austenitic steels. Why? (¢) In your opin- ion, why were the World War II Liberty ships prone to failure by brittle frac- ture, whereas the older riveted ships were not similarly affected? Answer 16 (a) American Welding Society (AWS) Structural Welding Codes—Steel (D11/D11M). (b) Austenitic steels do not transform to hard microstructures on weld- ing and do not need to be softened. Conversely, such treatments will cause grain boundary carbides to precipitate and sensitize the steel to intergranular corrosion.(©) The residual stresses from welding helped to initiate brittle frac- ture; the steels used at that time were inherently brittle (high transi- tion temperature) and allowed fracture to propagate once initiated. Further, the ships had hulls welded into a continuous component and the brittle crack could traverse from one side to the other with- out restraint, to break the ship into half. On the other hand, riveted ships had hulls composed of plate sections; the riveting did not have high residual stresses to promote brittle fracture initiation and any fracture that a plate experienced would be confined to that plate alone.Problem 2.1 Visual examination and metallurgical examination are both important steps in obtaining physical evidence. Explain why visual examination needs to be performed prior to metallurgical examination. List four objectives of visual examination. Answer 21 A detailed visual examination in the laboratory should first be performed to reinforce observations made at a site, to determine whether further site visits are needed to better understand the site conditions, or if more samples are required for testing. This would avoid samples from being damaged unnecessarily. It would be unwise to proceed beyond the visual examination stage and to start cutting up indiscriminately to obtain samples before the proximate causes have been identified to a fair degree of certainty. ‘Visual examination objectives: 1. The manner of deformation, whether caused before or during failure. 2. The presence of wastage and degradation, whether from normal wear and tear, abuse in service, corrosion, or erosion. 3. The fracture characteristics, whether caused by ductile, brittle, fatigue, or other mechanisms, 4. Locations of crack initiation where fracture/ailure had been pre- ceded by cracking. Problem 2.2 Brittle fractures and ductile fractures are two of the best-known failure modes. Explain the main macroscopic differences between them. Answer 2.2 Brittle fracture involves relatively little plastic deformation and normally ‘occurs suddenly without any warning signs. Brittle fracture paths tend to be perpendicular to the principal tensile stress. The brittle crack is unstable and propagates rapidly without an increase in applied stress. The fracture sur- face has characteristic chevron marks and in ferritic/pearlitic steels is bright and shiny in appearance. On the other hand, ductile fracture involves prior yielding and plastic deformation on a large scale. The progression to final failure may take some time to occur, which allows safety measures to be taken. Crack paths could be parallel or inclined at 45° to the direction of maximum shear stress. If par- allel, the fracture surface would normally have a smooth, silky appearance. Ifinclined, the appearance would normally be dull and fibrous.Problem 2.3 You are in an isolated site with only a hardness testing machine, a vice, and some rudimentary tools. You have a length of steel of about 20 x 20 mm section that must be used to urgently replace a broken member. What tests can you perform to ensure that the steel will be adequate? Answer 2.3 Firstly, carry out hardness tests on the steel and convert the hardness value to tensile strength. (What formula would you use?) If the strength were ade- quate, the next step would be to gauge its ductility. For this, you need to cut ‘outa suitable piece and bend it in the vice using a hammer. If itcan bend to90” without cracking, the ductility would be sufficient. Note that an experienced FI with a set of suitably graded files of different hardnesses would be able to gauge the hardness fairly accurately in the absence of a hardness machine, but of course, accurate portable hardness testers are now easily available. Which industries use the APland ASME codes? Answer 2.4 API codes are widely used in the oil and gas industries. The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel codes are widely used in the power ‘generating industries as well as in industries using pressurised components.Problem 2.5 You need to go toa site, which has good lighting conditions to take photo- graphs of a failure where the components are large in size and space for movementis very restricted. Youare only able to carry one camera; what sort of camera would you take and why? Answer 2.5 A small sensor digital camera (say, 1/2.3” sensor size) with a minimum focal length of 25 mm and a minimum zoom ratio of 15 would be quite suitable. The small sensor will have a large depth of focus; the 25 mm focal length will allow fairly wide-angle shots; and the 15x zoom will allow close-ups to be taken at a distance. Large sensor cameras (micro four-thirds and above) ‘would give better resolution but their depth of field and zoom ratio would notbe adequate. Problem 2.6 (@ Why is it that large steel components made of high-strength martensitic steels sometimes fail by brittle fracture, but yet have high ductility in a tensile test specimen? (b) What tests would ensure safety from brittle fracture? For API pipelines, what method is recommended? Answer 2.6 (@) The large component is under plane strain conditions, which favor brittle fracture, whereas the small tensile test specimen is under plane stress conditions where ductile failure provails, so this test cannot replicate performance under actual conditions. (b) A fracture mechanics test to obtain the K;- value of the steel would be necessary. For API pipelines, a transition temperature approach using the Drop Weight Tear Test is recommended (API RP 5LR or ASTM E436). This approach is not suitable for high-strength mar- tensitic steels, which do not exhibit pronounced transition tempera- ture behavior.Problem 2.7 ‘How would you use Equation (2.5) to estimate the end of life of a component with a growing fatigue crack? Answer 2.7 (@) Obtain values of the required material properties. (b) Measure the crack profile and depth as accurately as possible. (©. Determine the component and load configuration and calculate the appropriate K value. (@) Carry out numerical integration for the rate of crack growth, (©) Measure the crack length at periodicintervals to verify that the crack growth rate has been accurately predicted. () Determine the critical crack length for plane strain or plane stress conditions (whichever is applicable) and the number of cycles required to reach this condition. (2) In practical usage, the component needs to be taken out of service before the critical crack length has been reached and an appropriate reserve margin is applied. da =C(aky" (25) where i , da. 4 iscrack length, N is cycle, “> is crack growth per cycle, K_ isstross intensity factor and AK = Kyzy~ Kyi» the stress intensity range. Equation (2.5) is however too simple to account for the effects of the stress ratio R (maximum load divided by minimum load), and is inaccurate in very low-and very high-K regimes. More accurate (but more difficult to use) equations have been formulated, which take these factors into account, for example [14], gS Crsinh{C,log(aK) +C3} +, 6) where, C; isa material constant, and C;,C,, and C, are functions of the stress ratio (8), frequency, and temperature.Problem 3.1 What are the key features of macro- and metallographic examination employed commonly in failure analysis? Answer 3.1 1. Macro-examination is commonly conducted to inspect: (@)_ The physical attributes of the damage suffered (b) Condition (including defects) of the specimen/parts (©. The appearance of the fracture surfaces, the crack pathis), and possible fracture mechanisms Metallographic examination is commonly conducted to establish the microstructures of the materials involved for evidence of abnormali- ties and for details of failure modes. Problem 3.2 What are the major assumptions made when employing linear elastic frac- ture mechanics? Answer 3.2 In LEPM, itis assumed that: Crack has been initiated © Material is linearly elastic * Material is isotropic '* Crack has started to propagate * Plastic zone near crack is small ‘* Points of analysis are near the crack tip Problem 3.3, In the case of the rail track failure in Case Study 1, what was the purpose of the Charpy V-notch tests? Answer 33 (@) To establish whether the parent and weld metal at the weld joint exhibited fracture behavior similar to that of the normal BS 11 rail steel. (b) To obtain impact values for conversion to Kj values, in order that LEFM calculations may be made.Problem 3.4 What is the effect of corrosion upon the threads on the hydraulic arm piston in the case of the ro-ro ramp in Case Study 2? ‘Answer 3.4 The effects of corrosion are: (@) Wastage at the threads (b) Truncation at the crown of the threads (© Factors (a) and (b) above which had caused total loss of function in the threads Problem 3.5 ‘How can you ensure that the weld in a structural component is of adequate quality? Answer 3.5, By following the provisions of an approved welding code, such as the American Welding Society (AWS) DOL1. Such welding requires proper super- vision, qualified welding procedures, qualified welders, possible preheat and postheat operations, and various levels of non-destructive testing.Problem 4.2 Anumber of bucket bushes in a tin dredge move slowly and operate under a high load. If you are required to choose a surface rubbing material: between lead, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and polyethylene for the pin to be fitted to the steel bucket bush, which of the following materials will give the longest wear life? Given that, the hardness for lead, PTFE, and polyethylene are 30 MPa, 50 MPa, and 70 MPa, respectively. Additionally, the adhesive ‘wear coefficient for the rubbing material: lead, PTFE, and polyethylene on steel are 2x 10°, 2x10" and 1x 10”, respectively. Comment on the suit- ability of your results for practical application. Answer 4.2 WL 3H ‘where, kis the adhesive wear coefficient of a material on steel, His the hard- ness, Lis the sliding distance, and W is the normal applied load. The wear volume is, v The wear volume is minimum when ismaximum. Therefore, H_ 3000) _sso9¢pq Forlead 3a 93)” S H__ 50(10°) For PTFE, = 339%) ~ 2500GPa H_ 70\10°} 2. AY? - 700, 0006r% For polyethylene, [>= 7497, a From the calculations, it is obvious that polyethylene should give the longest life wear compared to PTFE and lead. This example is included to illustrate the dangers of a theoretical study without knowing the actual operating conditions. The use of polymers hhas been attempted before by the very enterprising engineers at the then ‘Malayan mining companies in the early 1970s, and all the experiments failed miserably. The problem was that the bearing stresses were calculated by just dividing the maximum tension of the bucket band by the projected area of the bushes. This method did not consider that the pin was relatively long and that the elastic bending caused during operation resulted in much higher localized stresses at the edges of the bush material, which exceeded its flow stress and caused it to squeeze out. It was found through extensive expe- rience that no bush material except for austenitic manganese steel (AMS) could survive the service and this material is still used to this day.Problem 4.3 ‘Why is AMS suitable for the bucket bush? Answer 4.3, The austentic microstructure of the material is extremely tough and can with- stand an enormous amount of mechanical abuse without cracking or break- age. When deformed by stresses above the yield stress, its work hardens rapidly, increases in strength, and only cracks when its considerable ductil- ity is exhausted. Under compression loads, the work-hardened material can attain hardness levels of 700 HV, as Case Study 3 in this chapter has shown. Problem 4.4 ‘Your Own Work (@) The hardness of a steel is often used interchangeably with its ten- sile strength. Why is this practice used and what is the relationship between hardness and tensile strength? (b) Inahardenable steel, what does ‘limiting ruling section’ mean? (9) In Case Study 3 in this chapter, the microstructure of the pin, even near the surface, was mainly bainite with some ferrite. Use the continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram for the steel to explain the transformation kinetics it had undergone, assuming an oil quench. (4) In © above, using a water quench would very likely eliminate the soft and undesirable ferrite phase, and further, water quenching would be much cheaper than an oil quench. What are the disadvan- tages of a water quench?