Professional Documents
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by
January 2016
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writing of this thesis has been one of the most significant academic
journeys I have ever made, and I hope this leads to even better journeys in the years
to come. Though only my name appears on the cover of this work, various people
Jaganathan, your wisdom and commitment as well as your support for me along
the way have been both inspiring and motivating. I could not have asked for
To Emeritus Professor Paul Nation, I thank you for your efforts and
encouragement, and to Associate Professor Hugh Rosszell, thank you for your
guidance and for making it possible for me to visit Meiji University, Japan, as a
Visiting Doctoral Scholar. You have both helped enrich my academic experience and
Malaysia for the scholarship as well as the time off from work to focus on my
and Translation), I extend my heartfelt thanks for your constant support over the
years.
ii
It is also my pleasure to thank friends, colleagues and students who have, in
one way or another, positively coloured my journey. You have all been extraordinary,
you are all my blessings. A special thank you to two wonderful friends, Ee Pheng and
Shahnaz.
as well as my sister and brother-in-law, Jessinta and Daniel, and nephew, Joshua.
You have given me more love and understanding than one could ever hope for.
Above all, I am grateful to the Lord. For His love, mercy and favour.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents.......................................................................................................... iv
Abstrak.......................................................................................................................... xix
Abstract......................................................................................................................... xxi
CHAPTER 1 – BACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Reading
1.3.2 Self-Selection..................................................................................... 8
iv
1.6 Research Questions and Hypotheses............................................................. 20
1.8.1 Limitations......................................................................................... 23
1.8.2 Delimitations...................................................................................... 25
2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 33
v
2.6.7 Direct Vocabulary Study: Comprehensive........................................ 72
Vocabulary Worksheets
CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY
vi
3.6 Participants/Subjects...................................................................................... 153
Language Course
3.9.8 Questionnaires....................................................................................184
vii
3.10.2 ANOVA............................................................................................. 190
3.12.1 Reliability
viii
CHAPTER 4 – FINDINGS
4.2 Results
ix
4.3.2.4 Post-Reading Activities....................................................... 248
5.4 Implications....................................................................................................272
x
5.5.1 Implementation of GER Plus
References................................................................................................................... 288
APPENDICES
Appendix B: Questionnaire
List of Publications
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Page
GER group
xii
Table 4.1: Levene’s Test for homogeneity of variances..................................... 215
Table 4.3: ANOVA summary table for the study of class type.......................... 217
to test results
Table 4.4: Tukey’s HSD: Mean scores within- and between-groups................. 219
comparisons
GER Plus-GER
GER Plus-Control
GER-Control
for pre-test
for post-test
Table 4.10: Tukey’s HSD: Mean scores within- and between-groups................. 224
comparisons
GER Plus-GER
GER Plus-Control
xiii
Table 4.13: Detailed comparison of delayed post-test mean scores:.................... 226
GER-Control
Table 4.17: ANOVA summary table for the study of class type.......................... 231
to test results
Table 4.18: Tukey’s HSD: Mean scores within- and between-groups................. 233
comparisons
GER Plus-GER
GER Plus-Control
GER-Control
for pre-test
for post-test
Table 4.24: Tukey’s HSD: Mean scores within- and between-groups................. 238
comparisons
xiv
Table 4.25: Detailed comparison of delayed post-test mean scores:.................... 239
GER Plus-GER
GER Plus-Control
GER-Control
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Christensen, 2012).
xvi
Figure 3.6: Modified Vocabulary Knowledge Scale............................................ 176
xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CI Comprehensible Input
ER Extensive reading
H Hypothesis
L1 First language
L2 Second language
RQ Research Question
xviii
PENGKAJIAN PEMBACAAN EKSTENSIF BERPANDU
ABSTRAK
berguna bagi pembelajaran kosa kata, tuntutan bahawa pembacaan ekstensif adalah
signifikan telah dicabar. Suatu langkah yang lebih mantap merupakan gabungan
disusuli dengan latihan kosa kata secara langsung (direct vocabulary study).
Bersandarkan isu tentang kekurangan pengetahuan kosa kata bahasa Inggeris dalam
pembacaan ekstensif menggunakan buku bergred dan latihan kosa kata secara langsung
kosa kata reseptif dan produktif, dibandingkan dengan kaedah yang lain (GER) yang
xix
universiti awam di Malaysia dan melibatkan tiga kumpulan pelajar (GER Plus, GER,
Kawalan) yang mengambil kursus bahasa Inggeris persediaan, iaitu kursus kemahiran
bahasa Inggeris remedial. Pengujian saiz kosa kata prabacaan dijalankan bagi
menentukan tahap buku bergred yang sesuai untuk digunakan. Secara keseluruhan,
tempoh intervensi berlangsung selama 10 minggu dan setiap peserta kajian (daripada
93) tertakluk pada pra-, pasca-, dan pasca-ujian terlengah menggunakan Skala
signifikannya menunjukkan prestasi yang lebih baik daripada kumpulan GER dan
kumpulan Kawalan, bagi ingat-kembali dan pengekalan pengetahuan kosa kata reseptif
dan produktif. Di samping itu, semua peserta juga diberi borang soal selidik dan para
guru daripada kumpulan yang terlibat serta ketua koordinator kursus bahasa Inggeris
mewakili satu pilihan yang praktikal dan efektif bagi perkembangan pengetahuan kosa
kata yang signifikan dan kekal. Hasil kajian ini telah, pada dasarnya, memberikan
pandangan menyeluruh tentang potensi serta prasyarat suatu kaedah membaca dan
perkembangan kosa kata yang melampaui pembacaan ekstensif konvensional, dan amat
signifikan untuk kepentingan para pelajar bahasa Inggeris remedial, guru bahasa dan
xx
INVESTIGATING GUIDED EXTENSIVE READING
ABSTRACT
However, while it is deemed useful for vocabulary learning, the claim that extensive
reading on its own is sufficient for learners to experience significant lexical gains has
direct vocabulary study. Given the issue of Malaysian tertiary students lacking English
vocabulary learning incorporating extensive reading using graded readers and direct
vocabulary study (GER Plus) in an effort to observe its effectiveness for receptive and
(GER) in which only extensive reading was utilised. The research was carried out in a
Malaysian public university employing three groups of students (GER Plus, GER,
determine the graded reader level at which to start the participants. On the whole, the
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intervention period lasted approximately 10 weeks and each of the 93 participants was
subjected to a pre-, post- and delayed post-test using the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale.
Results from two-way mixed ANOVA analyses indicate that the GER Plus group
performed significantly better than the GER and Control groups for both receptive and
data certainty, all the participants were administered questionnaires and the teachers of
the involved groups as well as the chief coordinator of the preparatory English language
course were interviewed. The research concludes that GER Plus represents an option
that is both viable and effective for significant and sustained vocabulary knowledge
xxii
Chapter One
Background
1.1 Introduction
Hunt and Beglar (2005), who emphasised the essentiality of extensive reading,
linguistic competence (Pigada & Schmitt, 2006; Grabe & Stoller, 2002).
There are several reasons why extensive reading is deemed extremely fitting
(Huckin & Coady, 1999). ER also facilitates learner autonomy, can be pleasant and
motivating, and with specific regards to improving word power, provides learners
1
with the opportunity to meet words in their context of use (Thornbury, 2002),
increases sight vocabulary (Coady, 1997; Nagy, Herman, & Anderson, 1985) and can
result in substantial receptive and productive vocabulary learning (Pigada & Schmitt,
2006).
Extensive reading on its own mainly draws upon incidental learning and a
significant number of learners have benefitted from it. However, the claim that ER
alone is sufficient for vocabulary learning has been challenged (Day & Bamford,
1998; Krashen, 1993, 1989). Rashidi and Adivi (2010) remarked that while admitting
some vocabulary is certainly gained incidentally through extensive reading, there are
researchers who believe it to be insufficient and suggest some direct vocabulary study
to make the learning process much more fruitful. Some studies have observed sole
low rates of lexical improvement (Pellicer-Sánchez & Schmitt, 2010; Schmitt, 2008;
vocabulary learning, with the findings of various studies observing that combining
both elements leads to greater vocabulary gains and retention (Guo, 2010; Sonbul &
2
The distinction between incidental and intentional learning operates within
requires focal attention to be placed deliberately on the linguistic code (i.e., on form
oneself in a language via, for instance, the reading of texts in the target language
which potentially allows one to incidentally learn words and structures, whereas
processes are involved. Similarly, Schmidt (2001, 1993) asserted that attention to
input is a prerequisite for any form of learning to take place and observed that it
language learning.
3
1.2 The Role of Vocabulary in Language Proficiency
The crucial role that vocabulary plays in language competence and literacy
Hunt and Beglar (2005) underlined that the heart of language comprehension and use
is the lexicon, in tandem with Singleton (1999) who pointed out that the major
challenge of learning and using a language, whether as L1 or L2, lies not in the area
of broad syntactic principles but in the nitty-gritty of the lexicon. In a similar vein,
critical importance to the typical language learner. Nation (2001, 1993, 1990) also
knows.
university (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1997; Hazenberg & Hulstijn, 1996) and that
comprehension and overall academic success (Baumann, Kameenui, & Ash, 2003;
Becker, 1977). Likewise, Ellis (1997) argued that having inadequate vocabulary
likely for them to face difficulties in the path of academic achievement. This is
4
supported by Bromley (2004) who, in a comprehensive review of research on
a language, there is an important area of agreement, that being the central importance
one thing that researchers can agree upon is that vocabulary development is an
In parallel with this is the increasing awareness that vocabulary size can be a
existing studies in the field have revealed vocabulary size and overall language
higher their proficiency level is likely to be and vice versa (Nation, 2001). Various
5
1.3 Reading
(1.3.2, 1.3.3 and 1.3.4 respectively) which form the primary basis of Guided
Extensive Reading (GER) and Guided Extensive Reading Plus (GER Plus), the
intervention methods employed in the present research. GER Plus differs from GER
in that the former incorporates post-reading direct vocabulary study, thus drawing
from both incidental and intentional learning. GER, meanwhile, relies solely on
The correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading has long been
students to comprehend what they read and the act of reading itself provides the
opportunity for students to encounter and learn new words. Stahl and Nagy (2006)
volume in increasing students’ vocabularies. The notion that we could learn a lot or
input, is now entrenched within second/foreign language teaching (Waring & Nation,
2004).
6
Various studies have consistently highlighted the positive effects of
extensive reading on language learning at different ages and in many ESL (English as
benefits are manifold, namely in the areas of receptive and productive vocabulary
2008, 2001, 1997, 1990; Bell, 2001; Camiciottoli, 2001; Coady, 1997; Mason &
Krashen, 1997; Dupuy, Tse, & Cook, 1996; Tsang, 1996; Constantino, 1995; Davis,
1995; Lai, 1993a, 1993b; Elley, 1991; Hafiz & Tudor, 1989; Robb & Susser, 1989;
independently, broadly and in quantity, and to read over a continual period of time.
The chief aim of ER programmes is “to get students reading in the second language
and liking it.” (Day & Bamford, 1998, p. 6). Day and Bamford (ibid.) identified the
3) Reading materials are well within the linguistic competence of the students;
7
7) The reading rate or speed is usually faster;
reading community;
10) Students are oriented to the programme’s goals, given guidance, and their
progress tracked.
While the listed criteria are associated with effective ER programmes, Day
whole; for instance, a choice has to be made between Criterion 6 and Criterion 9 as
the former approach indicates that the student should read outside of class (when and
where the student pleases) whereas the latter approach indicates that teachers should
read in class with their students. Dependability between criteria is also apparent as
Day and Bamford (ibid.) noted that the fulfilment of Criterion 7 is dependent upon the
provision of Criterion 3.
1.3.2 Self-Selection
choose the materials that they want to read. However, there is no consensus as to how
far the extent of self-selection should extend (Susser & Robb, 1990).
8
Past observations on the use of class readers (teacher-selected titles read by
all members of a class) in ER settings have suggested that they can be challenging,
rewarding, motivating and pleasurable (Rosszell, 2010; Nuttall, 1996; Hill, 1992). On
a more specific note, Mulling (1995) pointed out that students should ideally be
allowed to choose whatever they wish to read, but that absolute self-selection can be
reading materials that will serve as the source for target vocabulary.
materials fall within the linguistic competence of the students. According to Day and
Bamford (1998), most reading materials are too complex for L2 students to cope with
because of their limited linguistic knowledge. Hence, the logical solution would be to
produce simplified texts for them, a move which goes against the popular assumption
that authentic materials should be used in language teaching and learning. This
assumption is based on the idea that authentic materials written by and for native
speakers – and not specifically for language teaching and learning – are superior to
materials specially written or simplified for language learners. Part of the cult status
of authenticity is the idea that the very complexity of authentic materials qualifies
9
While authentic materials are often regarded as the best reading materials
for the improvement of linguistic competence, they can be potential setbacks for
students who are not ready for them. Williams (1983) cautioned that the use of
authentic texts often has an effect opposite to that intended when a learner encounters
is often based on the premise that learning is more effective when students have
access to materials that they can largely comprehend and enjoy, instead of having to
decode texts that are beyond their linguistic abilities. According to Nation and Wang
(1999), the strongest argument in favour of graded readers is that without them
comfort and ease approaching first language reading because the vocabulary load of
deeming them unnatural, bland, stilted and distorted (Nuttall, 1996; Wallace, 1988;
Davison, 1986). However, it is also true that there are many well-written graded
readers available (Nation & Wang, 1999). David Hill supplied a useful list of these in
Day and Bamford (1998). Graded readers constitute a major language teaching and
learning resource and if critics were to insist on only using materials written for
native speakers, it can prove detrimental to the interests of learners (Hill, 1997).
Nation (2005) also pointed out that because learning from extensive reading should
10
meet certain conditions which include focusing on the meaning of the text as well as
The foregoing discussion of extant literature has observed that ER can play
a vital role in the development of receptive and productive word knowledge (e.g.,
Nation, 2008, 2001, 1997, 1990; Tsang, 1996; Elley & Mangubhai, 1983, 1981).
2003) and for vocabulary growth (Stahl, 1999; Nation, 1993), it is crucial to also
recognise its limitations. Contexts have been found to be unhelpful as the odds of
accurately predicting a word’s meaning from written context is relatively low (Beck,
have also put forth that inferring word meanings from contextual clues is both
haphazard and inefficient (Haynes, 1993; Laufer & Sim, 1985) and characterised it as
11
This, however, should be tempered with the knowledge that a major reason
to Prichard (2008), research has shown that learners should possess a vocabulary size
situation which can, to a certain extent, be remedied through the use of suitable
This approach, not without its critics (see Lehmann, 2007; Mason & Krashen, 2004),
learning (Peters et al., 2009; Pigada & Schmitt, 2006; Coady, 1997; Hulstijn,
criteria of ER as defined by Day and Bamford (1998): “Reading is its own reward.
in the Second Language Classroom, 1998) in which they elaborated on the rationale
for using post-reading activities as well as on ways to design and implement them.
12
In a comprehensive review of instructed vocabulary learning, Schmitt
(2008) suggested that the best method may be a combination of incidental and
incidental and intentional vocabulary learning seem to have concluded that although
Providing time for extensive reading is essential for it is one of the most
vocabulary learning.
tertiary students are still confronted with a lack of receptive and productive English
language. The dominant role of English in today’s world has resulted in the
13
prioritisation of English proficiency, by which an individual’s inclusion or exclusion
influenced. This leaves Malaysian students with no choice but to become adept users
of the language.
public universities and other institutions of higher learning in the country possess
2007/2008 intake whereby from a population of 2,916 new students, 72.7% scored
within the lowest bands of 1, 2 and 3 (1.7%, 18.7% and 52.3% respectively) (see also
Shahrier, Anton and Mohd Faiz (2011) who underlined that MUET Band 1, 2 and 3
contributor to learners’ incapacity to cope with the four language skills, which
ultimately hinders them from achieving mastery of the target language. Torres and
Ramos (2003) and Nation (2001) are among numerous researchers who posit that
with adequate vocabulary knowledge, learners are better able to cope with English.
By the same token, Yuksel and Kavanoz (2010), Schmitt (2008), Hunt and Beglar
(2005) as well as Laufer and Nation (1999) have observed vocabulary knowledge to
14
According to Naginder, Nor Hayati and Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan
(2008), various studies conducted at secondary schools as well as at the tertiary level
read, write, listen and speak competently in English. They also pointed out that a lack
employability.
performed poorly in the Passive Vocabulary Levels Test (Nation, 1990) as well as the
Controlled Active Vocabulary Test (Laufer & Nation, 1995). The researchers
expressed their concern and observed that despite more than a decade of formal
of Malaysian tertiary students, Sankaran, Mathai and Jamian (2004) found that on
average their subjects, comprising Arts and Science students, fared poorly. The
subjects were tested using Nation’s (1990) Passive Vocabulary Levels Test and the
Oral Vocabulary Test. In agreement with Nation (2001), the researchers stressed that
15
(see also Norzanita, 2009; Rosemala, 2008; Tengku Intan Suzila, Mohd Yusri, &
Harlina, 2008; Zaira Abu Hasan, 2008; Ahmad Mazli Muhammad, 2007; Nambiar,
attention and a lack of proficiency in English has been identified as one of the main
causes of unemployment among them; a range of studies over the years have been
carried out to gauge whether Malaysian graduates are meeting industry standards and
the recurring theme is that our graduates lack proficiency in the English language
(Morshidi et al., 2012; Lim, 2011; Ambigapathy & Aniswal, 2005; Sibat, 2005; Lee,
2003a).
Sasikala (2010) observed that graduates who are poor in English are likely to suffer
unemployment as the corporate sector prioritises those who are competent in the
language whereas reliance on the civil service to absorb graduates into its workforce
English and have listed this criterion as one of their core hiring conditions (Lee,
2003a; Shameem & Mohd Salleh, 2003; Megat Johari et al., 2002).
16
It is also important to note that limited proficiency in English can severely
digital resources are presented in English (Harison, 2011; Gill, 2005; Mohammed,
2004; Ridge, 2004; Awang Had Salleh, 2003; Schewe, 2001). Gill (2005) stressed
that the amount of knowledge and information available in English increases with
such alarming speed that the inability to access it would certainly disadvantage and
marginalise people.
The issue of poor English proficiency among Malaysian tertiary students has
resulted in serious concerns, with the Malaysian government announcing its intention
to initiate intensive English programmes for undergraduates grouped under the lowest
Point Average of below 3.0 (Sasikala, 2010). In addition, the National Higher
achieving Vision 2020, emphasises human capital development and among its core
proficiency. It has also become all too obvious that individuals with a lack of
17
proficiency in English can be seriously marginalised and suffer both short- as well as
long-term consequences.
Given that, there exists an urgent need for effective vocabulary knowledge
development strategies that can benefit our tertiary students. It is unfortunate that
despite the benefits that extensive reading in English can offer, in terms of improving
Malaysian tertiary education (Normazidah, Koo, & Hazita, 2012; Gopala et al., 2009;
Naginder, Nor Hayati, & Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan, 2008). The present research
emphasises the use of extensive reading as the basis for effective vocabulary learning.
incidental and intentional learning (extensive reading and direct vocabulary study) is
learning via extensive reading. To the researcher’s knowledge, particularly within the
knowledge, the present research also focuses on short-term retention (recall) and
retention over time. The scope of a substantial number of existing studies is limited to
18
1.5 Research Objectives
receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge, the present research involved the
Extensive Reading Plus (GER Plus) incorporates both incidental and intentional
with direct vocabulary study. On the other hand, Guided Extensive Reading (GER)
involves only incidental vocabulary learning – i.e., contextual learning via extensive
remedial English language learners composed of those grouped under the lower
the GER Plus group, the GER group, and the Control group. The objectives of the
1) To assess the effectiveness of the GER Plus method against that of the GER
19
2) To measure the receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge recall
(short-term retention) differences between the GER Plus group, the GER
Recall
recall between the GER Plus group, the GER group and the Control group?
recall between the GER Plus group, the GER group and the Control group.
Retention
retention between the GER Plus group, the GER group and the Control
group?
retention between the GER Plus group, the GER group and the Control
group.
20
Productive Vocabulary Knowledge
Recall
recall between the GER Plus group, the GER group and the Control group?
recall between the GER Plus group, the GER group and the Control group.
Retention
retention between the GER Plus group, the GER group and the Control
group?
retention between the GER Plus group, the GER group and the Control
group.
are confronted with a lack of English language receptive and productive vocabulary
21
Although extensive reading is recognised as a useful means of improving
both receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge, the claim that ER alone is
sufficient for vocabulary development has been challenged. Thus, investigating the
its findings provide a more comprehensive insight of the potentials as well as the
conventional extensive reading. This is helpful in terms of designing lesson plans and
The present research is also significant to the shared aim between the
22
This research also fills the gap which currently exists in ESL/EFL research,
especially within the Malaysian context. Although studies on extensive reading and
vocabulary development are available, more studies on reading interventions that also
research. In addition, more comprehensive studies at the tertiary level are necessary;
apart from its emphasis on both receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge, the
present research also focuses on short-term retention as well as retention over time.
among learners, allowing us to extend our existing knowledge base in the field.
1.8.1 Limitations
researchers to have the same instructor teach all the research groups involved (Ary et
al., 2009). This, however, is often beyond the researcher’s control and is governed by
matters such as scheduling and administrative decision (Ary et al., ibid.; Bradley,
2009). For the present research, two English language teachers were involved and as
23
such would likely have contributed to disparities pertaining to the participants’
classroom experience during the course of the study. This limitation is to a reasonable
extent controlled for in that the teachers were comparable with regards to their
their charge (e.g., use of the same course outline and module, and covering the same
themes/topics in class).
The present study also employed the use of intact groups and as such does
not equal the strength of true experimental research. Due to the nature of the study,
procedure employed for this study, affords a researcher the justification to make
relatively short at two weeks, due to constraints posed by the number of available
weeks per academic semester and that course groups do not respectively advance to
24