1.

Write a detailed account on water and electrolyte balance in the

human body.

Electrolytes are minerals in your body that have an electric charge. They are in

your blood, urine, tissues, and other body fluids. Electrolytes are important because
they help. Balance the amount of water in your body. Balance your body's acid/base
(pH) level. To adjust fluid levels, the body can actively move electrolytes in or out
of cells. Thus, having electrolytes in the right concentrations called electrolyte
balance is important in maintaining fluid balance among the compartments. The
kidneys help maintain electrolyte concentrations by filtering electrolytes and water
from blood, returning some to the blood, and excreting any excess into the urine.
Thus, the kidneys help maintain a balance between daily consumption and excretion
of electrolytes and water.

2. Explain the regulation of electrolyte balance in the human

body.

 The kidneys help maintain electrolyte concentrations by filtering electrolytes and

water from blood, returning some to the blood, and excreting any excess into the
urine. Thus, the kidneys help maintain a balance between daily consumption and
excretion of electrolytes and water. These ions enter the body through the digestive
tract. More than 90 percent of the calcium and phosphate that enters the body is
incorporated into bones and teeth, with bone serving as a mineral reserve for these
ions. In the event that calcium and phosphate are needed for other functions, bone
tissue can be broken down to supply the blood and other tissues with these minerals.

3. What are the different clinical abnormalities associated with

electrolyte imbalance?

Electrolyte abnormalities result in an imbalance of minerals in the body. For the

body to function properly, certain minerals need to be maintained in an even balance.
Otherwise, vital body systems, such as the muscles and brain, can be negatively
affected. Electrolytes help your body juggle these values in order to maintain a
healthy balance inside and outside your cells. It’s normal for electrolyte levels to
fluctuate. Sometimes, though, your electrolyte levels can become imbalanced. This
can result in your body creating too many or not enough minerals or electrolytes.

4. What is dehydration?

Dehydration is condition caused by the loss of too much fluid from the body. It
happens when you are losing more fluids than you are taking in, and your body does
not have enough fluids to work properly. The fluid you sweat comprises mainly salt
and water. Excessive sweating can cause dehydration since you lose a large amount
of water. Urination is the body’s normal way to release toxins from your body. Some
conditions can cause chemical imbalances, which can increase your urine output.
 Rehydration by drinking may not be possible for all people, like those who have
severe diarrhea or vomiting. In this case, fluids can be given intravenously.

5. What is plasma osmolality?

Osmolality increases when you are dehydrated and decreases when you have too
much fluid in your blood. Your body has a unique way to control osmolality.
When osmolality increases, it triggers your body to make antidiuretic hormone
(ADH). In normal people, increased osmolality in the blood will stimulate secretion
of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). This will result in increased water reabsorption, more
concentrated urine and less concentrated blood plasma. Diabetes insipidus is a
condition caused by hyposecretion of, or insensitivity to, the effects of ADH.
Elevation may be associated with stroke mortality.

6. What is normal blood pH? Describe various mechanisms for

maintenance of blood pH.

Our blood has a normal pH range of 7.35 to 7.45. This means that blood is
naturally slightly alkaline or basic. Alkalosis happens when your blood pH is higher
than the normal range. There are several causes of high blood pH. An illness can
temporarily raise your blood pH. More serious health conditions can also lead to
alkalosis. The brain regulates the amount of carbon dioxide that is exhaled by
controlling the speed and depth of breathing (ventilation). The amount of carbon
dioxide exhaled, and consequently the pH of the blood, increases as breathing
becomes faster and deeper. By adjusting the speed and depth of breathing, the brain
and lungs are able to regulate the blood pH minute by minute.

7. Describe in detail the role of kidneys in acid-base regulation.

The kidneys have two main ways to maintain acid-base balance - their cells
reabsorb bicarbonate HCO3− from the urine back to the blood and they secrete
hydrogen H+ ions into the urine. By adjusting the amounts reabsorbed and secreted,
they balance the bloodstream’s pH. Our kidneys filter blood continuously by
distributing the blood that comes into the kidney to millions of tiny functional units
called nephrons. A sodium bicarbonate cotransporter on the basolateral surface
snatches up the bicarbonate and a nearby sodium, and shuttles both into the blood.

8. Describe the role of blood buffers in acid-base balance.

The kidneys and the lungs work together to help maintain a blood pH of 7.4
by affecting the components of the buffers in the blood. Acid-base buffers confer
resistance to a change in the pH of a solution when hydrogen ions (protons) or
hydroxide ions are added or removed. Similarly, excess carbonic acid can be
converted into carbon dioxide gas and exhaled through the lungs; this prevents too
 many free hydrogen ions from building up in the blood and dangerously reducing its
pH; likewise, if too much OH– is introduced into the system, carbonic acid will
combine with it to create bicarbonate, lowering the pH. Without this buffer system,
the body’s pH would fluctuate enough to jeopardize survival.

9. Classify acid-base disorders and explain them along with

compensatory mechanisms.

 Acidosis and alkalosis refer to physiologic processes that cause

accumulation or loss of acid and/or alkali; blood pH may or may not be
abnormal.
 Acidemia and alkalemia refer to an abnormally acidic (pH < 7.35) or
alkalotic (pH > 7.45) serum pH. Acid-base disorders are classified
as metabolic if the change in pH is primarily due to an alteration in
serum bicarbonate (HCO 3−) and respiratory if the change is primarily due
to a change in PCO2 (increase or decrease in ventilation).
 The pH establishes the primary process (acidosis or alkalosis), changes
in PCO2 reflect the respiratory component, and changes in HCO 3− reflect
the metabolic component.
 All acid-base disturbances result in compensation that tends to normalize
the pH. Metabolic acid-base disorders result in respiratory compensation
(change in PCO2); respiratory acid-base disorders result in metabolic
compensation

10. Describe the water distribution in the human body.

Organs and tissues contain more than 70% water: blood and kidneys consist of
83% water, and muscles 76% water. However, adipose tissue contains only 10%
of water. Two third of the body water is intracellular. The extracellular fluid consists
of plasma and interstitial fluids. Drinking water is considered voluntary. So how is
water intake regulated by the body? Consider someone who is
experiencing dehydration, a net loss of water that results in insufficient water in blood
and other tissues. The water that leaves the body, as exhaled air, sweat, or urine, is
ultimately extracted from blood plasma. As the blood becomes more concentrated,
the thirst response a sequence of physiological processes is triggered.